A PROFILE OF BANARAS SILK SAREES

Thesis submitted to the University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the

Degree of

MASTER OF HOME SCIENCE

In

TEXTILES AND APPAREL DESIGNING

By

AMRITA SINGH

DEPARTMENT OF TEXTILES AND APPAREL DESIGNING COLLEGE OF

RURAL HOME SCIENCE, DHARWAD UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES,

DHARWAD - 580 005

JULY, 2008

ii

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

DHARWAD (SHAILAJA D. NAIK) JULY, 2008 MAJOR ADVISOR

Approved by :

Chairman : ___________________________ (SHAILAJA D. NAIK)

Members : 1. _________________________

(GEETA MAHALE)

2. _________________________ (L. B. KUNNAL)

3. _________________________ (BASAVARAJ BANAKAR)

C O N T E N T S

Sl. No. Chapter Particulars

CERTIFICATE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF PLATES

1 INTRODUCTION

2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Degumming of silk

2.2 Dyeing of silk

2.3 Silk weaving technology

2.4 Traditional silk sarees

2.5 Demographics of silk weavers

2.6 Problems of silk weavers

2.7 Marketing of silk made ups

3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Locale of the study

3.2 Selection of sample

3.3 Tools used for data collection

3.4 The pilot study

3.5 Data collection

3.6 Variables included in the study

3.7 Classification of the data collected

3.8 Statistical analysis

3.9 Economics of the sarees

3.10 Hypothesis

4 RESULTS

4.1 Historical background of Banaras silk sarees

4.2 Demographic information

4.3 Raw materials

4.4 Technology of weaving Banaras silk sarees

4.5 Motifs used in Banaras silk sarees

Contd…..

Sl. No. Chapter Particulars

4.6 Colour combination of Banaras silk sarees

4.7 Saree specifications

4.8 Production of banaras silk sarees

4.9 Marketing practices

4.10 Economics of Banaras silk saree production

4.11 Weavers problem

5 DISCUSSION

5.1 Demographic information

5.2 Raw materials

5.3 Motifs used in banaras silk sarees

5.4 Dyes used

5.5 Saree specifications

5.6 Production of Banaras silk sarees

5.7 Marketing practices

5.8 Economics of Banaras silk sarees production

5.9 Weavers problem

6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

APPENDIX

LIST OF TABLES

Table No.

Title

1 Demographic information

2 Details of raw material used in Banaras silk sarees

3 Raw material requirement for different types of Banaras silk sarees

4 Source of procurement of raw materials by the weavers

5 Mode of payment for procurement of raw materials by the weavers

6 Frequency of purchasing the raw materials by the weavers

7 Problems of the weavers related to raw material

8 Placement of motifs in various types of Banaras silk sarees

9 Distribution of the weavers based on outsourcing of designs/motifs

10 Distribution of the weavers based on factors considered while designing the motifs

11 Common colours used in Banaras silk sarees

12 Distribution of weavers based on the type of dyes used

13 Saree specifications

14 Modifications and variations in traditional sarees

15 Production of different types of Banaras silk sarees/ loom/ month

16 Selling market for Banaras silk sarees

17 Frequency of selling sarees

18 Marketing channels for selling Banaras silk sarees

19 Economics of Banaras silk sarees production

20 Distribution of the weavers based on the problems

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No.

Title

1 Locale of the study : Banaras city and villages viz., Phulpur, Cholapur and Lohta

2 Demographic information

3 Preparation of loom for weaving

4 Distribution of the weavers based on factors considered while designing the motifs

5 Modifications and variations in traditional sarees

LIST OF PLATES

Plate No.

Title

1 Raw materials

2 Bobbin winding

3 Warping (silk)

4 Dyeing of silk yarns

5 Shade drying of dyed silk yarns

6 Swift winding

7 Pirn winding of silk yarn

8 Pirn winding of zari

9 Arrangement of warp yarns (Tana tanna)

10 Beaming (Turai)

11 Piece work

12 Gating the loom

13 Saree weaving with throw-shuttle

14 Mounting of saree on beam for finishing

15 Polishing (finishing of saree)

16 Shade drying of polished sarees

17 Folding of sarees

18 Throw-shuttle pit loom with jacquard attachment

19 Common colours used in Banaras silk sarees

20 Brocade saree

21 Chiffon Jamdani saree

22 Jamdani saree

23 Jangla saree

24 Kora cutwork saree

25 Resham buti saree

26 Satin border saree

27 Satin embossed saree

28 Tanchoi saree

29 Tissue saree

1. INTRODUCTION

The greatest Indian Sufi, bhakti poet Kabir said, “The wondrous weaver wove the cloth, with the thread of karma as a warp, memory and attachment as weft”. The tradition of weaving in India was celebrated by Kabir, who belongs to weavers community ‘Julahas’, the low cast worker group.

India has a diverse and rich textile tradition. The origin of Indian textiles is hidden in the mists of prehistory, exactly how ancient; the textile tradition is a matter for speculation. What is sure, however, is that by the time of the Indus Valley civilization – about the third millennium BC, the first literary information about textiles of India was found in Rig-Veda, which refers to weaving. The Indian epics- Ramayana and Mahabharata did speak about variety of fabrics of those times. The Ramayana refers to rich styles worn by the aristocracy on one hand and the simple cloth worn by the commoners and ascetics. Ample evidence on the ancient textiles of India was obtained from sculptures of Mauryan and Gupta’s reign as well as Buddhist scripts and murals of Ajanta caves.

However, historical evidence of textiles was inferred by the great Hindu scriptures, epical literature, sculpture, the cave paintings of Ajanta, miniature and folio paintings, illuminated manuscripts and the accounts of travelers and historians. All testify the glorious tradition that remained in a full, continuous and astonishing flowering for about fifty centuries; changing and reshaping its expression according to the creative energies of the craftsmen, monarchs and markets, evolving and innovating, absorbing and adapting the outside influences that resulted from invasions, trade and cultural contacts. Till 18

th century none of

the countries in the world produced such an abundance and variety of textiles; at that time India was the largest exporter of textiles (Mathur, 2002).

Indians are world famous for their magnificent workmanship and produced the most beautiful handspun and hand-woven textiles (Naik, 1996). Kings and queens of Europe were very fond of Indian fabrics, famous for their exquisite art of interlacement. Creating designs on loom was perhaps the earliest method of decorating the fabric followed by dying, printing, embroidery and applique work. To decorate fabrics in those days meant producing self designed fabric, which now means woven designs (Vastrad, 2003).

Hand weaving is the basic activity of human society in which utility and aesthetics are blended together. India has a rich cultural heritage of hand weaving. The artistic skills of the traditional handloom weavers are second to none. This handloom industry of India is caste based, labour intensive, tradition oriented, having a legacy of unrivalled craftsmanship with a decentralized set-up. This cottage industry has spread throughout the length and breadth of the country.

‘The hand-woven fabric’ is symbolic of man’s endeavour to bring beauty and grace into life, which is otherwise severely constrained by standardization and the consequent monotony. The rich and beautiful products of the weavers of India have been rightly called ‘exquisite poetry in colourful fabrics’ (Mehta, 1970).

The loom is one of the oldest and most enduring symbols of our civilization. Because it is so old, people tend to forget that it is also a kind of machine, albeit one that relies very heavily on the skills of the human hand. There is a special relationship between the weaver, his loom and the woven cloth.

Every piece of handloom cloth sold, goes a long way to provide a square meal to a hungry weaver. Every piece is often different from the other, a symbol of his workmanship and it testifies to the art and tradition of the craftsmanship. It is not mass produced and hence it is not a stock reprint (Naik, 1997).

Traditionally, the processing and manufacturing of textiles was the second largest occupation after agriculture; quit often the two were intertwined. Indian handloom industry survives mainly on its aesthetics, uniqueness and craftsmanship. Fascinating motifs and super design of the fabric assign special importance to this industry. Despite strong competition from mill made textiles, handloom fabrics are still in demand to some extent primarily because of the popular patronage of our women folk. Because of hand-made nature and exquisiteness, handloom fabrics fetch a premium price in the modern industrialized market.

The handloom industry dispersed nationwide, from state to state, region to region; there is variation in production, wages, traditions and so on. Across the great swathes of textile areas in the country, from the banks of the Ganga in the North to Kanya Kumari in the South, from Gujarat in the West to Bengal in the East, thousands of families spin and weave. The range encompassed the finest of cottons and silk for kings and their courts and for the affluent, a variety of work cloths, cheaper and coarser textures for everyday use. The Indian art of weaving was inherited for manufacture of traditional Indian ‘saree’, the national women wear. The intelligent and creative interlacements of ends and picks to weave elaborate and intricate designs in the border, pallav and body have created great demand for the saree both in western and eastern countries.

The etymology of the word ‘Saree’ is from Sanskrit, the word ‘Sati’, which means a strip of cloth. In Sanskrit saree is also called ‘Chira’ (Dar, 1982). This evolved in to the Prakrit ‘Sadi’ and was later anglicized into ‘Sari’ (http://www.exoticindia.com). The Indian sari is a made-up fashioning the female form is known by different names in various Indian languages; in Hindi, Gujrati, Bengali, Bihari and Oriya, it is known as ‘Saadi’; in Marathi ‘Sadi’; in Kannada ‘Seere’; in Telugu as ‘Sheera’ and Tamil as ‘Podavi’ (http://www.varanasisarees.com/ sareeinfo.aspx).

It is difficult to state as to when this feminine wear, came into existence because, at the birth of Christ, during Sindh culture and in some ancient sculptures of the Sumerian tradition, the existence of saree was noticed. There were tiny sculptures and pieces which claimed as the first example of sarees. Some versions of the history of Indian clothing trace the saree back to the Indus Valley civilization, which flourished in 2800-1800 BCE. An ancient statue displayed a man in a draped robe which the researchers believed to be a precursor of sari (http://www.varanasisarees.com/ sareeinfo.aspx).

Ancient Tamil poetry, such as the Silappadhikaram and the Kadambri by Banabhatta, described women in exquisite drapery. This drapery is believed to be saree. Some of the costume historians believed that the men’s dhoti, which is the oldest Indian draped made-up, is forerunner of the saree. Sculpture from the Gandhara, Mathura and Gupta schools (1

st-6

th

century AD), suggested that saree in its earliest form was a briefer made-up, with a veil, and usually no discernable bodice. Some sources did mention that the two piece Kerla mundum neryathum (mundu, a dhoti or sarong, neryath, a shawl in Malayalam) is a survival of ancient Indian clothing styles, and that the one-piece saree is modern innovation, created by combining the two pieces of mundum neryathum (http://www.varanasisarees.com/ sareeinfo.aspx).

A charming folktale explains the origin of the saree as; “The sari, it is said, was born on the loom of a fanciful weaver. He dreamt of women, the shimmer of her tears, the drape of her tumbling hair, the colour of her many moods, the softness of her touch, all he wove together non stop. Finally he made many yards. Further the story ended mentioning that he sat at the back of the loom and smiled and smiled and smiled” (http://www.exoticindia.com).

The Indian saree is a long strip of unstitched cloth, length varying from five to nine yards, draped in various styles. Most common style is by wrapping around the waist, with one end draping over the shoulder. It is usually worn over a petticoat (called lehenge/ghagra in Northern India and pavada/pavadi in south) and a low-cut, short-sleeved, midriff-baring blouse known as ‘choli’. In all the saree is worn at least in 10 to 15 styles throughout the India. The variations are infinite and the wonderful thing about saree is that it tends itself easily to any of these variations.

Uttar Pradesh, one of the Northern states of India is renowned for its exquisitely produced traditional silk sarees. The famous writer Ruskin Bond said that “Uttar Pradesh is the rainbow land where the multi-hued Indian culture has blossomed from time immemorial. It is blessed with a variety of geographical land and much cultural diversity. But it is a world in itself”. The silk sarees of Uttar Pradesh are unique and distinctive in yarn type, weave, colour, motif, finish and texture. The most expensive of woven sarees are the Indian silk sarees and the best example is the quintessentially Hindu wedding saree-the ‘Banaras saree’ (http://www.toursnorthindia.com).

Banaras (now Varanasi), the temple town of Uttar Pradesh is one among the four major Hindu pilgrimages of our country. It is known for world famous brocades and sarees. The Varanasi city is located in the middle Ganga valley of North India, in the Eastern part of

the state Uttar Pradesh. Varanasi is named after the two tributaries of Ganga that flank the city, the Varana to the North and the Asi to the South (http://www.varanasicity.com/index.html). Many still uses the anglicized forms of Banaras or Benares, while pilgrims refer to Kashi. the term ‘kashi’ or ‘kasi’ is derived from the root ‘kas’ means ‘light’-the light of knowledge on the path of ignorance. Lord Buddha preached his first sermon in this city hence referred as “city of light” and also called Kashika, “the shining one” that refers to ‘light of Shiva’. (http://in.geocities.com/artsvaranasi/abtvns.html).

Banaras prevents a classical art heritage of India in the form of gorgeous and fascinating brocades assimilating the sprit and traditions of several ages since the Vedic period. Ethnic Banarasi brocades are the finest example of superb craftsmanship of Indian artisans. Rich in colours and patterns interwoven with gold/silver threads are the living embodiment of the skills of our craftsmen, developed, nurtured and perfected over the centuries.

The Vedic texts, Rig-Veda, dating as far back as 1500 BC to 500 BC have referred to the ‘Tantuvayas’ or weavers who used to make cloths of various kinds such as cotton, silk and brocades. During these times, brocades were known as ‘Hirayana’. The reference of ‘Kasika vastra’ or ‘Kasiyani’ with reference to exquisite fabrics may easily be traced in Jatakas and writing of Kautilya and Patanjali. In Ramayana, mentioned about the Ravana who wore brocade cloths (Thomas, 1985).

Historians and foreign travelers referred the brocades of Banaras as the pride of places. Ralph Fitch, an English traveler who visited Varanasi in 1583 described of the fabric being “fine as the filmy webs and spider weavers”. Peter Mundy visited Varanasi 1632 AD noticed brocade canopy hanging over the Shivalingam in Viswanath temple (Krishna & Krishna, 1966). Tavernier, the French traveler during the time of Aurangzeb in 1665 AD wrote about the prosperity of Banaras brocade industry (Sinha, 1998). Francois Bernier, a French physician, visited India during the region of Shah Jahan, figured Banaras as an outstanding centre of textile manufacture in the very early stage of Indian culture and said ‘Banaras is the Athens of India’ (www.banarasi-saree.com).

Silk being considered pure, was used by Hindus for ceremonial purpose and thus the production of silk found to be convenient at Banaras. The handloom industry of India enjoyed an unbroken popularity during the Hindu period. The industry came under the Muslim influence in the 12

th century AD. The Muslims learnt this art and excelled in it and were called

Chira-i-Baaf which meant supreme cloth weavers. During the rule of Akbar, Persian motifs were introduced by the Persian Nakshabandhas who were brought to India by Mughals. Banaras textiles formed one of the important cargos to the west and continued till the last Mughal period. In 1764 AD the East India Company forced Banaras with French gold and silver threads, which were finer in appearance and inexpensive than the local Badla and Kalabattun of local. The All India Handloom Board in 1952 and All India Handicraft Broads were setup to look after the handloom industry and handicrafts of the country. In 1956 the Indian Institute of Handloom Technology was established at Varanasi to impart training to the weavers and to improve designs, looms, tools and ultimate technology.

If the ‘Banarasi Pan’ is an irresistible delicacy to men, certainly, the ‘Banarasi silk saree’ is a delicacy to women. The ethnic designs of Banarasi silk sarees are infact, an obsession even to the fashion conscious women of today. And not surprisingly, these sarees have registered an ample demand in foreign markets and earned substantial foreign exchange. Some of the popular names of sarees originating from Banaras retail market are – Brocade saris, Jangala, Satin border, Tanchoi, Meenabuti, Satin Ambos, Tissue, Crepe, Resham buti and Cutwork sarees.

Colour has always been a very special feature in Indian life, being invested with all the kinds of social, scared or ritual meanings. The fabric, colour and design of garment express all about the weaver. The charm and subtle beauty of the brocade depends upon colour synchronization. Colours did surcharge with nuance of mood and poetic association in fabric and weaving.

The weavers or julahas at Banaras are mainly Muslims (Ansari) known as ‘Karigars’ which meant artist. Some Hindu weavers are also involved in brocade production. It is also mentioned in some text that during the famine of 1663, some migrated silk weavers came in Banaras and gave their full hand in brocade weaving (Mohanty, 1984).

The popular saying “only silk is silk” emphasizes the uniqueness of silk and brings, the fact that silk has no real substitute. The silk yarns, basic part of Banaras silk sarees, are brought from Bangalore, Kashmir and Malda. Some silk is also imported from China and Central Asia. The Jari are brought from Surat and the locally produced Zari is known as Khar ki pucci jari (Nadiger and Subramanian, 2001).

