a framework for understanding pre-practice conditions and their impact on learning

PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY 1998.51

A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING

ON LEARNING PRE-PRACTICE CONDITIONS AND THEIR IMPACT

JANIS A. CANNON-BOWERS Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division

LORI RHODENIZER University of Central Florida

EDUARDO SALAS Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division

CLINT A. BOWERS University of Central Florida

The purpose of this paper is to describe a framework for delineating those conditions that might affect the utility and effectiveness of practice in training. The framework includes factors that occur prior to, during, and after practice. Pre-practice conditions, such as attentional advice, advance organizers, goal orientation, and pre-training briefs, are designed to make the time spent in practice more efficient and useful. This paper first reviews the existing literature concerning the pre-practice conditions that have been identified. Next, a description of the underlying mechanisms for each pre-practice condition is suggested, and a set of propositions regarding these conditions is offered. Finally, past findings are summarized regarding pre-practice conditions and provide an agenda for future research.

For years, the adage “practice makes perfect” has been accepted as a universal principle of learning. Taken at face value, the sentiment seems to suggest several conclusions: First, that all practice is equivalent in leading to skill acquisition; second, that all practice is effective as a mechanism to accomplish learning; and third, that enough practice (alone) will lead to effective performance. Clearly, research data have been gathered to support these rather intuitive assumptions (e.g., Carl- son, Sullivan, & Schneider, 1989; Crossman, 1959). However, recent research is beginning to suggest that practice might be a more complex

A portion of this article was presented at the 11th Annual Conference of the Society

We thank John Mathieu for his insightful comments on an earlier version of this article. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the

organizations with which they are affiliated. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Janis A. Cannon-

Bowers, Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division, Code 4961,12350 Research Parkway, Orlando, Florida 32826-3224.

for Industrial and Organizational Psychologists, San Diego, California, April 1996.

COPYRIGHT 0 1998 PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY, INC.

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phenomenon than originally thought (Schmidt & Bjork, 1992). It is now reasonable to conclude that simple task repetition may have limited utility compared with more elaborate training interventions. Therefore, it is essential that we begin to understand more fully the nature of practice as a training strategy that optimizes learning and transfer. This is particularly true because training resources are scarce in many organizations and hence must be administered judiciously.

The purpose of this paper is to describe a framework for delineating those conditions that might affect the utility and effectiveness of practice in training. To do this, we first define the term “practice” and then introduce a framework for conceptualizing how conditions of practice (including those that occur before, during, and after practice) affect learning. Although factors that occur during and after practice are in- troduced, this paper will concentrate only on those factors that occur before practice and then review the associated research findings. Following this, we offer a series of propositions concerning the pre-practice conditions. Finally, we offer recommendations for employing pre-practice conditions and present an agenda for future research.

A Framework for Conceptualizing Practice

For the purpose of this paper, “practice” refers to the physical or mental rehearsal of a task (or skill or knowledge) undertaken with the implicit or explicit goal of achieving some level of proficiency in performing that task (or skill, or demonstrating the knowledge). Newel1 and Rosenbloom (1981) maintain that practice is “simply a variant term for talking about learning skills through the repetition of their performance” (p. 1). Practice is not necessarily synonymous with learning; instead, practice can facilitate learning. Hence, we propose that there is utility in examining strategies that can be employed in practice environments that will optimize learning, transfer, and retention.

In conceptualizing the conditions of practice, we distinguish between factors that occur before, during, and after the practice session. This approach is consistent with past work that suggests training effectiveness is a function of pre-, during, and post-training conditions (e.g., see Tan- nenbaum, Cannon-Bowers, Salas, & Mathieu, 1993). Table 1 displays the conditions of practice framework. The pre-practice conditions are presented in the left column. These are interventions that can be applied prior to a practice session that we believe can improve the effectiveness of practice. The middle column displays during-practice conditions, which are interventions or strategies for applying practice regimes that have been shown to affect subsequent learning and transfer (e.g., see Baddeley, 1990; Cannon-Bowers, Salas, & Converse, 1993; Corbett

JANIS A. CANNON-BOWERS ET AL. 293

TABLE 1 Framework for Conceptualizing Conditions of Practice

Pre-practice conditions Practice conditions Post-practice conditions

Attentional advice Random vs. blocked practice Timing of feedback Metacognitive strategies Massed vs. spaced practice Quantity of feedback Advance organizers Simulatiodtask fidelity Cognitivelprocess feedback Goal orientation Learner-driven practice Knowledge of results Preparatory information Deficiency-based practice Pre-practice briefs Guidedkued practice

Event-based exercises Team self-correction

& Anderson, 1992; Goforth, 1994; Jacobs & Dempsey, 1993; Magill & Hall, 1991). The final column shows post-practice conditions, which are those interventions that can be done after practice to enhance learning.

Due to the size of the literature, we concentrate on pre-practice conditions in this article. We chose this focus because these interventions (a) have been shown to improve learning and performance, (b) are relatively simple, inexpensive interventions that can be applied to a variety of training programs, and (c) have not received much attention, particularly as they apply to adult learning situations. In addition, the pre- practice conditions we revealed are all heavily related to cognition-that is, they seem to be applicable to tasks with a high cognitive load. Given the renewed interest in cognition (see Kraiger, Ford, & Salas, 1993), the investigation of these factors seems timely. Finally, training psychologists have largely overlooked pre-practice conditions.

Pre-Practice Conditions

Anumber of factors can come into play before a practice session that can affect its utility. These factors prepare trainees for receiving and utilizing incoming information. Pre-practice conditions are designed to make the time spent in practice more efficient and effective. The implied or assumed consequences are that trainees may need less practice to achieve stated performance criteria and that trainees will be better able to transfer newly learned skills to the operational environment. The pre- practice conditions that have been identified include attentional advice, metacognitive strategies, advance organizers (also sometimes referred to as orienting activities), goal orientation, preparatory information, and pre-training briefs.

Before proceeding with the review of each of the pre-practice conditions, it should be mentioned that we focus only on empirical studies involving adult populations, but in cases where little literature of this

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nature existed, investigations employing children or learning disabled individuals as participants were considered. We have clearly specified where this is the case and noted caution because results from such investigations may not be completely generalizable to adult populations in organizational settings.