Main market of Banarasi saree is domestic but today the Banarasi sarees has acquired international fame, Hailed as the “Indian Sun” in the world of fashion. Though the Banarasi silk products are enjoying a ready market, both at home and abroad, there are grey areas demanding immediate attention to sustain and further improve this traditional craft. The industry is looking for regular supply of quality raw material in adequate quantity, minimise fluctuations in prices of raw material, upgradation of weaving technologies, modernization of looms, and training for weavers, financial assistance for technology upgradation, systematic fashion forecast and design development etc. would help the Banarasi weavers to achieve new heights.

As long as there remain the handloom sari and women to wear it, there will be the weaver. Indian textiles have gained demand and acquired fame for quality and utility all over the world throughout history. Therefore, textiles are one of the principal components of India’s proud heritage which need to be preserved and continued as instruments of education and dissemination of knowledge. Hence, the present investigation “A profile on Banaras silk sarees” may help to trace the antiquity of Banaras silk sarees, development and weavers socio-economic condition in the state.

The present investigation therefore, was taken up with the following objectives:

1. To study the historical background of Banaras silk sarees

2. To enumerate the prevailing weaving techniques

3. To assess the economic viability of different types of sari produced

4. To study the socio-economic condition of weavers

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

It is appropriate to report some of the work done by former researchers in the area of silk weaving, to provide a suitable background for the present study. The review highlights the important issues raised and findings obtained by earlier research workers which may give ideas to the current study. Therefore, a few studies which have some relevance to the present study are reviewed and arranged under the following heads.

2.1 Degumming of silk

2.2 Dyeing of silk

2.3 Silk weaving technology

2.4 Traditional silk sarees

2.5 Demographics of silk weavers

2.6 Problems of silk weavers

2.7 Marketing of silk made ups

2.1 DEGUMMING OF SILK

The raw silk is composed of two proteins, fibroin and sericin along with traces of waxes, oil and colouring pigments. Due to presence of these impurities, silk looses its brightness, which are the praised qualities of silk. Real silk is white or creamy white, soft, lustrous and smooth. Hence for silk to exhibit its true characteristics, removal of sericin is practically essential before any subsequent wet processing viz., bleaching, dyeing, printing and finishing. The process of eliminating sericin from raw silk is known as “Degumming”. Conventional degumming methods such as boiling in soap and alkali give rise to increased pollution problems, so many researchers have conducted studies on different degumming process, which are presented hereunder:

Chakraborthy et al. (1997) carried out study on “Effects of degumming and bleaching”. The study revealed that, degumming with soap is best indeed; strength, crease recovery and other properties are excellent. Feel of degummed sample is superior because a negligible part of soap retained by the fiber, which provides suppleness. However, to reduce the 9 cost, soap can be partially eliminated by introducing sodium carbonate (Na2CO3). Degumming may be done using alkaline non-ionic detergent solution for further reduction in the cost of degumming. Bleaching, if required can be carried out by hydrogen peroxide/ammonia (H2O2/NH3) to improve whiteness as well as other post-degumming properties.

Gulrajani et al. (1998) performed a study on “Efficacy of proteases on degumming of dupion silk”. It was found that dupion silk degummed with seven different commercial proteases viz., alkaline proteases, degummase, protosal, alcalase, protease-A, protease-N, acidic protease-M and pepsin. Conditions with respect to concentration and time were optimized for each enzyme and degumming efficacy was calculated. The treated samples were tested for tensile strength, handle, luster and microscopic structure. Alkaline protease showed good results and the efficacy of degumming varied with variety of dupion silk.

Jayakodi (1999) carried out a study on “Degumming of silk with tannic acid” and revealed that, when raw mulberry silk yarn was treated in 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 gpl tannic acid solution for different periods viz., 10 min and its multiplies upto 120 min at 90°C with MLR 1:30, showed good dye uptake. The wash and light fastness were found to be encouraging. However, when treated with 25 gpl concentration for 120 minutes showed maximum removal of sericin.

The degumming with 25 per cent Marscicelles soap for 90 minutes at boil lead to a weight loss of 20.5 per cent, whereas degumming with enzyme (3 gpl of the fabric) at 37°C for 3 hours showed 19.80 per cent weight loss as revealed by Gulrajani et al. (2000) in the study on “Degumming of silk with fungal protease”. The enzyme treatment was carried out relatively at a lower temperature and therefore was more economical than the conventional process. Processing of silk with enzyme under the above conditions was likely to retain the luster and

softness of silk. Thus, considering the weight loss and properties of silk, fungal protease could be used as an effective degumming agent.

Reddy and Krishnan (2003) in their study on “Impact of duration of degumming on silk quality” observed the effect of degumming at different durations ranging from 25 to 90 minutes on the weight loss, tensile properties, yarn hairiness, whiteness index, reflectance value and graders assessment and the duration for degumming was optimized. Finally it was concluded that degumming for 45 min, the overall quality of the yarn was better.

Gahlot et al. (2005) performed a study on “Enzymatic degumming of tasar silk fabric”. In this study the tasar fabric was treated with proteolytic enzyme, papain at different concentration viz., 3, 4 and 5 per cents for different duration of time viz., 60, 90 and 120 min at 50-60°C temperature. The effect of concentration of enzyme and time duration on the physical properties of tasar fabric was also evaluated. The results revealed that among the three concentration of enzyme papain, 5 per cent at 120 minutes exhibited better result with regard to softness, stiffness, crease recovery, drapability and moisture regain and hence tasar fabric can be safely degummed at this concentration because enzymes are natural bio-degradable products, work quietly and efficiently without leaving any pollutants.

Goel et al. (2007) carried out a study on “Different methods of degumming: A comparison”. The mulberry and tasar silk filaments were degummed with six different methods, to find out the best method suitable for unwinding of filaments on the basis of the physical properties. A wide variation was observed in the properties of both silks and may be due to different types of chemicals used, time of treatment and temperature in different methods. The study revealed that use of soap for degumming of mulberry silk and use of soap and high concentration of soda ash for tasar silk showed best results, and the physical properties of silk filaments were relatively better.

Gowda et al. (2007) performed a study on “Eco-friendly preparatory process for silk: Degumming by protease enzyme”. The 4-ply filature silk yarn was taken for the experiment and degummed with neutral-alkaline protease enzyme Serinzme O and the results were compared with control soap-soda boil method. The degummed yarn was analyzed for strength and weight loss. The author concluded that, the enzymatic degummed silk yarn showed better control over the conventional process based on the dosage of enzyme and degumming loss. Tenacity and breaking force at 1% and 2% enzyme dosage was superior in comparison to the soap-soda boiling method and the whiteness was satisfactory.

2.2 DYEING OF SILK

Silk has good affinity for various dyes, hence may be dyed with acid dyes, metal complex dyes and reactive dyes, which are most commonly used. Basic, vat and mordant dyes are also used but to a smaller extent (Patel and Agarwal, 2001).

Among these, acid dyes are the most widely used class of dyestuff for silk due to their brilliant shades, good fastness properties with ease of application. The dyeing is carried at boil for about an hour to complete the dye exhaustion. However, many research workers have conducted studies on the various dyeing methods, listed below.

Muralidharan and Shanmugasundran (1998) conducted a study on “Dyeing of silk with acid dye involving Ammonium persulphate/Thio-urea Redox system”. It was found that better dye uptake results could be achieved by using Ammonium persulphate/Thio-urea redox system during dyeing of silk with acid dye than without it. The concentration of the redox system influenced the dye uptake. Maximum dye uptake was observed at a concentration of 0.015 ml/litre redox system; beyond which the dye uptake decreased with increase in redox system concentration.

Muralidharan and Shanmugasundran (1999) performed a study on “The redox system assisting dyeing of silk with Kemacid yellow 2G”. In this study the dyeing behaviour of silk with acid dye in the presence and absence of Ammonium persulphate/Thio-urea redox system was carried with a view to bring down the dyeing temperature. The use of redox system improved the dye uptake and fastness properties of the dyed material. Maximum dye uptake was observed at a concentration of 0.015 ml/redox system, beyond which the dye uptake decreased with increase in the concentration of redox systems.

Ghosh et al. (2001) conducted the study on “Application of lac dye on tasar silk” and observed that tasar silk when dyed with lac produced pink to violet shades with various mordents. When dyed with Tin Chloride produced pink, violet from Potassium Dichromate, purple from Potash Alum and Ferrous Sulphate gave sooty black shade on tasar silk.

Pavlon and Nedkova (2001) studied on “Influence of acid dyes on the properties of silk”, revealed that, some properties of silk depends on the type and concentration of the acid dyes. The analysis of these dependences showed that irrespective of the peculiarities of the chemical structure of dyes, it was found that with the increase in the concentration of acid dyes, the properties of silk changes.

A study on “Dyeing of Rajshahi silk with basic dyes : Effect of modification on dyeing properties” was performed by Sheikh et al. (2006), study showed that 30 per cent acetic acid and 20 per cent tannic acid together was the best modifier for dyeing with Chrysoidine-Y,

magenta, brilliant green, Victoria blue-β, crystal violet and Auramine O basic dyes. Among dyes, brilliant green exhibited best colourfastness under the prolonged exposure to sunlight in air. Washing with soap solution did not deteriorate colours at room temperature (27°C), but deterioration was observed with the increase of temperature. All the dyes withstood the colours on silk to a great extent on washing with soap solution, although it slightly decreased with the increase of washing temperature.

The mulberry silk yarns were dyed with a natural colourant extracted from lac insect at 5 per cent dye concentration using various to mordants, in order to explore the possible shades. Each mordant produced a distinct hue that ranged from high pink to dark red; acidic mordants produced shades and metallic mordants tints as revealed by Jayashree (2007). The experimental results revealed that, lac dyed samples exhibited fair to good colourfastness to crocking, perspiration, sunlight and washing, whereas mordanted specimen showed remarkable improvement in physical as well as colourfastness properties over control.

2.3 SILK WEAVING TECHNOLOGY

Handloom is an important cottage industry in India, forms a part of India’s rich cultural heritage. Though the methods employed in making handloom fabrics are simple, the result is extraordinary. The variety of designed material and articles woven on the Indian handlooms is almost infinite. Silk handloom weaving is one of the traditional occupation in India which speaks of ancient glory and widespread over several states. However, the different silk weaving technologies prevailing in India are presented below:

Dhamija and Jain (1993) mentioned in the book “Hand woven fabrics of India” that, in the Banaras, silk weaving was done on throw shuttle pit loom with jacquard attachment. Silk saree, furnishing fabric, dhoti, turban, silk odhani and brocade fabric for dress material were the main products of Banaras silk industry. Silk and/or zari used for extra weft designs. The silk saree weaving involved skill and took lots of time because of its elaborate intricate designs. Two weavers worked together for weaving one brocade saree.

Jacob (1996) carried out a study on “Grandeur of Kancheepuram” and reported that the Kancheepuram silk sarees are heavy in nature and woven with charka raw silk. The 16/18 denier silk is generally used. While 13/15 denier raw silk is preferred for zari work. Warp yarns of 18 tpi and weft of 8 tpi of fine, medium and coarse charka silk is employed. Generally 2 ply yarns are used for body and 3 ply to 4 ply for border on both sides and pallu. Kancheepuram sarees are generally weft prominent. Sarees have earned a name for their durability, thickness, quality, drapes and low creasing tendency because of its typical fabric sett.

The weaving of Kumbhokonam sarees is a slow process because of its intricacies and elaborate designs. The weaving is done on frame looms with jacquard for border and extra warp designs. Commonly 2 ply filature warp of 18 tpi and denier 20/22, 20/24, 16/18 and 28/32 are employed as warp, while untwisted charka silk of 2 ply to 3 ply or even 4 ply are used as weft. Two threads gold zari is used for warp and 3 or 4 for weft. Reed is made of bamboo wire with reed count for body as 90-96s and border 70-90s as revealed by Krishnamurthy et al. (1996) in the study on “Kumbhokonam sarees : A blend of tradition and modernity”.

Rajappan and Vathsala (1998) studied on “Splendrous silk of Dharmavaram” and the findings of the study indicated that weavers mostly worked on pit looms with dobby and

jacquard attachment for border, pallu and extra warp designs. Generally 2 ply silk yarn of 20/22, 20/24 and 28/30 were used. Mainly two types of sarees were woven in Dharmavaram, ‘Kuttu’ sarees with contrast borders and pallu with entire weft having only one colour. The weaving process was quit slow because of its stitching technique. The other is ‘Lattu’ sarees with self border and pallu, the process of which is very fast, almost in line with the latest trend and fashion.

Sanapapamma (2000) in her research on “Silk saree of Molakalmuru” found that, Molakalmuru weavers used standard quality of 2 ply filature mulberry silk of denier 20/22 as warp and 13/20 or 20/23 3 or 4 ply medium to coarse quality charka silk for weft. The weaving was carried out on throw shuttle pit loom with dobby attachment and fly shuttle pit loom with dobby and jacquard attachment. Mainly two types of saree are woven in Molakalmuru, contrast saree ‘kuttu’ and self saree ‘lattu’.

A study on “Silk Mekhela chador – a traditional dress of Assamese women” was carried out by Sharma (2005). The author concluded that the throw shuttle looms were replaced by fly shuttle looms with a 120 hooks jacquard. Recently, muga twisted single ply yarn is used for warp and reeled single ply for weft. Tasar and mulberry yarns are also used in Mekhela chadar. The mulberry yarn is 2 ply twisted filature/charkha of 36 to 40 denier used for warp and 3 ply twisted charkha yarn of 50 to 60 denier for weft. The chadar is 2.70 to 3 m in length and 1.02 m in width.

National Institute of Small Industry Extension Training (2006) presented a diagnostic study report on “Mubarakpur handloom cluster”. Silk yarn (Chinese and Bangalore type), zari and art silk were main raw materials used by the Mubarakpur weavers. The popular deniers used were 16/18, 18/20, 20/22 and 24/26. Without degumming, Chinese silk was used in warp because of its evenness where as degummed Bangalore silk for weft.

2.4 TRADITIONAL SILK SAREES

India has a rich traditional and cultural heritage, which to a maximum extent has influenced the art and handcraft industries of the country. Weaving supposed to be one of the oldest methods of producing the fabric has developed into the largest industry employing greater percentage of the population and earning a great deal of foreign exchange. Yet, a touch of traditionality is still seen in the newly produced clothing items. Every state of the country is known for its regional traditional textiles. Many research workers have conducted studies on the regionally famous silk sarees of India, listed hereunder:

Thomas (1985) in a review article on ‘Banaras textiles’ reported that, Banaras brocade is India’s fabric of dream; a cloth of gold. In olden days very fine and delicate gold and silver wires were interwoven instead of yarn. The saree ultimately glittered with a metallic sheen. However, the silk yarns used in weaving were purchased from Bangalore, Kashmir and Malda and tested zari from Surat. The varieties of Banaras silk sarees are Brocades, Jangla, Tanchoi, Satin border, Organza, Resham butidar and Cutwork woven with a harmonious combination of plain, satin and twill weaves to create interesting floral, fruit, animal, bird, geometric patterns and human figures. Colours used were the shades of pink, red, blue, green, yellow and purple.

Jacob (1996) in the study on “Grandeur of Kancheepuram” reported that the saree woven in double colour is its speciality, which imparts a rare glow both in natural and artificial light. The motifs used represent a gallery of exotic, exquisite and sturdy designs. Unlike other silk sarees, these have distinctive body, border and pallu in enchanting colour combinations. The traditional colours were deep colours like violet, magenta, crimson, bottle, green, coffee, turquoise, mustard, orange, golden yellow, navy blue, red, parrot, green, brown and black were used. Mixed colours to produce shot effects in the saree were also observed.

Krishnamurthy et al. (1996) in the study on “Kumbhakonam sarees: A blend of tradition and modernity” stated that the Kumbhakonam sarees are of heavy weight and weaving of saree is a slow process because of intricacies and elaborate designs. A saree of 5.5 to 6 meters consumed 600 to 1000 g of raw silk and about 200-500 g of gold zari. It has both single and double sided border and the colour combination is tuned to modern fashion. Some of the sarees are in single colour but others are in double colours giving light and shade effects (Dhoop and Chawn).

Bhagwat (1998) studied the silk products of Madhya Pradesh and found that the Chanderi sarees are unique and famous for their fine texture, excellent weaving, beautiful zari border and pallav with attractive colour combinations. The uniqueness of Chanderi saree lies in the use of raw silk 16/18 or 20/22 denier in warp which gave crispness and luster to the fabric. In the weft, either 100s count cotton or 16/18 denier two ply twisted raw silk (katan) is used. Zari is used in the border and pallu.