Attentiona 1 Advice

Attentional advice helps trainees to direct attention toward particular factors in the practice environment and has been shown to be effective in improving the utility and transfer of practice (Lung & Dominowski, 1985; Phye, 1989,1991; Phye & Sanders, 1994). Attentional advice is op- erationally defined as providing information, independent ofperformance content, about theprocess or strategy that can be used to achieve an optimal learning outcome during training. Attentional advice provides a founda- tion for the creation of a general schema or mental model that can apply across a variety of instances of similar task types (Phye, 1989). It then helps to “prime” existing knowledge and guide the trainee’s practice so as to optimize the time spent during practice by aiding in the development of effective performance strategies and helping the trainee to better apply pertinent knowledge. Practice specifically geared toward the application of knowledge (vs. the memorization of knowledge) helps develop skills that better generalize to performance in novel situations. Therefore, it has been suggested that information that is not performance content contingent (i.e., information that is independent of the particular material being trained) may enhance transfer to a novel situation (Phye, 1989).

An example of providing attentional advice in training in an industrial setting may serve to demonstrate the potential utility of providing trainees with this information. Consider an organizational setting in which the goal is to train customer service representatives how to quickly handle a variety of incoming calls. In such a case, attentional advice could be used to alert trainees to the different types of calls they will encounter, how to recognize such calls, and advice regarding strategies to be employed in completing the call. Such information imparts general task strategies ( e g , how to question callers to better determine their problem) that can help trainees to better perform the task. In addition, what is learned in practice should generalize to new situations because the general strategies can apply broadly to an entire class of task problems.

It is also noteworthy that attentional advice plays a bigger role in the transfer of skills than on skill acquisition using cognitive tasks, such problem solving (Phye, 1989,1991; Phye & Sanders, 1994). In research


conducted by Phye and his colleagues, in the presence of advice, performance was significantly better on the first trial than in the absence of advice. However, this result may be due to the experimental design in which advice was only administered once, prior to the first trial. Ad- vice in the form of general strategies prior to practice appears to provide trainees with information concerning problem identification (Phye, 1989). By having a pre-existing general schema (i.e., problem-solving strategy), the trainee is able to map a new problem onto the existing strategy. During practice, feedback can be used in conjunction with advice to build even more accurate strategies.

The use of attentional advice with feedback can have a forcible impact on trainee performance. A series of studies conducted by Phye and his colleagues has compared the use of advice versus feedback to enhance training. For instance, Phye and Sanders (1994) found that attentional advice used in conjunction with outcome feedback (i.e., knowledge of having the correct or incorrect answer) led to results equivalent to trainees who received corrective as well as outcome feedback on a problem-solving task. This result suggests that attentional advice could be used to enhance learning in contexts in which only outcome feedback can be provided to trainees, such as some computer-based training. Essentially, attentional advice may be able to compensate for the lack of corrective feedback in some cases. Generally, these authors have found that advice with feedback is superior for transfer than advice alone, which was superior to feedback alone.

There is also evidence that providing advice even in the absence of practice still enhances problem-solving performance. Lung and Domi- nowski (1985) investigated providing trainees with a strategy for solving a class of simple problem-solving tasks prior to practice-compared to providing this strategy alone. They found that the strategy in addition to the practice increased the probability of solving a more complex task of the same type (transfer problem). These authors concluded that the practice was necessary in order to gain “procedural understanding of the strategy that enabled them to use it more effectively” (p. 811).

Implications for learning. Overall, attentional advice, which can be administered relatively easily and economically, shows promise in enhancing the benefits of practice. By focusing the trainees’ attention on the general task strategies necessary to perform, attentional advice may help trainees to generalize their knowledge more easily to novel situations, hence making practice sessions more effective and efficient. Moreover, attentional advice promotes a type of learning that enhances transfer to the actual task because trainees learn general strategies and rules that apply across a variety of job situations.


Metacognitive Strategies

Rather than providing trainees with attentional advice that contains task-related strategies, it may be important to provide advice about self- regulatory strategies. This related concept, which has received some attention of late, is called metacognition. Metacognition refers to a self- regulatoy mechanism that helps people to guide their own pet$ormance in complex domains (see Cohen, Freeman, & Wolf, 1996). It involves the conscious process of assessing and adjusting one’s progress and strategy in problem solving. In a training context, a metacognitive strategy could be trained prior to practice to help trainees direct their attention toward their own learning process, and emphasize material that they have not yet mastered during practice sessions.

An example of how a metacognitive strategy could be applied might be in training a sales team on the details of a new project or product line. If the product is complex (e.g., an insurance policy or a software package), it might be useful to ask trainees to pose questions to themselves during practice such as: “Why am I choosing this action”? or “Do I fully understand the interrelationship among elements of this material”? Al- ternatively, trainees could be instructed to query themselves regarding the next step in task performance. Both of these examples are designed to illustrate that trainees can use self-regulation to assess and adjust their own state of learning during practice.

An abundance of research endorses the use of metacognitive strategies to aid children in the development of cognition and learning in the classroom. Paris and Winograd (1990) outline five reasons why metacognition has aided children in learning that can also apply to adult training and practice environments. First, metacognition emphasizes self- monitoring of one’s cognitive functions, which assists learners in becom- ing active in their education instead of being passive recipients of instruction. In other words, it promotes active practice or rehearsal. Second, it is sensitive to individual differences in cognitive development and learning. That is, people begin to monitor their own behaviors, self-diagnose weaknesses and consequently, individualize instruction by concentrating their efforts in areas where they believe they need further instruction. Third, it produces cognitive development or learning in specific content areas while also arming the trainee with the knowledge about how to learn. Fourth, it can be used and taught in a classroom environment. Finally, metacognition also promotes motivational changes.

The research investigating metacognitive training in adults is limited but is beginning to receive attention. Clark and Palm (1990) investigated the use of a short metacognitive training program for managers within an


industrial setting. These authors found that training and repeated practice in detecting and correcting deficits in thinking skills over a 2-week interval had a positive effect on the thought processes of these managers, as determined by analyzing a “think out loud” problem-solving session. In addition, the participants enjoyed the training and reported that it was valuable. This investigation served as a pilot project for the training and was not methodologically rigorous; therefore, no conclusions about whether the training transferred to the job can be made.

Other laboratory studies investigating metacognition have also doc- umented its effectiveness during practice. For instance, Volet (1991) found that training students to use a metacognitive strategy and providing sessions for practicing these skills, which included planning and reflecting, produced higher performance marks than controls. Further, these students reported an overall satisfaction with their learning. In an attempt to replicate this study, Volet, McGill, and Pears (1995) failed to find the positive effects of the metacognitive instruction on learning. The authors attributed this outcome to the fact that the training and commit- ment of instructors to metacognition may have been low.

In order to gain insight into how metacognitive skills benefit performance, Berardi-Colette, Dominowski, Buyer, and Rellinger (1995) studied four techniques thought to invoke metacognition within a problem- solving context. The practice sessions were taped in order to study communication between the participants and experimenters. These researchers found that groups using metacognitive strategies made fewer errors during the problem-solving tasks and spent more time on average per decision to solve the problem. In addition, as indicated by a verbal protocol analysis, these groups focused on the process (planning, sub-goaling, strategy development) of solving the problem rather than on the problem (rules, current state of the problem) or personal comments. Berardi-Colette et al. (1995) concluded that people do not “spontaneously focus on the process by which they attain a problem solution, ... if participants are forced to do so, transfer effects are positive” (p. 220). These results suggest that discovering problem solutions via metacognitive processing is more beneficial to participants than some of the more traditional methods such as providing hints, explanations, and demonstrations. More importantly, they also suggest a change in the cognitive activities that occur during practice trials. The shift in cognitive activities aided the trainees in improving their problem-solving performance.

Implications for learning. Metacognition has several implications for practice. First of all, engaging in metacognitive activities prior to practice may serve to navigate trainees through the practice session more thoroughly. For instance, one virtue of metacognition is for a trainee to


understand his or her thoughts and limitations (Paris & Winograd, 1990). In so doing, trainees may be better able to pinpoint their weaknesses and concentrate their practice efforts toward improving these skills. In addition, metacognition may be a means to promote memory, which differs from the traditional rote memorization techniques typically used in training. By training using metacognitive techniques, the trainee can be taught to intuit the underlying rationale behind a series of events. For example, in the Berardi-Colette et al. (1995) article mentioned above, participants were prompted in the metacognitive condition of their ex- periment to answer the question “why” (i.e., “Why am I doing this?”) in order to uncover metacognitive processes. In doing so, the participant not only created the solution but was able to intuit the procedure for solving the problem as well.

Overall, there is reason to be optimistic regarding the potential benefit of metacognition for enhancing practice. Unfortunately, the studies reviewed each invoked metacognition through different mechanisms (e.g., think out loud, answer the question “why,” determine skill deficits, etc.), with little or no attempt to compare these techniques. Similarly, the content of the metacognitive training in past work has focused on different aspects of metacognition. In order to be most useful, these and associated questions need to be addressed in future work.

Advance Organizers

Advance organizers provide trainees with a mechanism to organize information prior to practice and have been shown to improve the learning value of practice sessions (Kraiger, Salas, & Cannon-Bowers, 1995) and promote long-term learning (Stone, 1983). Advanced organizers refer to a category of activities such as outlines, text, auraldescriptions, diagrams, and graphic organizers that provide the trainee with a structure for the information that will be provided in the practice environment. It appears as though advance organizers are related to a concept known as “orienting activities,” which have been referred to as “mediators through which new information is presented” (Hannafin & Hughes, 1986, p. 239). Orienting activities include techniques such as advance organizers, pre-questions, and behavioral objectives.

An example of an advance organizer applied in an industrial setting could be in training employees to operate a complex software package. In such cases, the rationale for using the software is organized hierarchically (to correspond to pull-down menus). To improve the effectiveness of practice, advance organizers could be used to display the organization of material so trainees could follow it as they learn the package. As practice proceeds, trainees have prior knowledge that the functions are


hierarchically related. This type of knowledge should aid the trainees in development of appropriate knowledge structures or mental models, and hence improve mastery of the task.

The literature on advance organizers is somewhat ambiguous concerning their effectiveness, particularly because they appear to interact with trainee characteristics such as age or maturity (Moore & Readence, 1984; Stone, 1983), ability (Luiten, Ames, & Ackerson, 1980), and experience level (Mayer, 1984). However, meta-analyses of advance organizers have demonstrated small average effect sizes for their effectiveness (Luiten et al., 1980; Moore & Readence, 1984; Stone, 1983). De- spite equivocal findings, enough positive evidence has been obtained to make them worthy of further consideration. Theoretically, advance organizers are hypothesized to serve three purposes in practice (Mayer, 1989). First, they attract attention to important relationships in the to- be-learned domain. Second, they provide an organizing framework into which incoming information can be incorporated. Finally, they facilitate the integration of new information into existing information and acti- vate relevant schzma and mental models during practice. Task repetition (practice) then serves to map the information onto existing information, thus facilitating integration.

One reason that the literature is equivocal is due to the fact that advance organizers may interact with other practice conditions. For example, one such factor involves the sequencing of information. Patrick and Evans (1983) demonstrated that there is an interaction between the use of an advance organizer and the type of control a trainee has over the computer-based training. Specifically, it appears as though advance organizers can facilitate learning when individuals can choose the sequence of incoming information. These authors speculate that having the learner control the sequence of information served as a rehearsal mechanism for upcoming information. This finding, however, should be viewed cautiously. Tovar and Coldevin (1992) failed to find an interaction between an orienting activity and learner control. The provision of an orienting activity, however, increased the amount of time spent on task (Tovar & Coldevin, 1992). Presumably, the extra time spent on the task could be attributed to increased interest or motivation to perform the task. Regardless, increased time spent performing the task indicates that trainees were engaging in more task practice, which accounts for the reported increase in recall of factual information.

Trainee characteristics are a second factor that influence the effectiveness of advance organizers. For instance, Moore and Readence (1984) found that the learner’s maturity may enhance the effectiveness of graphic organizers. Mayer (1989) has consistently found that advance organizers are more beneficial to lower ability trainees. It is believed


that lower ability students profit from being shown the organization of material rather than having to deduce the organization themselves. Once the organization is known, information is integrated through consistent mapping that occurs during rehearsal or repetition.

A third factor influencing the effectiveness of advance organizers is the subject matter of the material. These studies provide insight into situations in which providing an advance organizer may guide practice activities. A majority of the research concerning advance organizers has centered on reading comprehension. However, Stone (1983) determined that advance organizers were better for learning science and math than they were for learning other subjects. Advanced organizers also had a greater effect when the trainees were evaluated using a posttest for the recall of facts or application of formulas. Generally, it would follow that complex knowledge-rich tasks (Le., those with heavy, declarative knowledge demands) would benefit from advance organizers. In these cases, advance organizers help to organize large numbers of facts, rules, and relationships into a more meaningful and useful format. Another factor that may mitigate the effectiveness of an advance organizer is familiar- ity. That is, advanced organizers appear to be less useful in situations in which information is well-organized and familiar to trainees (Hannafin & Hughes, 1986).