Rajappan and Vathsala (1998) studied on “Splendrous silk of Dharmavaram” and revealed that Dharmavaram sarees are light in weight with broad heavy zari borders ranging from 6” to 12”, known as Gatti anchu, means solid border. In Dharmavaram, weavers produced two types of sarees, ‘kuttu’, saree with contrast border and pallav and ‘lattu’, saree with self border and pallav. The hallmarks of Dharmavaram sarees are the motifs and designs adopted from the sculptures of temples and other motifs from nature like, peacock, deer, flower etc. Rani, magenta, mustard, peacock blue and parrot green are the few fast moving colours.

Sanapapamma (2000) conducted a study on “Silk sarees of Molakalmuru”. The results revealed that 2-ply filature silk was used as warp and 3-ply charka silk as weft. The author recorded a galaxy of geometrical, temple and intricate designs. The most common buttas found were mango, peacock, parrot, hamsa, lotus, diamond, rudraksha beads, venki and phoenix on both contrast and self bordered sarees.

Murshidabad district of west Bengal was famous for weaving the Baluchari saree. The saree consisted decorative border, all over floral or figured butis and elaborate pallu. The motifs in the pallu were set in the compartments. Without use of zari, the designs were woven with the untwisted silk yarns on tasar silk background. The common motifs were historical events, scenes from Mahabharata and Ramayana, the village life style, leisure time activities of women, kalgha motifs, flowering plants, animals, women conversing with each other in different posses and hunting scenes as mentioned by Sarkar (2001) in the study “Revival of Baluchari saree of Bengal”.

Shailaja and Suvarnagouri (2005) found that Bhagyanagar, a small village of Karnataka state is famous for its beautiful silk sarees, popularly, known as Garbha Resham sarees. These sarees are also called as ‘half silk’ sarees, where the warp is silk and weft is mercerized cotton. These sarees were woven on throw shuttle pit looms, starting from pallav. The woven pattern in the pallav is known as ‘top teni’ or ‘teni-seragu’ which is the main feature of these sarees. Zari is introduced in the border to give lustrous and elegant look.

Silk Mekhala chadar is an attractive Assamese traditional ensemble (Sharma, 2005) and was woven more commonly on fly-shuttle loom with muga, tasar and mulberry silk yarns. The woven patterns were produced with extra weft yarns, art silk and zari. The body of the chadar is plain or has butis with big designed border on anchal. Mekhala is plain or with small butis all over the body and designed border on the lower portion. Whereas riha is mainly plain with designs on either sides; used as a breast band normally in place of a blouse.

2.5 DEMOGRAPHICS OF SILK WEAVERS

The handloom weaver, an Indian folk artisan, is a man behind loom. His work stands in evidence of the creative skill of the hand and its ability to do the whole job. It stands for the revitalization of traditional creative energies. The weavers efforts results in creations which are both aesthetically delightful and extremely durable. However, the demographics of weavers behind famous silk produce are reported below:

A study on ‘Uttar Bhartiya Vastra’ was carried out by Ahivasi (1973). The author concluded that the weavers of Banaras made-ups were mainly Muslims but few higher cast Hindus were also involved in this activity. Among Hindus, especially Kunbi, Ahir, Kori, Brahmins and Rajput were involved in silk weaving industry.

Pathak et al. (1993) in the survey on “Varanasi silk industry” found that, in Varanasi, silk weavers were generally known as ‘julahas’. In general, all communities were involved but share of Muslims (Ansaris) were prominently high. Silk weavers constitute 69.2% of the population of weavers in the state. The silk industry was running by three levels of weavers; small independent weavers, master weavers and wage weavers of cooperative societies.

Jacob (1996) in the article on “Grandeur of Kancheepuram” mentioned that the weavers are mostly from Mudaliar community and weaving was their traditional art. The mater weaver was an entrepreneur, who owned a number of looms employing weavers on wage contracts and spent long hours in dexterous labour. Most of the weavers were poor with merge means of subsistence and therefore were forced to take loans from master weavers. The wage weavers were controlled by the master weavers and exploited both economically and socially.

Mamatha (1997) in a study on “Socio-economic status of handloom weavers and impact of weaving on their livelihood” concluded that 61 per cent of weavers belonged to middle adulthood (41-60 years). More than 50 per cent of the weavers were illiterates and had medium family size. Majority of the weavers belonged to nuclear type family and middle income group.

Mishra (1997) in review article on “Silk industry of Assam” mentioned that women constituted 80 per cent of weavers in Assam. They were involved in silk weaving products like mekhla, chadar, saree, riha and shirtings. On an average, about 24 mekhlas or 12 chadar or 6 sarees were woven on one loom per month and the weavers earned about Rs.1200/- as piece wages.

Bhagat (1998) studied the “Silk products of Madhya Pradesh” and explained that Maheshwari and Chanderi sarees are the specialities of the state. The traditional weavers who produced Chanderi saree were Momin, Julah and Kori. However, in the recent years, even Dhobi, Teli, Chamar, Yadav, Brahmins and Jains also have taken weaving as profession. Weaving is done by men while reeling and spinning of yarn is done by women.

Sanapapamma and Mahale (2001) in the article on “Molakalmuru weavers – present status” explained that majority of weavers belonged to middle age group and nuclear family type with medium size family. One third of the respondents were educated up to higher secondary level and more than 20 per cent were illiterates. Nearly 50 per cent of the weavers fell in the middle income group.

Ministry of Textiles conducted a diagnostic study of handloom silk cluster Varanasi (2005). The results revealed that in Varanasi, weaving is a male centered occupation, whereas reeling and bobbin filling work is generally done by women and children. Majority of the weavers were wage weavers and earned Rs.18,000/- to 30,000/- per annum. Nearly 70 per cent of the weaver force is located in Banaras city of which 90 per cent is estimated to be Muslims and rest are Hindus. In villages, backward Hindu communities dominate weaving and accounts for reportedly 70 per cent of weaver force, the remaining are largely Muslim.

2.6 PROBLEMS OF SILK WEAVERS

Artisans constitute most creative section of the society. The weaver himself producing clothes is not in a condition to afford clothes for his family members. The artisans are the most neglected group of workers. Inspite of considerable efforts made to lift the handloom industry out of its difficulties, the industry continues to be in the grip of problems. However, the problems encountered by the weavers are summarized below:

Ghosh (1984) in his study on “Bengal handloom industry” mentioned that Bengal weavers were continuously trying to maintain and upgrade their traditional handloom products. This attempt was inspite of their limitations to obtain superfine quality yarn, poor marketing facilities and weak financial status.

Non-availability and untimely supply of raw materials especially silk, hike in prices, inadequate finance were the problems faced by Varanasi silk weavers. The researcher also found another weaker link i.e. the dyeing and processing sector connected to weaving unit. Lack of proper marketing system and changing fashion trends were challenging for the weavers who were away from advanced technology was mentioned by Koshy (1997) in the article “Banaras silk: A delicacy”.

Mamatha (1997) in the study on “Socio-economic status of handloom weavers and impact of weaving on their livelihood” emphasized that 52 per cent of the weavers faced the merchandising problems. Non-profitable labour was the major constraint among the wage weavers working under master weavers and in cooperative societies. Hike in the prices of raw materials and lack of demand for handloom goods was the main problem of the independent

weavers. The problems encountered for low productivity were lack of modern tools, techniques and inadequate finance.

Sanapapamma (2000) in the research on “Silk sarees of Molakalmuru” found that the hike in prices of filature, charka silk and zari, inferior quality of both types of silks, untimely supply of raw material, scarcity of zari and marketing were the common problems faced by the weavers community.

Kumar et al. (2001) highlighted the main problem faced by the silk carpet manufacturer i.e. procurement of raw materials and the cost which is exorbitant in comparison to the selling price of carpet. Further mentioned that problem related to international pressure on engaging child labour and wages of weavers. The monopoly of the trade by few agencies did lower the production of carpet.

Reddy and Jayaram (2001) in the study on “Performance of primary silk handloom weavers’ co-operative societies in A.P. - A financial evaluation” mentioned that the silk industry has been characterized by middlemen who exploit the poor illiterate weavers. The handloom sector faced many problems like lack of effective organization, shortage of funds, poor marketing system, inadequate supply of raw materials etc.

2.7 MARKETING OF SILK MADE UPS

Marketing of the products is most challenging aspect in silk weaving industry. The silk made-up are enjoying a ready market both at home and abroad. But, marketing of silk made-ups is quite difficult. The marketing system involved in the local trade of silk products is as complex as the weaving of the silk saree. However, marketing aspect of various silk made-ups is listed here under:

Nadigar et al. (1995) carried out a study on “Marvelous Kancheepuram silk sarees” and reported that, the Kancheepuram silk sarees are mainly used for wedding purpose. The local market is mainly confined to Southern states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Beside to some extent it used to be sent to Delhi and Bombay. About 50 per cent of silk sarees were marketed in local Co-operative societies, inturn co-opetex purchased from co-operative societies and market at national level. Most of the progressive master weavers market the saree through retailers.

Krishnamurthy et al. (1996) studied the “Kumbhakonam sarees: A blend of tradition and modernity” and reported that these sarees are expensive and mainly used for exclusive occasions like wedding and social rituals. The price ranged from Rs.1500-2800 depending on the variety. It enjoyed a sound domestic market in the Southern state of the country mainly through retail outlets. Limited quantities do travels to overseas like New Work (USA) and Singapore.

Munikrishnappa et al. (1996) conducted a study on “Silk fabric marketing”. The findings of the study revealed that silk fabrics are marketed through government and private houses in Mysore city. Price is the vital element in the marketing philosophy, which is the most advantageous in terms of profit and volume of sales. The analysis made with respect to pricing system followed in all silk showrooms, revealed that all showrooms followed fixed price system. In Government showrooms, the price is fixed by the respective head offices where in private showrooms the price is fixed depending upon the profit margin expected, prevailing market demand, consumption and some time purchasing power of the customers.

Mamatha and Naik (1997) found that 70 per cent of the Ikat weavers of Andhra Pradesh sold the goods to master weavers followed by cooperative societies and relatively very few marketed either to wholesalers or directly to the consumers.

Tondon (1997) performed a study on “Marketing of Banarasi silk goods” and stated that Banarasi silk sarees are famous for their exquisite beauty, splendid and ethnic designs. The marketing of these silk saree is as complex and intricate as that of its production. The article deals with ‘Satti’- the traditional pattern and practice of buying and selling continuously is the backbone of the merchandising Banarasi silk sarees.

Dharmavaram sarees are mainly used for special occasions like wedding and festivals. These sarees sell like hot cake and are in great demand allover Southern

India, Tamil Nadu being the major market as reported by Rajappan and Vathsala (1998) in the study “Splendorous silk of Dharmavaram”.

Findings of Sanapapamma (2000), revealed that majority of the Molakalmuru weavers sold their products in local market. About 20 per cent weavers sold their products in the state show rooms and only 8 per cent weaver to the neighboring states. Maximum number of weavers sold their sarees during special occasions and as and when the demand is. Selling price of Molakalmuru saree were ranged from Rs.2200-4500/-.

3. METHODOLOGY

The present investigation is designed to study the weaving and other related aspects of ‘Banaras Silk Sarees’. The methodology adopted for the study is presented under the following headings.

3.1 Locale of the study

3.2 Selection of sample

3.3 Tools used for data collection

3.4 The pilot study

3.5 Data collection

3.6 Variables included in the study

3.7 Classification of the data collected

3.8 Statistical analysis

3.9 Economics of the sarees

3.10 Hypothesis

3.1 LOCALE OF THE STUDY

The study was conducted in Banaras district of Uttar Pradesh in the year 2007. According to the handloom census 1995, the numbers of weaver’s family were 1,24,832 and presently there are 40,000 families actively engaged in weaving Banaras silk sarees (Government of india,1995).

3.2 SELECTION OF SAMPLE

In order to select the sample from the population a list of silk saree weavers was procured from the office of Directorate of Handloom and Textiles, Government of Uttar Pradesh. For the present study a sample of 100 weavers were randomly selected. The criteria set for selection of sample were:

i) The main occupation of respondent should be handloom weaving

ii) The respondents should be residing in Uttar Pradesh

iii) The respondents should be head of family

3.3 TOOLS USED FOR DATA COLLECTION

Random sampling method was adopted for data collection. A self-structured schedule was administered to the respondents to elicit the information by personal interview method. The schedule consisted four parts of which the first part framed with set of questions pertaining to the demographics of the weavers, second part to gather the information about motifs and types of Banaras sarees manufactured and finally the last part referred to cost of silk sarees production.

3.4 THE PILOT STUDY

The pilot study was conducted in Banaras district. Ten weavers were personally interviewed with the help of self structured schedule. The sample selected for pre-testing was not included later in the actual data collection. The pilot study was conducted to know the reliability of the schedule.

3.5 DATA COLLECTION

The data was collected by personal interview method in Banaras city and villages viz. Cholapur, Lohta and Phulpur (Fig. 1). From the sample of 100 weavers, 55 weavers from Banaras city and 15 weavers from each village were randomly selected. The investigator spent sufficient time with each respondent and they were requested to spare their leisure lime for the interview and the data collection.

3.6 VARIABLES INCLUDED IN THE STUDY

The following dependent and independent variables included in the study are

Dependent variable

1. Types of the silk sarees

Independent variables

1. Age

2. Education

3. Family type

4. Family size

5. Annual family income

6. Raw materials

3.7 CLASSIFICATION OF THE DATA COLLECTED

3.7.1 Age of the respondents

Based on the age mentioned by the respondents, they were classified into three categories based on the concepts of normal distribution (mean ± 0.425SD).

Group Category Age in years

I Younger Below 36

II Middle age 36-55

III Old age Above 55

3.7.2 Education of the respondents

The respondents were classified into following six groups based on education levels.

Group Education level

I Illiterate (unable to read and write)

II Primary (I-IV std.)

III Middle school (V-VII std.)

IV Secondary (VIII-X std.)

V Senior secondary or intermediate (XI-XII std.)

VI Degree and above

3.7.3 Family type

Family type refers to two way classification of families as nuclear and joint. The consisting of a single married couple living with their unmarried children is called nuclear family and family consisting of more than one primary family of either same generation or of two generation living together with or without children is called joint family (Dahama and Bhatnagar, 1980).

The families of the respondents were grouped into the following categories based on the nature and relationship of the family members.

Group Family type

I Nuclear

II Joint

Fig. 1.Local of the study : Banaras city and villages viz., Phulpur, Cholapur and Lohta

3.7.4 Size of the family

The respondents were classified into three groups based on their family size. The classification was done on the bases of mean and S.D. (mean ± 0.425SD).

Group Category Members (number)

I Small Upto 3

II Middle 4-6

III Large More than 6

3.7.5 Annual income

The respondents were classified into three groups based on annual income level. For the convenience of the study the annual income was classified into three categories based on the concepts of normal distribution (mean ± 0.425SD).

Group Category Annual income

I Low income Below Rs. 21,400

II Middle income Rs. 21,400 - 44,652

III High income Above Rs. 44,652

3.8 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

The data was statistically analyzed by frequency distribution, percentage and standard deviation. The sample of the study was 100 so the percentage and frequency values are same. Hence, percentage is only considered for study.

3.9 ECONOMICS OF BANARAS SILK SAREE PRODUCTION

In general the cost calculation method of silk sarees by Banaras weavers for silk saree was considered in the study. In order to calculate the cost in production of Banaras silk sarees by weavers, the factors such as cost of raw materials, wages for preparatory processes (degumming, dyeing, warping, beaming etc.), weaving and other expenses (12.5% of overhead expenses) were considered. The other expenses include interest on working capital, interest on fixed capital and depreciation on loom. These other expenses were arrived at the rate of 12.5 per cent of the total cost i.e. total cost of raw material, wages for preparatory processes and weaving charges. This rate was taken based on the opinion of the weavers (producer). Finally, the selling price of weavers i.e. the grand total production cost of each saree was calculated at weavers level by adding 10% profit to the total production cost as fixed by the weavers.

3.9 HYPOTHESES

The hypotheses set for the study were as follows:-

1. The prevailing technologies of Banaras silk sarees are highly traditional

2. The coloures and motifs used in Banaras silk sarees are highly conventional

3. Handloom silk saree weavers are mainly concentrated in the villages

4. Weaving Banaras silk saree is profitable

5. Types of Banaras silk sarees and the rate of production are depend on socio-economic conditions of weavers

4. RESULTS

The data collected in the present study on “A profile of Banaras silk sarees” is analyzed and the results are presented in the following headings:

4.1 Historical background of Banaras silk sarees

4.2 Demographic information

4.3 Raw materials

4.4 Technology of weaving Banaras silk sarees

4.5 Motifs used in Banaras silk sarees

4.6 Colour combination of Banaras silk sarees

4.7 Saree specifications

4.8 Production of Banaras silk sarees

4.9 Marketing practices

4.10 Economics of Banaras silk saree production

4.11 Weavers problem

4.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF BANARAS SILK SAREES

The historical background of Banaras silk sarees includes general history of Banaras, evolution of looms, traditional weaving areas, communities engaged in weaving, products manufactured, designs and variegated colour combinations of silk sarees.