For unfamiliar subject areas, however, advance organizers improve comprehension. An advance organizer consisting of a written sentence outlining the major scenes of a video has been shown to facilitate comprehension of a foreign language video as determined by test scores (Herron, 1994). Herron concluded that the advance organizer not only clued the students about the upcoming information but also facilitated comprehension of the foreign language. Research has also indicated that enhancing the presentation of the advance organizer, which includes aural descriptions supplemented with a contextually based picture, facilitated the comprehension and retention of a foreign language video over an aural-only description advance organizer (Herron, Hanley, & Cole, 1995). These authors explained that the imagery evoked by the contextual based pictures provided support for the video material. These studies also provide support that the advance organizer provided the framework and students mapped the information onto the framework as it was presented.

Advance organizers have also been used to promote learning and prevent disorientation in a hypertext environment (Tripp & Rody, 1990). However, these authors concluded that the use of multiple advance organizers may not be additive. Two types of advance organizers, one of which was a visual metaphor of the structure of the hypertext environment and the other which was a written (literal) description of the struc-


ture, provided together may have produced conflicting mental models in participants.

Advance organizers may prepare trainees not only cognitively by providing a framework for incoming information, but also affectively. There is limited evidence to suggest that the use of a graphic advance organizer can be related to an increased level of perceived motivation, satisfaction, confidence, and ability to read the text (Hirumi & Bowers, 1991). Results indicated higher achievement scores on tests of the material for those who received the advance organizer. Although, the participants in this study were not overtly rehearsing or practicing, these results nonetheless have implications for the use of advance organizers for practice. They may also serve to increase motivation, satisfaction, and confidence in situations in which trainees will be required to engage in overt practice or rehearsal.

Other research in this area has revealed several important characteristics of advance organizers. First, it appears as though the benefits of advance organizer treatments increase over time (i.e., the interval between practice and performance; Luiten et al., 1980). These authors interpret this finding as evidence that advance organizers promote more permanent advantages rather than short-term effects. In addition, Moore and Readence (1984) found that brief graphic organizers seem to produce greater effects than longer graphic organizers. Third, aural (or non-written) organizers generally show a greater effect than written ones (Luiten et al., 1980; Stone, 1983; although this may be dependent on the material being taught).

Implications for learning. Clearly, advance organizers have the potential to improve the value of practice. By helping to structure material, advance organizers can aid trainees in taking in and assimilating new knowledge in practice sessions. It appears that advance organizers can promote the development of appropriate knowledge structures and organization, that is, they help trainees to build effective mental models of the task. In addition, advance organizers may help trainees to “chunk” knowledge-something that experts appear to do as they develop expertise. The ability of advance organizers to improve knowledge organization and assimilation seems to be particularly useful when dealing with highly complex and factual material, and with lower ability trainees. Clearly, however, further research must be conducted to determine how best to implement advance organizers.

Goal Orientation

Another potential practice-enhancing intervention is goal orientation. Goal orientation refers to the lype of goal (rnasfery vs. peflomance)


which is set within the learning environment, which in turn can not only influence task performance but also impact the individual’s cognitive, affective, and motivational processes. Although the literature concerning goal orientation and achievement orientation has investigated predom- inantly children in classroom educational settings (Dweck & Leggett, 1988), this research is beginning to be applied to adult populations (El- liot & Harackiewicz, 1994; Grieve, Whelan, Kottke, & Meyers, 1994; Kozlowski, Gully, McHugh, Salas, & Cannon-Bowers, 1996) and provides viable hypotheses that warrant further investigation. Because the literature involving children has been used as a theoretical basis for research in adult populations, it should be noted that the results gleaned from children might be influenced by developmental factors that may not be relevant in mature populations.

Goals and goal setting provide motivation for performance. Re- searchers have proposed two types of goals individuals pursue in achievement situations: “performance goals” and “learning or mastery goals” (Elliott & Dweck, 1988). Mastery (or process) goals enhance understanding of the task and task strategies by focusing attention on the learning process itself (Kozlowski, Gully, McHugh, Salas, & Cannon-Bowers, 1996). This type of goal is also expected to improve self-efficacy. Mas- tery goals are self-referenced and focus on improving individual skills over past performance on a task (Harackiewicz & Elliot, 1993). Perfor- mance (or outcome) goals, on the other hand, are outcome-oriented. They focus attention on achieving specific performance targets, but not on the process by which task competence is achieved (Kozlowski, Gully, Smith, Brown, Mullins, & Williams, 1996). Performance goals are typically normative, comparing an individual’s performance to oth- ers’ (Harackiewicz & Elliot, 1993).

An example of applying goal orientation for emergency dispatch trainees might be useful in explaining the construct. In this case, setting a performance goal would involve telling the trainee that he or she should concentrate on dispatching the correct unit to the emergency situation in a given amount of time. On the other hand, setting a mastery goal would involve telling the trainee to concentrate on identifying the characteristics that compose the best decision (i.e., the unit who is geo- graphically closest, equipped to handle the type of emergency, traffic on the route that will be taken, experience level of the unit), for the upcoming practice session. This could focus the trainees’ attention on learning how to solve the problem, rather than on eliminating all errors or meeting time criteria for dispatching a unit.

Research involving children has shown that performance goals “appear to promote defensive strategies that can interfere with challenge seeking” (Dweck, 1986, p. 1042). The performance orientation causes


individuals to focus on their current ability and, in the face of evaluation, to react in ways that protect them from negative evaluation. In contrast, learning or mastery orientation will focus attention on the process of skill acquisition rather than task evaluation. Children given learning goals choose challenging tasks and are willing to “risk displays of ignorance in order to acquire skills” (Dweck, 1986, p. 1042). Goal orientation also influences the interpretation of negative outcomes. Under performance goals, individuals will likely interpret negative outcomes in terms of their ability and perceive it as failure whereas under learning or mastery goals, individuals are more likely to interpret negative outcomes as a challenge to increase effort and learning.

Applying this theory to practice environments leads to several predic- tions about goal orientation in practice environments. First, it suggests that setting mastery goals within a practice environment should promote variability in the tasks practiced because trainees are likely to select challenging tasks (because there are no repercussions for failure) in addition to tasks which may not be as challenging. Existing literature supports the notion that variability in practicing tasks promotes learning (Magill & Hall, 1991; Schmidt & Bjork, 1992). Mastery-oriented goals should increase time spent in practice because of the increased motivation (due to challenge) and self-efficacy.