4.1.1 General history

Varanasi, the sacred city of Lord Shiva on the bank of holy river Ganga, is situated in Eastern part of Uttar Pradesh, of Northern India. The land of Varanasi (Kashi) has been pious pilgrimage spot of Hindus for age and often referred as oldest living city in the world. This land of deeds, knowledge philosophy and culture, has its own supreme glorious past. Like a scared grove of Indian culture, literature and devotion, this small town has attained a zenith of philosophical acquisitions. The spectrums of Vedas and literature are the testimony of unobstructed glories of Varanasi through ages. The incandescent rays of knowledge sprouted through Kashi have been awakening the world in vivid fields, science, religion, life-philosophy, culture, to name a few.

Varanasi, a centre of learning and civilization, is generally believed to be 3,000 years old. According to legend, the city is about 5,000 years old, found by the Hindu deity, Shiva, thus making it one of the most important pilgrimage destination in the country. Many Hindu scriptures, including Skanda Purana, Ramayana and Mahabharata have mentioned about this city. American writer Mark Twain wrote, “Banaras is older than history, older than tradition, older even than legend, and looks twice as old as all of them put together”. People often refer to Varanasi as ‘the city of temples’, ‘the holy city of India’, ‘the religious capital of India’, ‘the city of lights’, ‘the city of learning’, and ‘the culture capital of India’. The famous Chinese traveler Heun-Sang mentioned that “there were one hundred temples in Varanasi and none were less than hundred feet high”. According to Hindu belief, death at Kashi ensures release from the eternal cycle of birth and rebirth. Ganga in Varanasi is believed to have the power to wash away the sins of mortals. It is believed to locate on Shiva’s trident, so it is called peculiar in the three realms.

The name Varanasi was written as Banarasi in the ancient Pali language and with passage of time the name transformed into Banaras. Through the ages, Varanasi was variously known as Avimuktaka, Mahasmasana, Surandhana, Brahma Vardha, Sudarsana, Ramya, Kasi, Anandvan, and Banaras. During the time of Gautama Buddha, Varanasi was capital of Kashi. From the successive invasions starting with the hordes of Mohmud Ghazni in 1033 century followed by Mohammed Ghori in 1193 century, Muslims pillaged and destroyed several Hindu temples in the city and used the temple material to built mosques. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, Mughal emperor Akbar, the great, brought some relief in the destruction, but by the end of that century, Aurangzeb led temple destruction and even

renamed the city as ‘Mohammadabad’. Varanasi became an independent kingdom in the eighteenth century, and under subsequent British rule, it remained a commercial and religious centre. In 1910, the British made city a new Indian state.

Varanasi has been a symbol of Hindu renaissance. Knowledge, philosophy, culture, devotion to Gods, Indian arts and crafts all flourished here for centuries. Today, the city boasts off as many as 6 different universities and Ayurvedic Medical Sciences within its folds, a feet almost unmatchable in India. The city attracted saints and sages, kings and conquerors, priests and pilgrims, traders and craftsmen. Each of them brought their individual brand of identity and trade, which united and grew together to give the city a specific transformation. The most renowned craft of Varanasi city is silk weaving. ‘Banarasi sarees’, produced by local craftsman are among the most preferred, not only in India but also all over the world. Besides the famous silk sarees, brassware, copper ware, ivory work, glass bangles, wood, stone and clay toys and exquisite gold jewellery are some of the other crafts, the Varanasi city is famous for.

The brocade weaving centers of India developed in and around the capital of kingdoms or holy cities because of the demand for expensive fabrics by the royal families and temples. The Indian fabric of dream is Banaras brocade, which is literally a cloth of gold. The term ‘Brocade’ is derived from the Latin world brocare (to prick), which means needle work or often defined as embroidery weaving or loom embroidery. Banaras brocade is also known as ‘kinkhab’ or ‘kamkhwab’ means kin (golden), khab (dream); a golden dream or kam (scarcely), khwab (dream); a fabric seldom or rarely seen in dream. It is heavy, woven with all over gold thread. The traditional Banaras brocades were classified into three following groups viz. Zari brocades (Kinkhab and Baftas/ poth-thans), Amru brocades (silk patterns on silk i.e. tanchoi) and Abirawans (Cut work brocades and Tarbana).

4.1.2 Evolution of looms

Traditionally, the weaving was done with naksha drawlooms, now jacquard attachment is incorporated. It is learnt that the naksha draw loom was supposed to be introduced into India during 990 AD. The old pit loom used to weave cotton had different scales for the number of warp and weft. The wide spacing between the threads was to be changed for weaving silk, which required a compact reed arrangement for a dense weave. The heddle or thread-frame system was introduced towards the end of the 16

th century by

Khwaja Abdul Samad Kashmiri, who came to Banaras during Akbar’s rein. With the help of heddle, it was possible for the weavers to introduce various artistic and floral designs in weaving with ease and efficiency. Further improvements were made to create patterns using dobby and jacquard attachments. The jacquard loom was introduced in Banaras by the Alaipura weavers during 1930s and proven to be a boon for the silk industry. At present, the Banaras silk saree are woven on the traditional throw-shuttle pit loom with jacquard attachment.

Throw shuttle pit loom with Jala or Naksha (990 AD)

The oldest loom known to weave silk sarees in Banaras was the throw shuttle pit loom with jala or naksha called Naksha loom in regional language. The loom was having naksha or jala for lifting warp threads to creat extra weft patterns. Jala or naksha is a woven pattern on small wooden frames with cotton thread or it is a contrivance by which the required warp threads are lifted for interlacement with each pick for weaving an elaborate design. Preparing designs on paper for naksha making is called likhai and people involved in preparing naksha are called Nakshabands. Heald shafts were tied-up with pagia, the harness (frame, used for raising the warp threads) used to weave the ground cloth.

Throw shuttle pit loom with jacquard attachment (1930s)

The loom basically consisted of a pit, where in the treadles are operated by foot. Two pillars on either sides of the pit supported the upper frame of loom. The level of the loom is slightly raised from the ground and the jacquard attachment is mounted on a frame or hung from a frame fixed to the ceiling of the room.

4.1.3 Locations of traditional weaving

The two distinct groups located in two traditional weaving sectors (areas or mohallas) in Varanasi are Alaipura and Madanpura. Each group is unique in its originality, which was

easily distinguishable. Madanpura weavers were known for fine and delicate traditional work on kinkhab, whereas Alaipura weavers were renowned for experimenting with new techniques and designs. The selvedge of the fabric made in Madanpura was neat compared to those woven in Alaipura, which were rough and uneven. Besides these weaving sectors, the other centers in and around Varanasi district are Nati Imli, Lallapura, Chittanpura, Ramnagar, Lohta and others.

4.1.4 Communities involved in weaving

In general, saree weaving involved all communities but share of Muslims (Ansari) is predominantly high. A good number of weavers did belong to Kurmi, Chamar, Kori and Mallah castes of Hindu community. Zahir (1966) mentioned that, before Muslims dominated the weaving industry, it was the monopoly of a sub-caste of Khatri Hindus (Pattikas or Pattakars), who helped the migrant Muslim weavers to establish their craft, may be by providing them funds and raw materials. The woven products made by these Muslim weavers were marketed by the Khatris. Thus, weaving was completely monopolized by the Muslims, while the Khatri Hindus became traders.

4.1.5 Variegated products manufactured at Banaras

Banaras was famous for production of various handloom products. The splendorous handloom products of Banaras were brocade fabrics for dress materials like men’s coat, trousers, jackets, sherwanis etc.; upholsteries and furnishing materials like curtains, wall hangings, table covers etc.; turbans, veils and several varieties of sarees viz., Brocade, Jamdani, Tanchoi, Tissue, Resham buti, Cutwork, Jangla and others.

4.1.6 Traditional designs and colour combinations

Every social and religious group has definite norms towards colour and design of the saree produced regionwise, and Banaras silk saree is no exception to it. Variety of textile patterns during Gupta period (350 to 500 AD) revealed by the Ajanta wall paintings were floral patterns, animal and bird depictions. During 12

th and 13

th century, the butidar designs came

into existence. Khwaja Bahauddi Bukhari in 1288 AD created designs by repetition of motifs, and got fame and recognition as ‘Creator of repeat designs’. In the sixteenth century, the early designs abruptly came to an end and Persian motifs like floral and creeper designs were introduced thus giving a new trend to Indian taste. Akbari paintings showed use of half-blooming floral motifs in brocades, whereas in the Jahangir epoch, the poppy with its delicate stems and full blown blossoms predominated; the leaves of the plant were delicately cured. During Shahjahan period, the blossom type of patterns became less significant and more emphasis was focused on the detailed dissection of the foliages of the plant. On the other hand in post-Shahjahan period, the delicate trunk of the plant and the creeper was replaced by exuberant foliage. In 19

th century, the Indian designs exhibited close resemblance with

Victorian style wall papers of geometrical designs. In the new fashion era, apart from traditional designs, the stylized designs attained popularity.

Silk has a remarkable affinity for dyes. In fact, much of its allure lies in its capacity to absorb a wide range of colours and display them so favourably because of its sheen and texture. Before the advent of commercial dyes, natural and vegetable dyes were used; a few examples were the indigo plant, turmeric root, pomegranate skin, catechu, iron rust and a number of floral dyes, particularly sunflower, marigold and parijal. Till the beginning of the twentieth century, both natural and chemical dyes were used to colour the silk yarns and later these dyes were imported from Germany, Austria and England. Today, inspite of the tentative renewal of interest in vegetable dyes, chemical dyes maintain their dominance and India is a major manufacturer and exporter of the same.

4.2 DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

The demographic information includes the distribution of weavers based on the age, education, religion, family type, family size, annual income of weaver’s family and reason for selecting weaving as profession.

Table 1. Demographic information

n=100

Sl. No. Demographic variables Percentage of respondents

(a) Age (years)

1 Younger (<36) 11

2 Middle age (36-55) 82

3 Old age (>55) 7

(b) Educational level

1 Illiterate (unable to read and write) 21

2 Primary (I-IV standard) 11

3 Middle school (V-VII standard) 18

4 Secondary (VIII-X standard) 21

5 Senior secondary (XI-XII standard) 16

6 Degree and above 13

(c) Religion

1 Muslim 73

2 Hindu 27

(d) Dwelling area/locality

1 Urban 76

2 Rural 24

(e) Family type

1 Nuclear 42

2 Joint 58

(f) Family size (members)

1 Small (upto 3) 11

2 Medium (4-6) 74

3 Large (more than 6) 15

(g) Annual income (Rs.)

1 Low income (<21,400) 35

2 Middle income (21,400-44,652) 52

3 High income (>44,652) 13

(h) Preferences

1 Inherited 81

2 Job opportunity 14

3 Interest 3

4 Migration 2

5 Training -

(i) Category

1 Independent weaver 21

2 Master weaver 3

3 Working with master weaver 45

4 Working in co-operative societies 31

11%

82%

7%

Younger (<36)

Middle age (36-55)

Old age (>55)

21%

11%

18%21%

16%

13%

Illiterate (unable to read and w rite)Primary (I-IV standard)Middle school (V-VII standard)Secondary (VIII-X standard)Senior secondary (XI-XII standard)Degree and above

73%

27%

Muslim

Hindu

(a) Age (b) Education (c) Religion

76%

24%

Urban

Rural

35%

52%

13%

Low income (<21,400)

Middle income (21,400-44,652)

High income (>44,652)

(d) Dwelling area/locality (e) Annual income

4.2.1 Age

Among the demographic characteristics of the weavers, Table 1(a) records the age of the weavers who are actually involved in weaving Banaras silk sarees. Fig. 2(a) reveals that majority of the weavers (82%) belong to middle age group (36-55 years), whereas 11 per cent to younger group (below 36 years) followed by older age group (7%, above 55 years).

4.2.2 Education

Table 1(b) explains about the educational background of the weavers. From Fig. 2(b) it is clear that, among total weavers, equal number (21%) of weavers belong to illiterate and secondary educational group (VII-X standard). About 18 per cent of them have middle school education (V-VII standard), followed by senior secondary (16%, XI-XII standard), degree (13%) and primary level (11%, I-IV standard).

4.2.3 Religion

It is observed from the Table 1(c) and Fig. 2(c) that, majority of the weavers (73%) belong to Muslim community and rests (27%) are Hindus.

4.2.4 Locality/Dwelling area

It is clear from Table 1(d) and Fig. 2(d) that, among the weavers 76 per cent of the weavers are residing in city whereas 24 per cent in rural area.

4.2.5 Type of family

An appraisal of Table 1(e) shows that more than half of the weavers (58 %) belong to joint family system and 42 per cent to nuclear family system.

4.2.6 Size of family

The distribution of weavers according to the size of family has been presented in Table 1(f). The result depicts that almost three-fourth of the weavers have medium family with 4-6 family members followed by large family size (15%, more than 6). Relatively very few i.e. one tenth of them have small family size with members not exceeding 3.

4.2.7 Annual family income (Rs.)

The annual income of the family in the present study is the sum of annual income of the respondent from weaving silk sarees (main income) and annual income of other family members (subsidiary income).

Table 1(g) reflected the classification of weavers, based on their annual family income. The corresponding Fig. 2(e) reveals that nearly half of the weavers (52%) fall in middle income group with annual income of Rs. 21,400 to 44,652/- followed by low income group (35%) with annual income less than Rs. 21,400/-. Very few percent of the weavers (13%) belong to high income group (>Rs. 44,652/-).

4.2.8 Selection of weaving profession

It is learnt during data collection, while the weavers were personally interviewed that weaving skill is invariably inherited. But there were other reasons due to which people opted weaving as their profession. It is evident from Table 1(h) that majority of the weavers (81%) inherited weaving from their forefathers and thus continued the profession. On the other hand 14 per cent of them selected weaving for their livelihood, whereas 2 per cent are basically weavers but migrated to Banaras and continued this profession. However 3 per cent of them learnt the skill of fascinating silk saree weaving because of interest, which is a source of livelihood.

4.2.9 Category of weavers

Table 1(i) gives the details about classification of weavers based on the category to which they belong to. Majority of the weavers (45%) are working with master weavers, followed by (31%) in co-operative societies, whereas 21 per cent of them are independent weavers and very meager per cent (3%), master weavers.

Table 2. Details of raw material used in Banaras silk sarees

Sl. No.

Raw materials Type Cost/kg (Rs.) Place of purchase

1 Silk Bangalore silk 1800-2000

China silk 1400-1600

Bangalore, Malda and China

2 Zari Pure zari 10,000-13,000

Tested zari 600-800

Powder zari 2000

Plastic zari 350-500

Surat and Banaras

3 Cotton White cotton 350-400 Selam (Tamilnadu)

4.3 RAW MATERIALS

Raw material plays a vital role in the production of any product/good. The essential raw materials required for the production of Banaras silk sarees are silk and zari, but cotton is exceptionally used in Kora cutwork sarees for extra weft designs. The details about the raw material viz., requirement per saree, source of procurement, frequency of purchase, mode of payment and problems faced while procuring are dealt under the following subheadings.

4.3.1 Raw material details

The Banaras silk sarees are exclusive and ethnic in nature as obvious from Table 2. All Banaras silk sarees are unique in features, appearance, texture, colour and design. , where in silk yarn and zari are the basic two raw materials (Plate 1). These sarees are woven with two types of silk yarns, Bangalore silk i.e. mulberry silk and China silk; and the popular denier are 14/16, 16/18 and 20/22. The Bangalore silk ranged from Rs.1800-2000/kg and Chinees silk Rs.1400-1600/kg. The weavers purchased raw silk from Bangalore, Malda and sometimes from local dealers; latter who inturn purchase silk from Bangalore, Malda and sometimes from China.

The gold and silver zari are used to create glittering embossed extra weft pattern that gave a classic touch to the saree. The popular zari numbers used are 1200, 1400, 1600 and 3700. The four types of zari commonly used in Banaras silk sarees are:

a) Pure zari

b) Tested zari

c) Powder zari

d) Plastic zari

The composition of different varieties of zari is presented here under:

a) Pure zari: This is also known as real zari. The centre core of pure zari is made up of degummed twisted red or yellow mulberry silk yarn; over which silver lametta and badla (flatten wire) is wound. The silver zari threads are electroplated with pure gold solution, to produce gold zari.

b) Tested zari: It is also called imitation zari because it has the external features of real zari and thus, resembles the real zari in terms of shine. This variety is similar to real zari except copper lametta used in place of silver and silver gilding is done on copper wire. For gold zari, the tested zari is electroplated with gold solution.

c) Powder zari: The manufacturing process of powder zari is similar to tested zari, where in powder gilding is done on imitation zari in place of gold gilding.

d) Plastic zari: The manufacturing process is more or less same as other varieties. In this variety plastic thread is used as lametta instead of copper or silver.

All Banaras sarees are either woven with pure zari or other varieties (imitation, powder and plastic zari). Most of the time zari thread is purchased from Surat and sometimes from Banaras. The cost of pure zari ranged from Rs.10,000-13,000/kg, imitation zari Rs.600-800/kg, powder zari Rs.2000/kg and plastic zari is Rs. 350-500/kg.

Silk and zari are the main raw materials used for extra weft designs in Banaras silk sarees, but in Kora cut work sarees, cotton is used to create extra weft patterns. The weavers generally purchase cotton from Selam (Tamilnadu) or local dealers. The cost of cotton ranged from Rs. 350-400/kg.

4.3.2 Raw material requirement for different silk sarees

Table 3 makes it clear that all the Banaras silk sarees i.e. Brocade, Chiffon Jamdani, Jamdani, Jungla, Resham buti, Satin border, Satin embossed, Tanchoi and Tissue saree are mainly woven with silk and zari, whereas Kora cutwork have cotton designs on silk ground. The technique of weaving these sarees is more or less same but each saree is different in its composition. The requirement of raw materials for each saree varied according to the intricacy of the designs woven.

Plate 1. Raw materials

Table 3. Raw material requirement for different types of Banaras silk sarees

Yarn type Yarn count/ N Silk yarn and Zari (g) Sl. No.

Saree type

Warp way Weft way Extra weft Warp way

Weft way

Extra weft

Warp way

Weft way

Extra weft

1 Brocade saree Bangalore silk

Bangalore silk

Zari 16/18 16/18 3700 400 250 650

2 Chiffon Jamdani saree

Chinese silk

Chinese silk

Chinese silk & zari

14/16 14/16 3700 300 250 200

150

3 Jamdani saree Bangalore silk

Bangalore silk

Bangalore silk

16/18 20/22 16/18 350 300 250

4 Jangla saree Bangalore silk

Bangalore silk

Zari 16/18 20/22 1200 400 350 500

5 Kora cutwork saree

Chinese silk

Chinese silk

Cotton - 14/16 100s/ 120s

200 250 350

6 Resham butti saree

Bangalore silk

Bangalore silk

Bangalore silk and/or

zari

16/18 16/18 16/18

1600

350 250 250

400

7 Satin border saree

Bangalore silk

Bangalore silk

Bangalore silk and/or

zari

14/16 14/16 14/16

1600

350 250 150

200

8 Satin embossed saree

Bangalore silk

Bangalore silk & zari

Bangalore silk & zari

20/22 20/22

3700

20/22

1400

350 200

250

200

200

9 Tanchoi saree Bangalore silk

Bangalore silk

Bangalore silk

14/16 14/16 14/16 400 250 250

10 Tissue saree Bangalore silk

Zari Bangalore silk & zari

16/18 3700

16/18

3700

300 500 100

200

Table 4. Source of procurement of raw materials by the weavers

n=100

Source of procurement

Raw material

Master weavers Local dealers Co-operative societies

Silk 28 46 26

Zari 28 46 26

Brocade saree is having extra weft zari (3700 N) figures. Both warp and weft have standard quality Bangalore silk yarns of denier 16/18. About 650 g zari and 650 g silk yarns are required for Brocade saree, which is relatively heavy.

Chiffon Jamdani saree is woven with highly twisted Chinese silk yarns of denier 14/16 as warp and Chinese silk yarns of denier 14/16 as weft. In warp direction, Z and S twisted silk yarns are arranged alternately. About 200 g Chinese silk (14/16 denier) and 150 g zari (3700 N) used for extra weft figuring, 300 g silk for warp and 250 g silk for weft.

Jamdani saree is woven without zari but the extra weft figures are produced with silk of denier 16/18 (250 g). The ground saree is woven with Bangalore silk of warp (350 g) and weft (300 g) of denier 16/18 and 20/22 respectively.

Jangla saree is woven with twisted Bangalore silk yarns in both warp (400 g) and weft (300 g) directions with yarn count 16/18 and 20/22 respectively. The extra weft figures are produced with zari, 1200 N of about 500 g.

Kora cutwork saree have extra weft designs of cotton yarns (120/100, 350 g). Without degumming, the untwisted Chinese silk (200 g) is employed as warp and twisted Chinese silk yarn of denier 14/16 as weft (250 g).

Resham buti sarees are woven with Bangalore silk in both warp way (350 g) and weft way (250 g) with denier 16/18. The extra weft figures are produced with silk of denier 16/18 and/or zari, 1600 N.

Satin border saree is woven with Bangalore silk yarns of denier 14/16 as warp and weft both. The saree has extra weft designs of silk yarns (14/16 denier) and/or zari (1600 N) About 350 g of silk is required for warp, 250 g silk for weft, 150 g silk and/or 200 g zari for extra weft designs.

Satin embossed sarees are woven with Bangalore silk yarns of 20/22 denier. The silk (200g) and zari (250g) yarns are woven alternately as weft for ground cloth. The extra weft designs are made with a combination of silk (200g) and zari (200g). The yarn number of zari for ground weft is 3700 N and 1400 N for extra weft.

The Tanchoi saree is woven with Bangalore silk yarn exclusively of 14/16 denier. The extra weft patterns are produced with silk instead zari and accounted to 250 g. The weight of ground warp and weft attributed to 400 g and 250 g respectively.

Tissue saree is exclusive one where zari of 3700 N is used as both ground weft (500 g) and extra weft designs (200 g); Bangalore silk of denier 16/18 as both warp and extra weft designs. About 300 g silk is required for warp and 100 g for extra weft.

4.3.2 Procurement of raw materials

The details about procurement of raw material are presented in Table 4. Majority of the weavers (46%) procure raw material like silk and zari from local dealers, about 28 per cent weavers from master weavers followed by co-operative societies (26%).

4.3.3 Mode of payment

Table 5 illustrates that, 50 per cent of the weavers purchase raw materials on credit, 35 per cent each buy raw materials on both cash and credit. Very few per cent of them (15%) follow cash payment system.

4.3.4 Frequency of purchasing the raw materials

Table 6 records the frequency of purchasing raw material i.e. silk and zari. Majority of the weavers (33%) purchase silk monthly followed by bimonthly (29%), as and when necessary (20%) and fortnightly (18%). None of the weaver purchases silk weekly.

The table further depicts that nearly one third of the weavers (34%) purchase zari fortnightly. Thirty per cent of them buy zari as and when necessary followed by monthly (18%) and weekly (14%). Very meager per cent (4%) purchase silk bimonthly.

4.3.5 Problems of the weavers related to raw materials

Table 7 focused the various problems encountered by the weavers while procuring the raw materials. Sometimes the weavers faced the problems like transportation problems (66%), followed by hike in price (62%), inferior quality yarn (58%) and untimely supply (56%) of silk. Nearly half of the weavers (46%) are always faced the problem of scarcity of silk.

Further it is noticed from the same table that; majority of the weavers (63%) stated hike in price of zari is always a major problem. On the other hand untimely supply (58%), transportation (57%), inferior quality (55%) and scarcity (50%) of zari are the other problems quoted by the weavers sometimes.

4.4 TECHNOLOGY OF WEAVING BANARAS SILK SAREES

The technology of weaving Banaras silks sarees encompasses type of loom employed, various preparatory & loom processes involved and several post loom processes consisted of.

4.4.1 Preparatory process (pre-loom processes)

The term preparatory signifies the number of stepwise processes carried out prior to weaving. The silk hanks are subjected to the following preliminary processes:

• Warp preparation

• Degumming

• Dyeing

• Weft preparation

Warp preparation

i. Bobbin winding: It is a process of transferring the silk yarns on to the smaller packages i.e. bobbins. Initially the bobbin is placed on the steel rod of bobbin winder machine. The silk hank is placed on the swift of the bobbin winding machine and on rotating; the yarn is mechanically transferred on to the bobbin, of either wooden or plastic. Each bobbin is filled according to the required length of yarn (Plate 2).

ii. Warping: The dully filled bobbins are placed on to the creel. The yarn from each bobbin is drawn through the guide & leasing section and further wound on a vertical warping mill, called Khali in locally. The method adopted for warping is sectional warping, where in the number of silk yarns in each section depends upon the number of ends required to produce a saree. However, the warping done each time is sufficient for 4 sarees. Nearly 30 m length of yarn is sufficient for of 4 sarees and it takes 2 to 2

1/2 h to complete one beam. Warping is done by

experts in the family, but some weavers perform to do it by themselves only. The entire operation is completely manually and one person exclusively is responsible for it (Plate 3).

Degumming

Raw silk contains silk gum (sericin) which constitutes about 20-30 per cent of its total weight. The raw silk need to be purified before it takes any colour. The silk is made soft by removing sericine (gum) and other impurities. This process also imparts lustre to the yarn.

The details about degumming are:

1. Soap – 200 g/ kg silk yarn

2. Soda ash – 10-20 g/kg silk yarn

3. MLR – 1:30

4. Temperature – Boiling point

5. Time – 45 min – 1 hour

The degummed silk is washed thoroughly first with warm water and then in cold water to remove the traces of soap liquor. About 25 per cent weight loss is observed after degumming. Kharna is the term locally referred for degumming.

Table 5. Mode of payment for procurement of raw materials by the weavers

n=100

Mode of payment

Raw material

Cash Credit Both cash & credit

Silk 15 50 35

Zari 15 50 35

Table 6. Frequency of purchasing the raw materials by the weavers

n=100

Sl. No.

Frequency of purchase Silk Zari

1 Weekly - 14

2 Fortnightly 18 34

3 Monthly 33 18

4 Bimonthly 29 4

5 As and when necessary 20 30

Table 7. Problems of the weavers related to raw material

n=100

Raw materials

Silk Zari Sl. No.

Problems faced

A S N A S N

1 Untimely supply 10 56 34 15 58 27

2 Scarcity 46 48 6 46 50 4

3 High price 38 62 - 63 37 -

4 Disparity in counts 24 44 32 - - -

5 Inferior quality 16 58 26 30 55 15

6 Transportation 8 66 26 6 57 36

Note: Multiple responses possible A = Always, S = Sometime, N = Never

Plate2. Bobbin winding

Plate 3. Warping (silk)

Dyeing

Rangai is the term referred to dyeing in local language. The degummed silk is dyed either in acid or direct or metal complex dyes to produce variety of colourways.

The detail about each dye is presented below:

Sl. No.

Acid dye Direct dye Metal complex dye

1 Acid colour Direct colour Metal complex colour

2 5-10 per cent glauber salt

30 per cent glauber salt Ammonium Sulphate

3 1-2 per cent Acetic acid 20 per cent Acetic acid 1-2 per cent Acetic acid

4 MLR 1:30 MLR 1:30 MLR 1:30

5 Temperature 90-95°C Temperature 90°C Temperature 90°C

6 Time 30-45 minutes Time 45-60 minutes Time 30 minutes

Dyeing procedure

The dye bath is set at 40°-50°C with required amount water as per MLR and added 5-10 per cent glauber salt, the crystal and 1-2 per cent glacial acetic acid. The dye paste is then added to dye bath and the temperature is gradually raised. The degummed silk hanks are suspended on smooth steel rods and immersed in dye bath. The temperature is raised to 90-95°C during 30 minutes and continued to dye for next 15 minutes (Plate 4). If the dye is not exhausted within the stipulated period of dyeing time, 1-2 per cent glacial acetic acid is added to the dye bath and dyeing is continued for another 10-15 minutes, totaling to one hour. Finally the hanks are rinsed thoroughly in cold water, squeezed and shade dried (Plate 5). The dyeing procedure for direct and metal complex dyes is same. Instead of glauber salt, ammonium sulphate (5%) is used as buffer in metal complex dye to enhance dye uptake.

Note: Common salt should not be used while dyeing silk since it tenders the yarns.

Preparation of weft

The dyed silk hank is placed on swift or natawa, which is a bamboo frame with a central axis. The natawa frame is round in sahape and slightly narrower in the middle than at the upper and lower ends. The silk hank is placed on natawa, which is then transferred on to a device called pareta, a cone made from bamboo stick (Plate 6). To produce doubled yarn, the yarns from two pareta are drawn together and laid on to a third pareta. From pareta, the thread is transferred to a small pirn, nari by means of hand driven charkha. The entire operation is manually carried out and mainly performed by the women (Plate 7). The ready pirn, nari is the package for picking. The pirn is placed in the shuttle, nar or dharki, made of buffalo-horn with a small glazed surface, enabling it to slide rapidly in the shed.

The ‘Kalabattun’ is the zari used as weft is wound on a well polished simple bamboo stick called kandhi, made from superior quality bamboo, imported from Upper Bengal. The zari, when used as extra weft is transferred from bobbin to the small pirn with the help of simple charkha (Plate 8).

4.4.2 Loom process

Pre-weaving process

i. Beaming: Tana tanna, refers to arrangement of warp threads for beaming locally and Tanihara, is the one who involves in arrangement of warp threads. The dyed warp yarns are transferred on to a salai, a wooden tube on one end that revolves freely round a long iron needle, on the other hand. The ready salai is taken to an open area where a framework is setup for the arrangement of warp threads. These warp threads are stretched in this open area, called tana tanna (Plate 9). One end of each thread is attached to a wooden cylinder, nothing but a four-faced beam, called tur and the other end of each yarn, fully extended, is attached to a stick by means of ropes which is already tied to a peg or clamp. The stick,

kantia-ka-danda, has a number of iron hooks (called Kantia) fixed at equidistance. The lease rods (Sakara), always in pairs, are placed at different intervals throughout the length of warp sheet. Each pair of lease rods is tied with cotton-twines (Banka-ka-tagla) to hold them together and to keep lease intact. The ready warp sheet is spread uniformly, and checked individual yarn for breakage, damage or defects; and if any are duly mended and corrected. This operation is called sahi-karana. The lease rods, sakara are removed from the warp sheet while the cotton twines are retained intact. The hooked-stick is then released from the peg and the threads are vigorously stretched manually. Simultaneously the roller at the other end is rotated outwards for taut winding of warp threads. This is beaming, called as turai in regional language, the process of transferring the warp sheet on to the warp beam (Plate 10). The whole cylinder is then carefully packed and taken to the loom.

ii. Piece work: Saree weaving is always commences from pallav region. Piece work is a process of joining new warp ends to the corresponding warp thread of previous saree. Twisting is the technique employed to join the ends together with the help of gum/glue (Plate 11).

iii. Gaiting the loom: The new warps are then gaited, known as dressing the loom. In every loom the warp threads are not stretched to the full length of the sari but it depends upon the longitudinal space available in the room. The number of harness (Gathwa), reed (Hatha or Kanghi), warp beam (Bhanjni) and cloth beam (Tur or Lapetan) are tied on to the respective positions. The warp beam is secured in the middle with a rope which is tied to the peg, called agela posted in the ground. Generally the warp beam, bhanjni should be at a distance of 2 ½ to 3 yards and peg, agela at a distance of 4 to 4½ yards away from the position of weavers (Fig. 3). Between the warp beam and cloth beam, a set of lease rods (Senthas) are placed alternately, in order to complete the loom preparation i.e. gaiting and then the loom is set for weaving (Plate 12).

Weaving

The Banaras silk sarees are woven on throw shuttle pit looms by single person but for intricate designs, he/she needs a helper. Saree weaving is accomplished by using one big throw shuttle carrying weft yarn for ground fabric and many tiny shuttles or pirns carrying silk or zari thread for extra weft designs. After every two ground picks a separate treadle (Paosar) is operated to create third shed by jacquard mechanism to produce extra weft patterns of either zari or silk thread. In other words the extra weft pattern is produced by swivel technique. During weaving process, the weaver sprinkles water on warp sheet (Tana) occasionally with the help of abgir (a broom-like instrument) to maintain its elasticity, failing which, it would lead to yarn breakage due to dryness. Thus the Sari is woven with great care and patience (Plate 13).

Taking up and letting off

The completion of sari is called reja pujna. The woven cloth (Than or Reja) is taken up and wound on the cloth beam (Tur) and the process is called taking up. The woven fabric, when taken off from the loom is called a kora than, the pure fabric.

During letting off, the warp yarns are released from warp beam (Bhanjni) as and when the woven cloth is taken up.

Cutting and doffing the saree

After completion of each saree an extra length of approximately one inch is woven and separated from the cloth beam with the help of knife. This however, helps to prevent the slippage of yarns through the dents. Extra length of eight to nine inches of warp sheet is left at the back of the harness to which warp ends of new saree will be twisted, glued and joined. The weaver now begins to weave the new saree.