There is evidence that mastery-oriented climates increase motivation. Seifriz, Duda, and Chi (1992) studied perceptions of situational goal structure and dispositional goal structure and found that mastery- oriented climates produced a higher level of enjoyment in trainees, and that trainees in these environments had higher levels of intrinsic motivation and believed that high effort leads to success. Those in a performance-oriented climate were more likely to believe that ability leads to success. The implication for practice is that a mastery climate supports the notion that practice and effort can lead to success and better performance, which in turn should increase time spent in practice. Furthermore, dispositional goal orientation was the primary predictor of task enjoyment, self-reported exerted effort, and perceived competence.

Further evidence suggests that the type of goal that is set (mastery vs. performance) can affect skill acquisition and self-efficacy. For example, Kozlowski, Gully, Smith, Nason, and Brown (1995) demonstrated that mastery goals as opposed to performance goals led to faster skill acquisition and task self-efficacy, which has also been found to be related pos- itively to task performance (Barling & Beattie, 1983; Gist, Schwoerer, & Rosen, 1989; Taylor, Locke, Lee, & Gist, 1984).

There also appears to be a relationship between an individual’s achievement orientation and the type of goal that is set in the practice


environment. Harackiewicz and Elliot (1993) found that achievement goals did not differentially affect intrinsic motivation in a pinball task; rather, the effects were moderated by an individual’s achievement orientation. Mastery goals had a positive effect for individuals deemed low in achievement orientation, whereas performance goals had a positive effect for individuals judged high in achievement orientation (Elliot & Harackiewicz, 1994; Harackiewicz & Elliot, 1993).

Grieve et al. (1994) investigated the use of outcome versus mastery goals in adults practicing a basketball task. This study did not provide a clean test of hypotheses because participants (assessed via questionnaire prior to performing the task) saw themselves as more mastery than outcome oriented. Hence, it was found that even those in the outcome goal condition adopted both outcome and mastery goals. This is consistent with the notion that individuals may have dispositional characteristics that interact with goal orientation as shown by Harackiewicz and Elliot (1993). In any case, subjects in the mastery goal condition reported less mood disturbance than those in the outcome goal condition. Goal orientation, however, did not affect choices of task difficulty. Finally, participants in the mastery goal condition attributed success or failure more to internal causes than those in the outcome goal condition. It should be reiterated that the trainee’s affective state could influence the practice environment. Low self-efficacy and low motivation will negatively impact time on task and performance.

Goal orientation impacts several aspects of an individual’s percep- tion of competence, mood, and motivation. Jackson and Roberts (1992) analyzed descriptions of good versus poor performances and concluded that an outcome focus may have prevented athletes from performing well. Essentially, these authors found that if athletes adopted a self- referenced mastery perspective then “one may be more likely to achieve a positive performance state” (p. 168). Outcome or competitive perspective was associated with worst performances. Caution should be applied in interpreting these findings, however, because the research involved questionnaire data and only written descriptions of good and poor performance.

Implicationsfor learning. In light of the complex relationship that ex- ists between goal orientation and practice, research is needed to determine the goal-setting behaviors that yield the most benefit for practice. It would seem that mastery goals are beneficial because they focus the trainees’ attention on learning the task, rather than on performing well in training. Therefore, they make practice sessions more valuable, espe- cially for low self-efficacy trainees. In addition, trainees are able to learn specific aspects of the task determined to be crucial for task performance


more completely because they are focusing attention on them and processing this information at a deeper level. Moreover, because trainees are learning important aspects of that task more completely than they or- dinarily would, transfer performance should also benefit. As with other pre-practice conditions reviewed thus far, efforts to investigate goal orientation are warranted given its potential benefits on practice and learning.

Preparatory Information

An additional pre-practice condition that justifies further attention is the use ofpreparatory information prior to practice. Preparatory information differs from the previously mentioned pre-practice conditions in that it aids by setting the trainees’ expectations about the events and consequences of actions that are likely to occur in the training environment (Inzana, Driskell, Salas, & Johnston, 1996; Johnson & Cannon-Bowers, 1996). For example, trainees learning to become first-line supervisors might be working under stressful conditions characterized by periods of high workload, involving multiple tasks and even difficult subordi- nates. This situation often becomes overwhelming for new supervisors. Preparatory information in this situation would include information concerning the physiological (heart rate, fatigue) and psychological (frus- tration, yelling at co-workers) signs of stress, and provide coping mechanisms for helping trainees to manage stress when it occurs.

To date, the only applications of preparatory information in training have been to prepare trainees for performing under stressful task conditions and to prepare individuals for entering therapy. With re- spect to stressful tasks, it has been shown that those individuals who received preparatory information were able to more accurately assess the task characteristics of the practice environments and determine the course of action to take when under stressful conditions (Inzana et al., 1996). Specifically, preparatory information alerted trainees to the fact that they might experience stress during the task, explained typical physical and mental reactions to stress (e.g., increased heart rate, distrac- tion) and provided trainees with mechanisms to cope with these events (e.g., maintaining task focus). This type of preparatory information significantly improved complex decision-making performance under high stress conditions. An interesting and important finding in the Inzana et al. study was that there was a trend (although not statistically significant) toward enhanced performance from the preparatory information under non-stressful task conditions as well.

Preparatory information sessions have also been used to prepare individuals for attending therapy sessions. Generally, these few studies


lend additional support for the beneficial effects of providing preparatory information. For instance, Hilkey, Wilhelm, and Horne (1982) investigated the use of a video that showed model behavior of client and therapist interactions prior to group therapy sessions. After the video, participants practiced the behaviors by engaging in role play exercises. They found that pre-training on these behaviors lead to more adequate role expectations for group therapy, however, the only behavioral differ- ence occurred in the first training session. Those receiving pre-training elicited more positive responses in the first session of therapy. No subsequent differences were found. This provides some evidence that providing preparatory information can impart accurate role expectations and can accelerate the elicitation of behaviors.

Having determined that there may be beneficial effects to providing preparatory information and role play practice prior to therapy, subsequent research focused on the content of the preparatory information provided. For example, Lawe, Horne, and Taylor (1983) investigated the differential effects of providing specific versus general information during pre-training. The general information was audiotaped and provided facts about the procedures, goals and objectives, roles and responsibilities, and the problems or concerns that both counselor and clients may encounter during therapy sessions. The preparatory information provided in the pre-training session was designed to clarify roles and expectations and outline the process. Those in the specific information condition received an audiotaped pre-training session, which was developed by counselors and was geared toward their personal theoretical counseling orientation and their expectations for clients’ behaviors. Results indicated that the preparatory information prior to therapy was successful in eliciting desirable behaviors. Contrary to the authors’ hypothesis, there were no differences between the specific and general information conditions.