Plate 4. Dyeing of soilk yarns

Plate 5. Shade drying of dyed silk yarns

Plate 6. Swift winding Plate 7. Pirn winding of silk yarn

Plate 8. Pirn winding of zari

Plate 9. Arrangement of warp yarns (Tana tanna)

Plate 10. Beaming (Turai)

Plate 11. Piece work

Plate 12. Gating the loom

Fig. 3. Preparation of loom for weaving

Plate 13. Saree weaving with throw-shuttle

4.4.3 Post loom processes

The saree, after taking out from the loom is carefully folded for delivery. Formerly, the sarees were given special finish by exclusive workers called, Kundigar. To add glaze and sheen, the saree is treated with sizing material. The fabric is mounted on wooden beam (Tur, cloth beam) (Plate 14) and the sizing solution is gently sprayed manually over it with the help of sprayer and then the saree is tightly wound on the beam (Plate 15). The woven saree is shade dried with cloth beam (Tur) along and later separated from tur (Plate 16). This finishing process is called ‘polishing’. The saree is examined for flaws and then systematically folded, packed in polyethylene bags (Plate 17).

4.4.4 Dimension of the throw-shuttle pit loom

The dimension of the pit loom is important to know, since ultimately it is made to weave known length and width of the saree. This is possible that there would be little variation in the dimensions of the loom, more often smaller, due to space availability (Plate 18).

Length of the loom (from cloth beam to warp beam) – 96”

Width of the loom (width of the slay) – 70”

Dimension of the pit

Length – 36”

Width – 24”

Depth – 36”

The handloom is usually not referred as ‘machine’ because the structure is completely constructed with teak wood or any other durable jungle wood. The cost of loom ranged from Rs.10,000 to 12,000/-.

4.5 MOTIFS USED IN BANARAS SILK SAREES

The motifs used in Banaras silk sarees are galaxy of designs of various sizes and shapes, which are exotic, exquisite, splendid and sturdy. Decorative floral pattern, vegetal designs, geometrical motifs, stylized dots, asharfi motifs, small flower buttas (buti), jal patterns, kalgha motif (mango motif), human figures, animal and bird depictions and so on drawn from the nature, the tree of life.

Many of these designs, patterns and methods used in creation are traditional; many contemporary designers constantly try to revive them according to the changing trend. The Banarasi motifs are designed in a very sophisticated way and are very delicate & intricate styles which inturn repeated in several styles to produce desired patterns of artistic value. The expert designers prepare designs on graph paper (point paper) and then transfer it on to the punch cards (pattern cards or jacquard pattern chain).

Silk sarees of Banaras are named after the motifs and patterns developed in the sarees. In this context the researcher felt necessary to give a detailed account of types of Banaras silk sarees, motifs employed on different sarees, out sourcing the designs and factors considered while planning the motifs.

4.5.1 Motifs woven on different types of sarees

Exquisite Banaras silk sarees are identified and sold in the market in different names given after the motifs woven on it. Each sari has its own beauty, richness and uniqueness (Table 8). The details about the types of silk sarees and motifs used are presented here under:

Brocade saree has allover phulwar, jhardar and patridar patterns in the body, with animal motifs and floral bels embedded in the border. Continuous intricate floral and animal motifs with jhardar and patidar patterns are woven to adorn the pallav.

Chiffon Jamdani saree is constructed with either plain body or tossed patterns of butis, kalghi and turanj in the body. Border is covered with bels (adi, keri, lahariya etc.), butis (fardi, turanj, badami, asharfi etc.), kalghis and mothra patterns. Intricate buttas and kalgha designs are produced in pallav.

Plate 14. Mounting of saree on beam for finishing

Plate 15. Polishing (finishing of saree)

Plate 16. Shade drying of polished saress

Plate 17. Folding of sarees

Plate 18. Throw-shuttle pit loom with jacquard attachment

Table 8. Placement of motifs in various types of Banaras silk sarees

Motifs used Sl. No.

Source type Body Border Pallu

1 Brocade saree All over flowers, leaves and animal motifs (Phulwar, Jhardar, Patridar etc.)

Floral and animal motifs and bel (Adibel, phuldarbel, dauribel etc.)

Intricate floral and animal patterns

2 Chiffon jamdani saree

Plain, turanj, Kalghi, Pan buti, asrafi buti and minatashi buti etc.

Bel, Mothra, Kalgi, Turanj and Fardi buti etc.

Intricate bels and Kalgha designs

3 Jamdani saree Buti, Butta, all over floral patterns and kalgha motifs

Floral patterns and Kalgha motifs Intricate Phulwar and Kalgha designs

4 Jangla saree Floral and Kalgha jal designs (kamraki jal, sona buti jal, churi jal lehariya jal etc.)

Mothra, Fita, Tamni, Phulwar bels etc. Intrical floral jal pattern with Mothra and Tamni

5 Kora cutwork saree Buti, Butta, Doriya, Salaidar and Ada doriya designs, geometrical, Charkhana and Khanjari patterns

Buti, geometrical designs, Charkhana patterns and floral motifs

Intricate floral jal, Doriya, Khanjari and Salaidar pattern

6 Resham buti saree Butis (jumka, keri, latifa, badami, asharfi, satpatia, sonajhari, pan etc.) turanj and kalghi

Butis, Kalgha and Turanj designs with Fita

Intricate buttas, Kalgha motif with Fita and Konia patterns

7 Satin border saree Plain Floral patterns, animal motifs (parrot, peacock, horse, deer, elephant etc.) and Shikargah designs

Intricate floral designs, animal motifs and Shikargah designs

8 Satin embossed saree

Phulwar, Waskat, Ilayecha and Bulbul-chashm designs

Floral motifs, Kalghi, Waskat, Ilayecha and Bulbul-chashm patterns

Phulwar, Kalgha and butis in Bulbul-chashm pattern

9 Tanchoi saree Plain, bels, jals, Kalgi, floral motifs and Charkhana pattern

Bels, Kalgha and floral motifs Intricate Kalgha and stylized floral motifs

10 Tissue saree Phulwar, Jhardar and Patridar patterns Floral bels and butis (Jamewar, jhardar etc.)

All over floral patterns

Butis, buttas and kalghi are interwoven on body of the Jamdani sari and the border having kalgha and floral designs. Phulwar and kalgha invariably give rich effect to the pallav.

The Jangla saree is covered with jal pattern (Kerri jal, kamraki jal, churi jal, laheriya jal, sona buti jal etc.), whereas phulwar bel with mothra, fita and tamni at the border. A rich effect is obtained by using jal pattern, mothra and tamni on the pallav too.

Kora cutwork saree has butis, buttas, salaidar, geometrical, khanjari, charkhana and ada doriya pattern in the body, with butis, charkhana patterns and floral motifs in border. Pallav is covered with floral jal, doriya, khanjari and salaidar patterns.

Butis wove with resham/jari beautify the Resham buti saree. The border and pallav have butis, kalghas, turanj, konia with fita. However, pan buti, tara buti, chand buti, baccha buti, badami buti, jhar buti, satpatia buti, sona jari buti etc. are the common butis of resham buti sarees.

Satin border saree has plain body, with border and pallav having floral designs, animal motifs (parrot, peacock, horse, deer, elephant etc.) and shikargah designs. The entire body of the saree is woven in plain weave but border and pallav are in satin.

Among the Satin embossed saree, the body is woven in phulwar, waskat, Ilayecha and bulbul-chashm pattern, with border in stylized kalgha motif, floral motifs and buttas. The rich pallav is having phulwar, kalgha and butis in bulbul- chashm pattern.

Tanchoi saree, many time has plain body but sometimes the adi bel, kalghi motifs, stylized buttas, jal designs and charkhana patterns are also seen. Border is decorated with, bels, kalghas and buttas. Further, stylized butta and kalgha decorates the pallav.

Phulwar, jardar and patridar patterns enhance the richness of the pallav of Tissue saree. Floral bels, jamewar buti and jhardar buti are beautified the border while allover floral patterns decorate the pallav.

4.5.2 Outsourcing the motifs/designs

Table 9 revealed that for the production of exquisite sarees, maximum number of weavers (72%) outsourced the designs from professional weavers. Nearly half of the weavers obtained deigns from master weavers. About 40 per cent weavers collected the designs from elderly people, whereas few peoples (27%) who were innovative could create designs on their own. On the other hand one fourth of the weavers working in the co-operative societies used to get designs made from the designers in the respective societies.

4.5.3 Factors considered while designing the motifs

Table 10 and Fig. 4 makes it clear that demand is the major influencive factor for designing the motifs as supported by maximum number of weavers (75%) followed by other factors like fashion (64%) and order placed by the consumer (58%). Few of the weavers stated that cost of the production (30%) and ease of weaving (18%) are other minor factors influenced selection of designs.

4.6 COLOUR COMBINATION OF BANARAS SILK SAREES

Colour has always been a special significance in Indian textiles, costumes and life, being invested with all kinds of social, sacred and ritual meanings. Every social and religious group has its own norms regarding the colour, design and material. The charm and subtle beauty of the Banaras silk sarees depends upon colour synchronization. A Banaras silk saree is traditionally in a single colour with motifs and patterns woven in zari and coloured silk threads. The traditional colours used of Banaras silk sarees are as follows:

Light purple pink (Pyazi), Pink (Gulabi), Red or Magenta (Surkh or lal), Scarlet red (Sultani surkh), Light crimson (Karaundia), Light buff (Badami), Orange (Narangi), Saffron (Kesaria), Deep orange (Kaulai), Yellow (Zard), Primerose (Vasanti), Yellowish white or Cream (Motia), Lemon yellow (Nimbui), Sulpher yellow (Gandhaki), Pale yellow (Kapasi), Straw coloured (Kaffuri), Dark green (Kahi), Light green (Sabza-kahi), Grass green (Mashi), Light yellowish-green or Olive green (Mugia), Green (Sabza), Purple blue (Uda), Violet (Baijni), Sky blue (Asmani), Turquoise blue (Phirozi), Lapis lazuli blue (Lazwardi), Midnight blue (Syah), Grey (Khaki).

Table 9. Distribution of the weavers based on outsourcing of motifs/designs

n=100

Sl. No. Source Percentage of respondents

1 Professional designers 72

2 Master weavers 55

3 Elderly people 40

4 Self created 27

5 Co-operative societies 25

Note: Multiple responses possible

Table 10. Distribution of the weavers based on factors considered while designing the motifs

n=100

Sl. No. Source Percentage of respondents

1 Demand 75

2 Fashion 64

3 Order 58

4 Cost of production 30

5 Ease of weaving 18

Note: Multiple responses possible

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Demand Fashion Order Cost of production Ease of weaving

Fig. 4. Distribution of the weavers based on factors considered while designing the motifs

Perc

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Source

Fig. 4. Distribution of the weavers based on factors considered while designing the motifs

Table 11. Common colours used in Banaras silk sarees

Sl. No. Saree type Common colours

1 Brocade saree Red, Marron, Magenta and Pink

2 Chiffon Jamdani saree Pink, Lemon yellow, Cream, Badami yellow, Pale yellow, Straw coloured yellow, Light green, Sky blue, Light orange

3 Jamdani saree Pink, Scarlet, Crimson, Orange, Sulpher yellow, Olive green, Grass green, Purple blue and Turquoise blue

4 Jangla saree Red, Maroon, Deep orange, Rani pink, Crimson, Scarlet and Magenta

5 Kora cutwork saree Pale Yellow, Yellow, Pyazi pink Cream and Badami brown

6 Resham buti saree Red, Maroon, Magenta, Purple, Midnight blue, Yellow and Orange

7 Satin border saree Cream, Red, Grass green, Sky blue, Pale yellow, Sulpher yellow and Light brown

8 Satin embossed saree Red, Scarlet, Deep orange, Saffron and Golden yellow

9 Tanchoi saree Scarlet, Magenta, Olive green, Blue, Midnight blue, Cream, Pale yellow and Light brown

10 Tissue saree Blue, Black, Violet, Purple blue, Red, Maroon and Scarlet

Plate 19. Common colours used in Banaras silk sarees

Table 11 indicated that Banaras silk sarees are produced a palette of colours (Plate 19). Brocade and Jangla sarees are always woven in bright wedding colours-red, scarlet red, maroon, rani pink, pink and magenta; whereas Jamdani saree is woven almost in all colours-shades & tints of red, yellow tinges, green shades and combination of purple and blues. Lighter tints like-pale yellow, cream, pink, light orange, sulphur yellow, grass green, parrot green, sky blue are the common colours of Chiffon Jamdani and satin border saree. On the other hand Resham buti and Tissue sarees are always in brighter shades of red, maroon, blue, violet, green, orange and yellow.

Satin embossed saree is usually produced in combination of shades of yellow and orange. Tints of yellow and brown, and shades of white are commonly accepted colours for Kora cutwork sarees. Tanchoi sarees are either in light background with dark colour designs or dark background with light colour designs; however, scarlet, magenta, olive green, blue, midnight blue, cream, pale yellow and light brown are main colours.

4.6.1 Type of dyes used

It is clear from Table 12 that majority of the weavers (94%) mainly used acid dye for colouring the silk yarns. Nearly one-forth of the weavers used direct dye (24%) followed by metal complex dye (22%).

4.7 SAREE SPECIFICATIONS

This aspect includes the constructional details of all the traditional silk sarees and modification/changes incorporated in Banaras silk sarees.

4.7.1 Fabric information of Banaras silk sarees

Table 13 furnishes the fabric information of Banaras silk sarees. Commonly used reed count for silk sarees are 96, 100 and 120.Two ends per dent is the denting order adopted by the weavers for saree weaving. The cloth count of Brocade saree, Satin embossed saree and Tissue saree is same i.e. 96/inch and 65/inch, whereas Chiffon Jamdani and Jamdani saree have 100 ends and 75 picks per inch. Jangla, Tanchoi and Satin border sarees are very fine quality sarees with dense weave inter woven with 120 ends and 85 picks per inch. Kora cutwork and Resham buti sarees are constructed with 100 ends and 70 picks per inch. The length of each saree along with blouse piece measured 6.5 ms and total width of each saree was 45 inches. The width of the border ranged from 2 to 6 inches whereas width of body was 33 to 41 inches. The border of Jamdani saree measured minimum width i.e. 2-3 inches, whereas Brocade, Resham buti and Satin border sarees have border width of 4-6 inches. The length of the pallav ranged from minimum 10 to maximum 40 inches and the weight of the saree ranged from 500-1500 g. Of all the sarees, Kora cutwork saree is light in weight i.e. 500-700 g but Brocade saree fond to be relatively heavier that weighed 1200-1500 g.

4.7.2 Types of Banaras silk sarees

Banaras silk saree is known for its softness, gleam, grandeur and luxurious look. The saree achieves royal look through its rich and intricate weave and zari work. Exclusive varieties of the sarees are Brocade, Chiffon Jamdani, Jamdani, Jangla, Kora cutwork, Resham buti, Satin border, Satin embossed, Tanchoi and Tissue, which are made of silk warp and wefts, on plain, twill or satin ground base; brocaded with extra weft patterns of zari and silk in different layouts introducing butis, creepers, buttas, kalghas in ground, border and anchal for getting glamorous appearance.

The variegated patterns of Banaras silk sarees are discussed here under:

1. Brocade saree – The term brocade refers to those textiles, where patterns are created in weaving by transfixing or thrusting the thread pattern between the warp. The saree has floral motifs in gold and silver threads, used as extra weft against silk ground. The body of the saree has all over pattern whereas border and pallav have scroll designs (Plate 20).

2. Chiffon Jamdani saree – Hard twisted yarns formed the warp sheet. The S and Z twisted ends are arranged alternately, that produce a wavy and crepe appearance. The sarees commonly have all over buti patterns (Plate 21).

3. Jamdani saree – Jamdani sarees are figured fabrics with colourful intricate paisley designs without extra weft floats on the reverse side of the saree (Plate 22).

4. Jangla saree – These are very rich wedding sarees. All over jal and jangla designs are used to produce stylized appearance and further decoration was made with meena work. The motifs resemble like thread work since appear identical on both sides (swivel weave), without floats. Jangla saree is woven with two weavers who work together with 14-28 shuttles at a time (Plate 23).

5. Kora cutwork saree – It is a typical saree produced with cut work against plain ground. The extra loosely dangling threads between the motifs are trimmed manually, giving a jamdani effect (Plate 24).

6. Resham buti saree – A rich kind of Banaras silk saree has butis on allover ground with heavy design on border and pallav (Plate 25).

7. Satin border saree – The saree is plain with border and pallav in satin weave (Plate 26).

8. Satin embossed saree – The sarees are woven in satin weave that have all over floral ilayecha and charkhana patterns (Plate 27).

9. Tanchoi saree – Three sarees are without zari and the motifs are woven in satin weave with silk as extra weft. The minute diaper of jamewar style and paisley motifs are spread densely on the ground of the saree. In other words the designs are visible on face of the saree (Plate 28).

10. Tissue saree – These sarees are woven with silk as warp, zari running as weft with combination of zari and silk in extra weft. Therefore the tissue sarees appear almost like gold cloth and are most popular as wedding sarees (Plate 29).

Table 12. Distribution of weavers based on the type of dyes used

n=100

Sl. No. Source Percentage of respondents

1 Acid dye 94

2 Direct dye 24

3 Metal-complex dye 22

Note: Multiple responses possible

4.7.3 Modification/changes made in the traditional sarees

It is learnt from Table 14 that all weavers incorporated some or the other changes in the traditional sarees with respect to motif, yarn and zari. The corresponding Fig.5 and results revealed that the changes were made with respect to motifs (100%), zari (63%) and yarn type (54%). Nearly half of the weavers (48%) modified the saree length i.e. 6.5 m into 6.25 m or 6.00 m. Relatively very few per cent of the weavers (14%), rarely made variations in reed count according to saree type.

Table 13. Saree specifications

Threads/inch Width of the Sl. No.

Type of saree Ends Picks

Length of saree (m) Body (inch) Border (inch)

Length of pallav (inch)

Total width of saree (inch)

Total weight of saree (g)

1 Brocade saree 96 65 6.50 33-37 4-6 20-30 45 1200-1500

2 Chiffon Jamdani saree

100 75 6.50 35-39 3-5 20-25 45 800-1000

3 Jamdani saree 100 75 6.50 39-41 2-3 10-20 45 800-1000

4 Jangla saree 120 85 6.50 37-41 3-4 15-25 45 800-1200

5 Kora cutwork saree

100 70 6.50 37-39 2-4 25-35 45 500-700

6 Resham buti saree

100 70 6.50 33-37 4-6 25-35 45 800-1000

7 Satin border saree

120 85 6.50 33-37 4-6 20-30 45 800-1200

8 Satin embossed saree

96 65 6.50 35-39 3-5 20-30 45 1000-1500

9 Tanchoi saree 120 85 6.50 37-39 2-4 20-40 45 800-1000

10 Tissue saree 96 65 6.50 37-39 2-4 20-35 45 800-1200

Plate 20. Brocade saree

Plate 21. Chiffon Jamdani saree

Plate 22. Jamdani saree

Plate 23. Jangla saree

Plate 24. Kora cutwork saree

Plate 25. Resham buti saree

Plate 26. Satin border saree

Plate 27. Satin embossed saree

Plate 28. Tanchoi saree

Plate 29. Tissue saree

4.8 PRODUCTION OF BANARAS SILK SAREES PER LOOM PER MONTH

The rate of production of different types of Banaras silk sarees is recorded in Table 15. On an average 10 to 15 days are required to weave a Brocade, Chiffon Jamdani, Jamdani and Tanchoi saree, subsequently 2 to 3 sarees are produced on a loom per month. Similarly Resham buti, Stain embossed and Tissue saree require 10-12 days to weave a saree and 3 sarees are produced on a loom per month. The rate of production of Kora cutwork and Satin border sarees are 3 to 4 on each loom per month, whereas only 1-2 Jangla sarees are produced on a loom per month because it requires 15 to 30 days to weave each saree.

4.9 MARKETING PRACTICES

The marketing aspect includes selling of silk sarees, frequency of selling and marketing channels for distribution of sarees.

4.9.1 Selling market for silk sarees

It is clear from the Table 16 that, nearly three forth of the weavers (74%) sell silk sarees in local market. Sixty eight per cent of the weavers sell their goods to government showrooms. On the contrary only 40 per cent of them supply their produce to other states. It is interesting to note that one tenth of the weavers (11%) export silk sarees to countries like United Kingdom, Canada, Malaysia, Mauritius, Singapore, and certain African countries.

4.9.2 Frequency of selling sarees

A perusal of Table 17 revealed that majority of the weavers (63%) sold the sarees monthly. About 50 per cent of them sold the products as and when necessary. Very few (6%) sold weekly.

4.9.3 Marketing channels for selling Banaras silk sarees

A glance at Table 18 revealed that majority of the weavers sold their products directly to master weavers (66%) and more than one forth of them (30%) to co-operative societies, twenty five per cent to consumer and rest 15 per cent to wholesale dealers.

4.10 ECONOMICS OF BANARAS SILK SAREE PRODUCTION

Table 19 records the economics of different types of Banaras silk saree production. The factors like raw material, wages for preparatory processes (degumming, dyeing, warping, beaming etc.) weaving and other expenses (12.5% of overhead expenses) as well as profit margin of weaver (10% margin) were taken into account while calculating the cost of production of Banaras silk sarees at weavers level.

The estimated cost of different silk sarees ranged from Rs.1700-3800/saree. The expenses on particular saree varied for different types of sarees. Looking into the total cost of the sarees, it is found that, cost of raw materials accounted to a greater extant as compared to other components of the cost. The wages for weaving each saree varied with intricacy and complexity of designs. The cost of Jangla saree is maximum as compared to other sarees i.e. Rs.3751/saree. This followed by Brocade saree (Rs.3447/saree). The Kora cutwork saree is the least expensive one (Rs.1735/saree) in cost of production among different types of sarees.

4.11 WEAVERS PROBLEMS

Table 20 focuses the various problems encountered by the weavers. Most of them expressed that problem related to supply of electricity (96%) and marketing of silk saree (94%) are the major ones. About 82 per cent weavers mentioned that, there were problems related to production (e.g. scarcity of raw materials, hike in price, cost fluctuation and transportation) of silk sarees. Nearly three forth of the wearers (76%) expressed the problem of low wages, whereas one third of them quoted health problems. Lack of incentives from Government is other problem quoted by few weavers (19%).

Table 14. Modifications and variations in traditional sarees

n=100

Sl. No. Changes made Percentage of respondents

1 Motifs 100

2 Zari 63

3 Yarn type 54

4 Saree length 48

5 Reed count 14

Note: Multiple responses possible

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Motifs Zari Yarn type Saree length Reed count

Fig. 5. Modifications and variations in traditional sarees

Changes made

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Fig. 5. Modifications and variations in traditional sarees

Table 15. Production of different types of Banaras silk sarees/loom/month

Sl. No. Types of sarees Number of days

required to weave a saree

Number of sarees produced per loom per

month

1 Brocade saree 10-15 2-3

2 Chiffon Jamdani saree 10-15 2-3

3 Jamdani saree 10-15 2-3

4 Jangla saree 15-30 1-2

5 Kora cutwork saree 7-10 3-4

6 Resham buti saree 10-12 3

7 Satin border saree 7-10 3-4

8 Satin embossed saree 10-12 3

9 Tanchoi saree 10-15 2-3

10 Tissue saree 10-12 3

Table 16. Selling market for Banaras silk sarees

n=100

Sl. No. Selling market Percentage of respondents

1 Local market 74

2 Showrooms 68

3 Outside state 40

4 Export 11

Note: Multiple responses possible

Table 17. Frequency of selling sarees

n=100

Sl. No. Frequency of selling Percentage of respondents

1 Monthly 63

2 As and when necessary 52

3 Weekly 6

Note: Multiple responses possible Table 18. Marketing channels for selling Banaras silk sarees

n=100

Sl. No. Marketing channels Percentage of respondents

1 Master weavers 66

2 Co-operative societies 30

3 Direct selling 25

4 Wholesalers 15

Note: Multiple responses possible

Table 19. Economics of Banaras silk sarees production

(Rs./saree)

Types of sarees

Sl. No.

Particulars Brocade saree

Chiffon Jamdani

saree

Jamdani saree

Jangla saree

Kora cutwork saree

Resham buti

saree

Satin border saree

Satin embossed

saree

Tanchoi saree

Tissue saree

I. Variables

a. Raw material

Silk 1170 1050 1620 1260 630 1080 1350 1350 1620 990

Zari 520 120 - 400 - 320 160 360 - 400

Cotton - - - - 140 - - - - -

b. Preparatory process 195 209 231 201 212 187 209 209 231 180

c. Weaving charges 900 650 800 1170 420 600 420 700 700 700

Total 2785 2029 2651 3031 1402 2187 2139 2619 2551 2270

II. Other expenses

(12.5% of total overhead expenses)

348.13 253.63 331.38 378.88 175.25 273.38 267.38 327.37 318.88 283.75

III. Total production cost 3133.13 2282.63 2982.38 3409.38 1577.25 2460.38 2406.38 2946.38 2869.88 2553.75

IV Profit (10% margin) 313.31 228.26 298.24 340.99 157.73 246.04 240.64 294.64 296.44 255.38

V. Sale price of the weaver 3447 2511 3281 3751 1735 2707 2647 3241 3157 2809

Table 20. Distribution of the weavers based on the problems

n=100

Sl. No. Problems Percentage of weavers

1 Electricity 96

2 Marketing 94

3 Production 82

4 Low wages 76

5 Health 30

6 Incentives from government 19

Note: Multiple responses possible

5. DISCUSSION

The results of the study is discussed under the following headings

5.1 Demographic information

5.2 Raw materials

5.3 Motifs used in Banaras silk sarees

5.4 Dyes used

5.5 Saree specifications

5.6 Production of Banaras silk sarees

5.7 Marketing practices

5.8 Economics of Banaras silk sarees production

5.9 Weavers problem

5.1 DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

In the present study the demographic information encompassed age, education, religion, family type, family size, annual income of the weavers and reason for selecting weaving as their profession are dealt in detail.

5.1.1 Age

Table 1(a) depicted that most of the weavers (82%) belonged to middle age group (36-55 years) followed by younger group (11%, below 36 yrs) and old age (7%, above 55 yrs). This may be due to the fact that the younger generation in the weavers’ community preferred to take-up employment other than handloom weaving after their higher education. On the other hand involvement of older people was less conspicuous because of their physical health, strength and visual problems. Thus, silk weaving was mainly occupied by middle age people.

Further these findings are supportive to the findings of Mamatha (1997) and Sanapapamma (2000), where majority of the weavers belonged to middle adulthood 41-60 years and 36-55 years respectively. From the report of Ministry of Textiles (2005), Varanasi, it was found that most of the Banaras weavers fell in the age group of 18-45 yrs; the productivity is maximum in this age group due to their physical energy.

5.1.2 Education

The perusal of Table 1(b) revealed that about 1/5 of the weavers each were illiterate and educated up to secondary level of education, whereas 18 per cent up to middle school. This may be due to the family constraints, ignorance about importance of education and career, lack of encouragement and support from the family members and financial problems. It was evident during data collection that the elders imposed the children to take up weaving as employment because it was inherited. However, Mamatha (1997) found that more than 50 per cent of the weavers were illiterate and 41.5 per cent of them were educated up to SSLC. Sanapapamma and Mahale (2001) in the study mentioned that 1/5 of the weavers (27.70%) in Molakalmuru were illiterates.

5.1.3 Religion

A glance, at Table 1(c) revealed that among the weavers community, most of them (73%) belonged to Muslim community and rest (27%) were Hindus. This might be due to the reason that greater per cent of Muslims in Banaras were involved in hand weaving from generation to generation compared to Hindus. These results are in par the results of Zahir (1966) and Ahiwasi (1975) who stated that mainly Muslims were involved in Banaras silk saree weaving. Ministry of Textiles found in the diagnostic study (2005) that 90 per cent of the weavers in Banaras are Muslims.

5.1.4 Locality/dwelling area

In general, three-fourth of weavers family were residing in city, whereas one fourth in the villages (Table 1(d)). The main reasons encountered may be availability of resources, market and transportation facilities. Further, these findings are similar to the findings of Ministry of Textiles (2005), which records that about 70 per cent of the weavers in Banaras districts are living in city areas. Hence, the hypothesis set for the study that ‘Handloom silk saree weavers are concentrated in the villages’ is refuted.

5.1.5 Type of family

It was apparent from the Table 1(e) that more than 50 per cent of the weavers had joint family system and remaining (42%) had nuclear family system. The reason may be that, majority of the weavers being Muslims and as customary lived in joint family. Further, Babel (2007) mentioned that most of the durry weavers in Rajasthan had joint family system.

5.1.6 Size of the family

It is noticed from the Table 1(f) that about three fourth of the weavers (74%) had medium family size followed by large family (15%). However, most of the weavers belonged to medium size joint family. The reason for having medium size joint family was that, the support they get from all the family members in one or the other job work, in weaving, skill task and moreover elderly who constantly give moral support to the younger members.

5.1.7 Annual family income

Based on the total annual family income, the weavers were classified into three income groups viz., low, middle and high (table 1(g)). Majority of them (58%) in Banaras district belonged to middle income group with an annual income of Rs.21,400-Rs.44,652/- followed by low income group (23%), with annual income less than Rs.21,400/-.

This may be due to the reason that the wages were very low and many times there is set back for the handloom silk sarees because of the flow of variety of power loom sarees in the market; lack of demand and fashion, that inturn affected the socio-economic condition of the weavers.

However, the findings are partially similar with the findings of Sanapapamma (2000). The author mentioned that, in Molakalmuru, nearly half of the weavers belonged to middle income group (45.83%) with an annual income of Rs.19,970-38,912/- followed by high income group (27.57% and > Rs.38,912/-).

Therefore, the independent variables namely age education, type of family, family size and annual family income of the weavers do not influenced the types of silk sarees produced in Banaras, but the socio-economic condition of the weaver affect the production rate and types of sarees. Hence the hypothesis set for the study that ‘Types of Banaras silk sarees and the rate of production are depend on socio-economic conditions of weavers is accepted.

5.1.8 Selection of profession

It was found that weaving is the skill that was mainly inherited but there were some reason due to which people did select weaving as profession. Maximum number of the weavers (81%) inherited weaving from their forefathers. The main reason is to preserve and protect their age old tradition alive (Table 1(h)). These finding are similar to the study conducted by Agrawal (1999), many people in Banaras were engaged in silk saree weaving because it was their forefather occupation. Sanapapamma (2000) also reported that 85 per cent of the weavers in Molakalmuru continued weaving profession, mainly because it was inherited.

5.1.9 Category of weavers

Table 1(i) gave information about category of silk saree weavers in Banaras district. Nearly three-fourth of the weavers were wage weavers, among them 45 per cent were working with master weavers and 31 per cent in co-operative societies. In other words, Banaras was predominated with wage weavers; this may be due to their weak financial

situation. The results are in line with the results of diagnostic study of Varanasi (2005) by Ministry of Textile, where 95 per cent of weavers in Banaras were wage weavers.

5.2 RAW MATERIAL

Raw material is the most important factor that influences production of the any product. It is learnt from Table 2 that the basic raw material used in all the silk saree was silk and zari, however, a slight variation existed in the requirement per saree, procurement, frequency of purchase, mode of payment and purchasing problems.

5.2.1 Raw material requirement per silk saree

Each silk saree was unique in its own style and thus differs from each other not only because of the amount of raw material used but also the weave details. Bangalore silk (mulberry silk) yarn of denier 16/18 was commonly used in all the sarees. The Chinese silk, without degumming was directly used in Kora cutwork and Chiffon Jamdani sarees (Table 3).

Majority of the sarees were woven with silk both as warp and weft with extra weft figuring using zari. Bangalore silk i.e. mulberry silk is cultivated, quality silk with rich look and appearance thus used for silk products. Chinese silk without degumming gave raw look, crispness needed for cutwork sarees and inturn reduced the cost of production. It may be stated that the raw materials namely silk, zari and cotton have greatly influenced the varieties of silk sarees presently produced in Banaras.

5.2.2 Procurement of raw materials

Results in the Table 4 depicted that half of the weavers (46%) procured raw material from local dealers followed by master weavers and co-operative societies. This may be due to the fact that it was convenient for the weavers to purchase the raw materials from local dealers interms of time, energy and money saving and reduced the risk of stock accumulation.

5.2.3 Mode of payment

Table 5 revealed that 50 per cent of the weavers purchased raw materials i.e. silk and zari on credit followed by both cash and credit (35%), whereas very few purchased on cash payment. Factors like the socio-economic status of the weavers might have influenced the mode of payment.

5.2.4 Frequency of purchasing the raw materials

Table 6 reflected the frequency of purchasing the raw materials. About one third of the weavers purchased silk monthly (33%) & zari fortnightly (34%0 followed by silk bimonthly (29%) & zari as and when necessary. This may be primarily due to the reason that raw materials are purchased based on the number of looms owned by the weavers, quantity of order received from the wholesalers and rate of production of the sarees.

5.2.5 Problem faced while procuring the raw materials

From Table 7, it is learnt that majority of the weavers always faced the problem of hike in the price of zari (63%) followed by scarcity (46%) of both silk and zari. Sometimes weavers did face the problem of delay in transport of silk (66%) and zari (57%). The reasons for the prevailing problems are mainly the price fluctuation, inferior quality of silk in rainy season, untimely supply and scarcity of zari.