Implications for learning. Overall, there is evidence that providing preparatory information that aids trainees in developing expectations concerning the environment they are entering enhances their ability to perform better within that environment. In terms of learning, preparatory information helps trainees make better use of the practice session by setting their expectations prior to the start of practice. It provides them with specific information regarding what will confront them in the task and with strategies that can help them cope with stressors that could disrupt task performance. It also seems reasonable that preparatory information can help to build trainees’ confidence because they are taught how to confront and overcome barriers to task success.

Given the lack of empirical research investigating the provision of preparatory information prior to practice, it is important to begin to


address many unanswered questions regarding the use of preparatory information. The goal of preparatory information is to set expectations about the environment in which one is about to perform and provide trainees with strategies to overcome obstacles to success. Although it appears there are still questions which should be addressed concerning the content and the format of preparatory information, it holds promise as a practice enhancing intervention, particularly for stressful tasks.

Pre-Practice Briefs

The final condition we examine,pre-practice briefs, is targeted specifically at team training. Pre-practice briefs, which are sessions where team performance expectations can be clarified, and roles and responsibilities es- tablkhed before team practice, have been shown to be an effective pre- practice condition (Smith-Jentsch & Tannenbaum, 1995). Pre-practice briefs serve to facilitate self-diagnostic, self-regulatory, and self-critique skills by focusing the team’s attention on these skills. For example, Stout (1995) found that teams that engaged in pre-briefings performed more efficiently than those that did not. Specifically, these teams displayed better communication strategies under high workload. The explana- tion offered was that pre-briefing enabled team members to develop enhanced expectations concerning their teammate’s behavior and consequently to coordinate more effectively. Specifically, focusing trainees’ attention on the roles, responsibilities, and information needs of teammates might foster development of shared mental models in teams (see Cannon-Bowers et al., 1993). In addition, if the team is confronting a stressful task, a pre-brief that includes team strategies can improve performance in practice by increasing the likelihood that team members will interpret the situation consistently and help them to anticipate their teammates’ behavior.

An example of applying team pre-briefs in training would be to provide a cockpit crew with information about the roles and responsibilities of each team member, common emergencies and how to recognize them, and coordination strategies appropriate for various situations. By iden- tifymg the potential difficulties that might be encountered, the cockpit crew can anticipate complications and devise plans for confronting them prior to the practice session.

Research on pre-practice briefings is sparse. There are a few empirical investigations of aviation pre-flight briefs that provide some insight to the potential utility of pre-practice briefings (e.g., see Stout, 1995, noted above). In addition, Franz, Baker, Zalesny, Prince, and Salas (1991) investigated the use of a structured pre-flight brief which provided an opportunity for aircrews to engage in process planning behaviors prior


to flying in a simulator. The brief provided an opportunity for crews to address any potential issues that could arise during the flight. The results indicated that a number of differences existed in the briefings despite the structured approach. One interesting finding was that behaviors, specifically leadership and assertiveness, tended to be consistent from pre-brief to flight. This finding suggests that pre-briefs may provide an opportunity for individuals to develop expectations about their teammates’ future behavior as suggested by Ginnett (1988).

Implications for learning. At the team level, pre-briefs have the potential to improve team practice sessions. They do so by clarifying the relationship among team members and aid them in developing effective expectations and coordination strategies. They are useful in building shared mental models among team members and can allow teams to exercise implicit coordination strategies (i.e., coordination that occurs without the need to communicate). Further, pre-briefs should be most useful for tasks that are fast-paced and stressful, because such tasks pre- clude extensive communication between team members.

Considerably more investigation of the potential benefit of pre- practice briefings in teams is necessary to assess their efficacy. In particular, it is of interest to determine which specific aspects of a pre-briefing are most useful in promoting team learning. In addition, it should be fruitful to study further the best mechanisms for presenting team pre- brief materials.

An Integrative Framework for the Pre-Practice Conditions

In an effort to integrate thinking about pre-practice conditions, we initially attempted to construct a model that would “tie” the pre-practice conditions to underlying mechanisms and expected outcomes (in terms of learning). This proved impossible because many of the conditions are thought to affect common processes. For ease of presentation, therefore, we provide Table 2: an initial attempt to summarize and integrate what we know about pre-practice conditions. This table lists each condition along with a description of the mechanisms that underlie its hypothesized effect-essentially “how it works.” It also displays the underlying psychological processes that we believe are affected by the condition including: attention, memory, knowledge structures, motivation, self-efficacy, self-regulatory processes, and task expectations/strategies. Finally, it indicates the likely outcome expected if the condition is applied (i.e., better acquisition of knowledge or skill, elaboratiodtransfer of knowledge or skill, faster time to master material).

Table 2 can be considered to delineate a series of propositions regarding pre-practice conditions and point interested readers to pertinent

TABL

E 2

Sum

mar

y of R

esea

rch F

indi

ngs

Pre-

prac

tice

Und

erly

ing

Prop

osed

impa

ct

Aff

ecte

d Ty

pica

l tas

ks

Expe

cted

co

nditi

ons

mec

hani

sm

on p

ract

ice

proc

esse

s us

ed in

stud

ies

outc

omes

So

urce

s

Atte

ntio

nal

Teac

hes g

ener

al

Prim

es e

xist

ing

Atte

ntio

n,

Prob

lem

sol

ving

Tr

ansf

er

Phye

(198

9,19

91);

advi

ce

task

stra

tegi

es.

info

rmat

ion.

Exp

lain

s ta

sk e

xpec

t- ta

sks (

e.g.

, Ph

ye &

San

ders

E

how

to ap

ply

info

r-

atio

ns &

an

alog

ies,

syl-

(199

4); L

ung

&

v)

?

mat

ion

to cl

asse

s st

rate

gies

, lo

gism

s, an

d 9-

D

omin

owsk

i of

task

s. Pr

ovid

es

know

ledg

e do

t pro

blem

). (1

985)

. co

nten

t-fre

e pe

r-

stru

ctur

es.

form

ance

stra

tegi

es.

i 3 0

2: w

Met

acog

nitiv

e Te

ache

s sel

f-

Hel

ps to

cor

rect

def

icits

A

ttent

ion,

Pr

oble

m s

olvi

ng

Tran

sfer

C

lark

& P

alm

st

rate

gies

re

gula

tory

in

thin

king

; inc

reas

es

self-

regu

latio

n,

(e.g

., m

anag

eria

l, (1

990)

; Vol

et

stra

tegi

es.

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

se

lf-ef

ficac

y.