5.3 MOTIFS USED IN BANARAS SILK SAREES

This aspect includes out sourcing the designs and factors considered while designing the motifs.

5.3.1 Outsourcing the motifs

Table 9 depicted that nearly three forth of the weavers (72%) availed the design from professional designers followed by master weavers (55%).

Designs are the backbone of silk weaving industry as the consumers generally view the designs first and then care for other features of the saree. A variety of eye-catching

designs would certainly attract the customers forever and professional designers are expert in creating new designs every now and then according to demand. Thus the weavers mainly depend on professional designers for designs. The designer’s role is to keep abreast with the latest trend, predict the fashion with his intuitive ideas and experience. However, Sanapapamma (2000) mentioned that in Malakalmuru nearly three fourth of the weavers (74.16%) took designs from professional weavers. Designers play a vital role in the promotion of Dharmavaram sarees with their craftsmanship as mentioned by Kumar and Nerli (2001).

5.3.2 Factors considered while designing the motifs

It is observed from Table 10 that three forth of the weavers (75%) considered consumers demand while designing the motifs followed by fashion trend (64%). The reason may be that weavers make sarees according to the consumer choice, taste, demand and prevailing fashion trend.

5.4 DYES USED

From Table 12 it is learnt that greater per cent of the weavers (94%) dyed silk with acid dyes. This might be due to reason that, acid dyes have good affinity for silk and exhibit good colourfastness to light and wash as compared to other dyes. Gahlot et al. (2005) revealed that, in the dyeing units of Varanasi, 82 per cent used acid dyes for silk because of colourfastness and easy to use property. Chakraborty et al. (2005) stated that acid dye posses better affinity for silk and thus exhibit good absorption.

Hence, the hypothesis that ‘The coloures and motifs used in Banaras silk sarees are highly conventional’ is rejected.

5.5 SAREE SPECIFICATIONS

This aspect includes changes brought about in the sarees.

5.5.1 Modification in the sarees

It is apparent from Table 14 that cent per cent of the weavers changed the style of motifs, type of zari (63%) and yarn type (54%) with passage of time. This might be due to the reason that the change/modification was made according to market demand, fashion trends and consumers choice. Majority of them preferred tested zari, powder zari and plastic zari because of low cost, quick outsourcing and easy care and maintenance. Type of yarn was changed from silk to viscose yarn as warp and was definitely to reduce the cost of Banaras silk sarees, in order to make them available for the low and medium income groups. Thus the hypothesis of the study that ‘The prevailing technologies of Banaras silk sarees are highly traditional’ is disproved.

5.6 PRODUCTION OF BANARAS SILK SAREES PER LOOM PER MONTH

A glance at Table 15 revealed that rate of production of Kora cutwork and Satin border sarees was greater among all the sarees i.e. 3 to 4 sarees per loom per month; whereas Jangla saree was lowest i.e. 1-2 sarees per loom per month. The rate of production of saree was directly related to number of days taken to produce each saree. In other words Jangla saree was highly intricate with allover jal patterns which, needed lots of artistic skills and thus was elaborate and time consuming; whereas Kora cutwork and Satin border sarees were woven with less patterns, having plain ground, very simple to weave and ofcourse less time consuming.

5.7 MARKETING PRACTICES

This aspect includes market for selling silk sarees, frequency of selling and marketing channels used for selling silk sarees.

5.7.1 Selling market for silk sarees

Table 16 depicted that nearly three forth of the weavers (74%) sold their silk sarees in local market and 68 per cent of them in showrooms. About 40 per cent of them supplied silk sarees to wholesalers of outside state and one tenth of them exported to other countries. This

may be due to the reason that demand for Banaras silk saree is much higher in local markets, showrooms and outside the state as compared to export because, this saree is always considered as a wedding sari, being rich and gorgeous thus, draped during auspicious occasions. However, there are few Indians in other countries who have shown inclination for Banaras silk sarees. Hence the export constituted only 11 per cent.

5.7.2 Frequency of selling sarees

Table 17 indicated that majority of the weavers sold their goods monthly (63%). The lack of storage facilities as well as immediate cash needs of weavers for selling higher proportion of sarees, immediately affect the production of weavers and moreover they were producing 2 to 4 saree per loom per month. Nearly half of the weavers (52%) sold the silk sarees as and when necessary i.e. hike in the demand during marriage and festivals.

5.7.3 Marketing channels for selling Banaras silk sarees

It is obvious from the Table 18 that majority of the weavers sold their produce directly to the master weavers (65%) followed by co-operative societies (30%). This may be due to the fact that most of the weavers are wage weavers, working with master weavers and in co-operative societies, thus as a mandate the wage weavers handover their goods to respective owners. Sometimes because of want of money the wage weavers were compelled to sell their products to master weavers and co-operative societies.

5.8 ECONOMICS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF BANARAS SILK SAREES

The cost of the hand-woven pure silk sarees depended on the quantity of raw materials, type of zari used and intricacy of design. Table 19 reported that Jangla saree was the most expensive rated with Rs.3751/- among 10 types of sarees, followed by Brocade saree, Rs.3447/-. The Kora cutwork saree was relatively less expensive among all Banaras silk sarees costing Rs.1735/-.

This might be due to the reason that, the raw material requirement per saree is more for Jangla and Brocade sarees. The other main reasons quoted could be the intricacy of designs, which prolonged the days of pre-loom as well as loom process that inturn enhanced the wages for weaving. On the other hand raw material requirement for Kora cutwork saree was relatively less, simple in construction and rate of production is faster. Use of cotton in place of zari for extra weft designs is another factor, which made Kora cutwork saree inexpensive among all. The estimated price of Banaras silk sarees ranged from Rs.1700-3800/saree depending on the type of sarees, complexity of designs, quantity of raw material and type of zari used. However, intricacy of design and type of zari are the major features, which affected the price of Banaras silk sarees. Hence the hypothesis set for the study that ‘Weaving Banaras silk saree is profitable’ is rejected.

5.9 WEAVERS PROBLEMS

Table 20 narrated the various problems faced by the weavers. Inadequate supply of electricity (96%) and marketing of silk saree (94%) were the two major problems faced by the most of the weavers. Apart from these, production related problems were also stated by 82 per cent weavers. The main reasons quoted were lack of advertisement, improper marketing channels, cost fluctuation, seasonal marketing and hike in transportation cost.

However, Ministry of Textile (2005), Varanasi, reported that the power supply at Varanasi is erratic which affected the working capacity of weavers as well as production processes. Babel et al. (2006) mentioned that weavers in Rajasthan were facing financial and marketing problems. On the other hand Kumar et al. (2001), Shilakshmi and Padma (2002) found that carpet weavers were facing problems in procurement of raw material, production, financial and marketing aspects.

6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The present study entitled ‘A profile of Banaras silk sarees’ was conducted with a view to study the historical background of Banaras silk sarees, to enumerate the existing weaving technology, to assess the economic feasibility of different types of silk sarees and to study the socio-economic status of these weavers.

The study has been carried out during the year 2007-08 in Banaras district of Uttar Pradesh. Totally 100 weavers from Banaras city and near villages were interviewed using a self structured questionnaire by personal interview method, to collect the historical background, demographics of silk saree weavers and other related informations. The data was statistically analyzed by using frequency tables, percentages and standard normal deviate test.

The results of the present study were summarized as follows:

History of handloom weaving in Banaras

� Traditionally, the brocade fabrics and silk sarees were woven on the throw-shuttle pit looms.

� The throw-shuttle pit looms with Jala or Naksha were used in Banaras for brocade weaving during 990 AD.

� The jacquard attachment for waving of elaborate intricate designs on silk sarees and brocade fabrics was introduced in the early 1930s.

Demographics of weavers

� Majority of weavers belonged to middle age group and nearly each one fifth of the weavers were illiterate and educated upto secondary level.

� Most of the weavers were Muslims who resided in city.

� With medium family size, majority of the weavers had joint family norms.

� More than fifty per cent of the weavers belonged to middle family income group with the total annual income between Rs. 21400 to Rs. 44652/-.

� Majority of the weavers inherited weaving from their forefathers and thus continued the profession.

� Most of the weavers were wage weavers, working either with master weaver or in cooperative societies.

Raw materials

� Banaras silk sarees were composed of silk and zari except in Kora cutwork sarees where cotton was used for extra weft designs.

� Bangalore (Mulberry) silk of denier 16/18 and 3700 number zari were mainly used in silk sarees.

� Among raw materials, silk was purchased from Bangalore, Malda and China, once in a month on credits by majority of the weavers. On the other hand most of the weavers purchased zari from Surat and Banaras fortnightly on credits.

� Weavers sometime faced problem of transportation, high price, inferior quality and untimely supply of silk.

� High price, untimely supply and scarcity of zari were the main problems faced by most of the weavers.

Silk saree specifications

� Butis, buttas, Kalgha motifs, Turanj, bels, geometrical designs, floral & animal motifs, Charkhana, Doriya, Khanjari, Salaidar, Mothra and Jal were the common patterns produced in Banaras silk sarees.

� Most of the weavers outsourced the designs from professional designers and master weavers.

� Majority of the weavers designed the motifs according to demand and fashion.

� Popular colour combinations were red, maroon, rani pink, magenta, orange, yellow, parrot green, olive green, blue, skyblue, purple, grey and brown.

� More than ninety per cent of the weavers used acid dyes to dye silk yarns.

� Banaras silk saree along with the blouse piece measured 6.5 m with total width 45 inches and weight of each saree ranged from lightest 500 g to heaviest 1500 g. The length of pallav ranged from minimum 10 to maximum 40 inches and border 2 to 6 inches.

� Almost all weavers incorporated changes in motifs and more than half of them changed types of zari and yarn used in traditional silk sarees.

Production and marketing of silk sarees

� On an average 1 to 4 saree were produced on each loom per month.

� Approximately 10 to 15 days were required for weaving of each saree.

� Nearly three forth of the weavers sold the sarees in local markets, monthly or when in demand.

� Most of the weavers sold their produce directly to master weavers.

� Selling price of Banaras silk sarees ranged from Rs.1700-3800/-, depending on the intricacy of the design and rate of production.

Weavers’ problem

� Inadequate supply of electricity, marketing of silk sarees, low production rate as well as low wages were the main problems faced by the weavers in Banaras.

The cost of production of Banaras silk saree is very high therefore there is a need to reduce the production cost by CAD application and digitization of motifs. The CAD software would reduce the time, labour and wages that would have spent on manual designing. Further, mechanization of pre loom processes like warping, pirn winding would not only hasten the production but also minimise the cost of production to a greater extent.

Implications and Recommendations

The present study gives a clear picture of the historical background, prevailing weaving techniques, merchandising practices and economic viability of different silk sarees. Irrespective of socio-economic status, the problems faced by all weavers were more or less similar. Poor marketing facility and power supply in city were the major problems faced by the weavers. Measures should be taken to provide rebate on handloom products, eliminate middlemen and improve market facilities for handloom products by creating handloom parks. There is a necessity to publicize Banaras silk sarees through advertisement, exhibition, fairs, and showcasing the variegated sarees in cooperatives, allied institutions and showrooms. It is very essential to provide raw materials at reasonable price, special training to improve existing weaving technology, knowledge about scientific and low cost techniques of weaving, dyeing and finishing, financial assistance and other necessary inputs. The handloom weaving sector has to be centralized to enhance the production rate and marketing of silk sarees.

Suggestions for further study

1. Scenario of socio-economic status of the handloom weavers.

2. Demand and supply of silk produce at National or International market.

3. Study on the traditional and contemporary silk, cotton and woolen textiles of India.

4. Revival of traditional Banaras motifs through digitization.

5. Documentation of traditional motifs of Indian handloom silk sarees.

6. Comparative study on handloom and power loom silk sarees.

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http://www.varanasisarees.com/sareeinfo.aspx

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APPENDIX-I

SCHEDULE

I. Demographic information 1. Name of the respondent : 2. Age : 3. Education : 4. Religion : 5. Postal address : 6. Family type : 7. Family composition :

Sl. No.

Name Relationship with respondent

Age Education Occupation Annual income

8. Family annual income : 9. How did you choose this profession? a. Inherited d. Interest b. Job opportunity e. Training c. Migration f. Any other 10. To which category do you belong? a. Independent weaver c. Working with master weaver b. Master weaver d. Working in co-operative societies II. Specific information 11. Historical background of Banaras sarees : 12. Information on existing looms

Type of loom Dimension No. of looms Year of install

Cost/loom Repair charges

13. Weaving technology (pre-loom, looming and post-loom process) 14. Raw materials used A. Yarn information

Yarn type Yarn count Amount of silk

Cost of silk yarn/kg (Rs.)

Sl. No.

Sarees type

Warp way

Weft way

Warp way

Weft way

Warp way

Weft way

Warp way

Weft way

Place of purchase

B. Zari information

Sl. No.

Sarees type Type of zari

Zari number

Amount of zari

Cost of zari Rs.

Place of purchase

15. Procurement of raw material and mode of payment Source of Raw

material Master weaver

Local dealer

Co-operative societies

Other (specify)

Cash Credit Both cash & credit

Silk

Zari

16. How often do you purchase the raw material ? Sl. No. Frequency of purchase Silk Zari

1 Weekly

2 Fortnightly

3 Monthly

4 Bimonthly

5 Quarterly

6 Half yearly

7 Yearly

8 As and when necessary

17. Problem faced while purchasing the raw material

Silk Zari Sl. No.

Problems faced

A S N A S N

1 Untimely supply

2 Scarcity

3 High price

4 Disparity in counts

5 Inferior quality

6 Transportation

18. Colour and colour combination

Colour combinations Sl. No.

Sarees type

Body Border Pallu

19. Motifs used

Motifs employed Sl. No.

Sarees type

Body Border Pallu

20. From where did you get the designs/motifs? a. Master weaver d. Elderly people b. Professional designers e. Self created c. Co-operative societies f. Any other 21. Factors influencing designing the motifs a. Fashion d. Demand b. Cost of production e. Ease of weaving c. Order f. Any other 22. Do you dye the yarn? Yes/No, If Yes Which type of dye do you use?

a. Acid dyes d. Napthol dyes g. Metal-complex dyes b. Basic dyes e. Reactive dyes c. Direct dyes f. Natural dyes C. Fabric information

Threads /inch

Width of the Sl. No.

Sarees type

Ends Picks

Length of

sarees (m)

Body (inches)

Border (inches)

Length of

pallav (inches)

Total width

(inches)

Total weight

(g)

Production rate/loom/

month

23. Have you made any changes in the sarees a. Yarn type d. Motifs b. Reed count e. Saree length c. Zari 24. Which market you select for your products ? a. Local market d. Outside state b. Show rooms e. Export 25. How often do you sell your sarees?

a. Weekly b. Monthly c. As and when

26. Marketing channels for distribution of products. a. Direct selling c. Master weavers b. Wholesalers d. Cooperative societies

27. Cost and returns of different type of sarees. (Rs./Sari)

Sl. No. Particular Sarees type

I. Variables

a. Raw material

Silk

Zari

Cotton

b. Preparatory process

c. Weaving charges

II. Other expenses

III. Total production cost

IV Profit

V. Sale price of the weaver

28. What are the problem do you face ?

A PROFILE OF BANARAS SILK SAREES

AMRITA SINGH 2008 Dr. SHAILAJA D. NAIK

MAJOR ADVISOR

ABSTRACT

The present study on ‘A profile of Banaras silk sarees’ was conducted during 2006-

08. In total 100 weavers were personally interviewed to collect information on historical background, prevailing weaving techniques, economic viability of various silk sarees and socio-economic status of weavers dwelling in Banaras city and three villages viz. Cholapur, Lohta, and Phulpur. Some where during 990 AD the brocades were woven on throw-shuttle pit looms with Jala and Naksha attachments. By 1930s elaborate and intricate designs were produced with Jacquard technique. Earlier, Hindus were the handloom weavers and then became traders after teaching brocade weaving to migrant Muslims. Thus, majority of the weavers are Muslims where this occupation is inherited. Most of them are wage weavers having joint family system with 4-6 members and belong to middle income group. The basic raw materials are silk and zari purchased from Bangalore, Malda, China or local dealers on credit. The variegated sarees weighed from 500g to 1500g beautified with animal, floral, geometrical, paisley, buttas and butis. The most popular sarees woven are Brocade, Chiffon Jamdani, Jamdani, Jangla, Kora cut work, Resham buti, Satin border, Satin embossed, Tanchoi and Tissue, whose cost ranged from Rs. 1700 to Rs. 3800/- depending on the intricacy. On an average 1-4 sarees were produced on each loom per month. Some of the problems faced by the weavers were power supply, hike in price, inferior quality, untimely supply and scarcity of raw material, transportation, marketing and low wages.