Tow

er of

Han

oi,

(199

1); B

erar

di-

thou

ght p

roce

ss a

nd

Kat

ona

card

pro

- C

olet

te et

at.

limita

tions

; hel

ps

blem

); co

mpu

ter

(199

5); C

ohen

et

train

ees

to m

onito

r the

ir pr

ogra

mm

ing.

al

. (19

96).

i2 ow

n pe

rfor

man

ce.

8 A

dvan

ce

Fost

ers b

ette

r H

elps

trai

nees

to

Kno

wle

dge

orga

nize

rs

know

ledg

e or

gani

ze m

ater

ial

stru

ctur

es,

stru

ctur

es an

d m

eani

ngfu

lly; p

rovi

des

atte

ntio

n,

inte

grat

ion

of

“ide

atio

nal s

caf-

m

emor

y.

new

kno

wle

dge.

fo

ldin

g”; i

mpr

oves

ab

ility

to u

nder

stan

d an

d in

tegr

ate

new

m

ater

ial.

Scie

nce,

mat

h,

Acq

uisi

tion,

H

erro

n (1

994)

; F

fore

ign

lang

uage

re

tent

ion.

St

one

(198

3);

com

preh

ensi

on,

Han

nafin

&

read

ing,

vid

eodi

sk

Hug

hes

(1 98

6);

less

ons,

hype

rtext

Lu

iten

et a

t. na

viga

tion.

(1

980)

; Moo

re &

R

eade

nce

(198

4).

w 0

\o

Tabl

e 2 (c

ontin

ued)

w

c.L

0

~~

~ ~

~~

~ ~

Pre-

prac

tice

Und

erly

ing

Prop

osed

impa

ct

Aff

ecte

d Ty

pica

l tas

ks

Expe

cted

co

nditi

ons

mec

hani

sm

on p

ract

ice

proc

esse

s us

ed in

stud

ies

outc

omes

So

urce

s

Goa

l In

crea

ses t

ask

Mas

tery

goa

ls le

ad to

Se

lf-ef

ficac

y,

Perc

eptu

alho

tor

Acq

uisi

tion

Koz

low

sla,

Gul

ly,

orie

ntat

ion

self-

effic

acy;

fa

ster

task

acq

uisi

tion

mot

ivat

ion,

ta

sks (

spor

ts, b

as-

Smith

et a

l. (1

996)

; fo

cuse

s atte

ntio

n an

d ta

sk s

elf-

effic

acy;

on le

arni

ng.

impr

ove p

erce

ptio

ns of

co

mpe

tenc

e, m

ood,

and

m

otiv

atio

n; p

rovi

de

high

er le

vels

of

enjo

ymen

t.

Prep

arat

ory

Sets

expe

ctat

ions

H

elps

trai

nees

to m

ore

info

rmat

ion

abou

t the

eve

nts

accu

rate

ly as

sess

and

an

d co

nseq

uenc

es

likel

y to

occ

ur

char

acte

rist

ics;

du

ring

pra

ctic

e.

impr

oves

accu

racy

of

role

exp

ecta

tion;

ac

cele

rate

s elic

itatio

n of

beh

avio

rs.

cope

with

diff

icul

t tas

k

atte

ntio

n.

Atte

ntio

n,

self-

effic

acy,

ta

sk e

xpec

- ta

tions

&

stra

tegi

es,

know

ledg

e st

ruct

ures

.

ketb

all,

pinb

all);

G

riev

e et

a1.

'(199

4);

deci

sion

-mak

ing

Seifr

iz e

t al.

(199

2);

task

s. D

wec

k (1

986)

; Ja

ckso

n &

Rob

erts

Har

acki

ewic

z (19

94);

Har

acki

ewic

z &

'd m

(199

2);

Ellio

t &

@ El

liot (

1993

). P 8 5

Stre

ssfu

l dec

isio

n-

Acq

uisi

tion

Inza

na e

t al.

(199

6);

mak

ing

task

s, th

erap

y se

ssio

ns.

Hilk

ey e

t al.

(198

2);

Law

e et

al. (

1983

). 0

c

Team

En

hanc

es p

er-

Impr

ove

com

mun

icat

ion

Task

expe

c-

Avi

atio

n si

m-

Acq

uisi

tion

Smith

-Jen

tsch

&

pre-

brie

fs

form

ance

ex-

and

coor

dina

tion;

ta

tions

&

ulat

ions

, com

- Tf

ansf

er

Tann

enba

um (1

995)

; pe

ctat

ions

and

fa

cilit

ate s

elf-

diag

nost

ic,

stra

tegi

es,

plex

dec

isio

n S

tout

(199

5);

shar

ed m

enta

l se

lf-re

gula

tory

, and

at

tent

ion,

m

akin

g.

Fran

zet a

l. (1

991)

. m

odel

s. se

lf-cr

itiqu

e sk

ills;

know

ledg

e en

hanc

e sh

ared

men

tal

stru

ctur

es.

mod

els.


literature. For example, our current state of knowledge justifies an hypothesis that advance organizers will foster more effective knowledge structures in trainees; however, this is a testable proposition, not a conclusion at this point. The following highlight what we believe are high- priority propositions gleaned from this table.

Proposition 1: Attentional advice will be more effective in the later stages of training after initial task proficiency has been attained.

Our rationale here is that attentional advice is most useful in developing task strategies that apply to a class of tasks. As such, it is probably more effective for trainees after they have acquired basic knowledge and are in the process of learning how best to apply such knowledge. There- fore, attentional advice is probably most appropriately applied when expertise is being refined and extended.

Proposition 2: Attentional advice will improve the efficiency of practice (i.e., decrease needed practice time) by allowing better generalization of task knowledge and skill to new situations.

Our reasoning here is that attentional advice can help trainees to extract necessary underlying rules in the knowledge base so that they are better able to apply task strategies to new tasks. Without such advice, trainees are forced to develop their own rules, which is potentially less efficient and may be incorrect.

Proposition 3: Metacognitive training should focus on preparing trainees to introspect and access their own learning process during practice.

The key to metacognitive control in practice is the ability of trainees to access and track their own performance. This means that trainees must be taught to introspect and make an assessment of their own learning state.

Proposition 4: Metacognitive training should enable trainees to correct deficits in thinking skills by analyzing their own thought processes.

Research indicates that metacognitive training that included practice detecting and correcting thought processes actually improved trainees thinking skills. Therefore, trainees should be able to critique their own thought processes and thus improve their ability to solve problems.

Proposition 5: Advance organizers will have a significant impact on long- term retention of material.


Advance organizers are believed to be effective because they improve the encoding and organization of knowledge. As such, they should improve long-term retention of material because they foster more efficient recall and use of knowledge.

Proposition 6: Advance organizers will improve trainees’ ability to integrate or incorporate new or unfamiliar information into existing knowledge.

Advance organizers structure information; consequently, they should be able to demonstrate pertinent relationships between concepts and facilitate understanding.

Proposition 7 Mastery goals will be most effective for trainees low in self- efficacy.

The reason that mastery goals are believed to be effective in promoting learning is that they shift trainees’ focus from performance accom- plishments to the learning process. For low self-efficacy trainees, this shift can allow them to have successful training experiences and hence build self-efficacy as training progresses.

Proposition 8: Mastery goals will be most effective in early and interrnedi- ate phases of training.

The benefit of mastery goals is likely to be realized in the skill and knowledge acquisition phases of training because trainees can focus on the learning process. Later in training, when trainees are honing their skills and applying what they have learned, a shift to performance goals should promote most effective performance.

Proposition 9: Preparatory information is effective when used prior to stressful tasks.

Preparatory information has received limited testing as a means to prepare trainees to confront stressful situations. Based on preliminary findings, we believe that preparatory information will be effective in improving practice across a variety of stressful tasks.

Proposition 10: Preparatory information will be more effective for low- confidence trainees.

One of the ways that preparatory information is believed to affect training performance is by al!owing trainees to build confidence. By ex- posing trainees to the types of stressors that they will be confronted with


in the environment and providing coping skills, preparatory information will be most useful for low confidence trainees.

Proposition 11: Pre-practice briefs will be more effective for egocentrically oriented trainees.

The mechanism behind team pre-briefs is that they focus trainees’ attention on the teamwork and coordination aspect of the task. Hence, we propose that egocentrically oriented trainees-those who are less inclined to appreciate being a member of a team-are more likely to benefit from such training than collectively oriented trainees do. For a more detailed discussion of collective and egocentric orientation see Driskell and Salas (1992).

Proposition 12: Pre-practice briefs should focus on the roles and responsibilities of each team member.

Team pre-briefs are beneficial because they help team members to better anticipate the information needs and actions of their teammates. This implies that pre-briefs must contain role-clarifying information that trainees can employ during practice.

Proposition 13: Pre-practice briefs will be most effective when used with fast-paced, stressful tasks.

In environments where team members cannot discuss their strategies they must rely on implicit coordination strategies-that is, strategies that the team members employ based on their knowledge of their teammates’ information and task needs. Because stressful tasks reduce the team’s ability to communicate, pre-briefs can help team members to maintain performance levels by providing them with information about their teammates’ jobs.

Implications and Future Research

One of the more frustrating aspects of the “practitioner-side” of our business is that even after pages and pages of information about a topic, little if any specific guidance can be offered to those in the field. Admit- tedly, we too were tempted to hedge-to bemoan the lack of empirical work and point to the countless questions yet to be answered. However, with a little prodding from editors and reviewers, we constructed Table 3 to summarize as much as we could about pre-practice conditions and turn that knowledge into practical guidelines. Hence, the reader should interpret these guidelines with some caution. Nonetheless, we believe

W L

P

TAB

LE 3

Im

plic

atio

ns fo

r Pra

ctic

e

Pre-

prac

tice

Nec

essa

ry

Rec

omm

ende

d Po

tent

ial i

nter

actio

ns w

ith

Rec

omm

ende

d G

uide

lines

for

cond

ition

s co

nten

t fo

rmat

tra

inee

cha

ract

eris

tics

task

type

s w

hen

to a

pply

Atte

ntio

nal

advi

ce

Met

acog

nitiv

e st

rate

gies

Adv

ance

or

gani

zers

Gen

eral

stra

tegi

es

for t

ask

acco

m-

plis

hmen

t.

Self-

regu

latio

n sk

ills.

Org

aniz

atio

n of

hi

ghly

fact

ual

mat

eria

l. O

rgan

izat

ion

of ot

herw

ise

poor

ly

orga

nize

d m

ater

ial.

Adv

ice

used

in

conj

unct

ion

with

ou

tcom

e fe

edba

ck

can

enha

nce

trans

fer.

activ

e in

terv

entio

n (b

etw

een

an in

stru

ctor

an

d tra

inee

). Fo

cus m

ust b

e on

ge

tting

trai

nees

to

intro

spec

t and

ass

ess

thei

r le

arni

ng p

roce

ss.

Aur

al p

rese

nta-

tio

n fo

rmat

is

pre

fera

ble

to

writ

ten

form

at (i

n so

me

case

s).

uref

erab

le t

o w

ritte

n.

May

nee

d an

inte

r-

Illus

trate

d A

Os

are

Non

e kn

own.

Non

e kn

own.

Proc

edur

al

Onc

e th

e tr

aine

e ha

s C

ogni

tive

acqu

ired

the

task

and

is

deve

lopi

ng e

xper

tise.

Cog

nitiv

e D

urin

g in

itial

sta

ges

of ta

sk a

cqui

sitio

n

Low

abi

lity

train

ees.

Pr

oced

ural

D

urin

g th

e in

itial

sta

ges

Whe

n pr

esen

ting

vide

o m

ater

ial i

n tra

inin

g.

Whe

n m

ater

ial n

eeds

to

be r

etai

ned

for l

ong

perio

ds of

tim

e.

Cog

nitiv

e of

tas

k ac

quis

ition

.

Tabl

e 3

(con

tinue

d)

he-p

ract

ice

Nec

essa

ry

Rec

omm

ende

d Po

tent

ial i

nter

actio

ns w

ith

Rec

omm

ende

d G

uide

lines

for

cond

ition

s co

nten

t fo

rmat

tr

aine

e ch

arac

teri

stic

s ta

sk ty

pes

whe

n to

app

ly

Goa

l or

ient

atio

n

Prep

arat

ory

info

rmat

ion

Team

pr

e-br

iefs

Focu

s on

mas

tery

vs.

perf

orm

ance

or

ient

atio

n.

Expl

anat

ions

of

the

phys

iolo

gica

l re

actio

ns th

at a

re

likel

y to

occ

ur.

Expe

ctat

ions

for

stre

ss in

pra

ctic

e.

Rol

es, r

espo

nsib

ilitie

s of

team

mat

es.

Coo

rdin

atio

n st

rate

gies

. C

ue-s

trat

egy

asso

ciat

ions

.

Lect

ure

Low

self-

effic

acy

trai

nees

. Fr

ustr

ated

trai

nees

sh

ould

pra

ctic

e un

der

mas

tery

goa

ls.

Trai

nees

low

in n

eed

for

achi

evem

ent s

houl

d pr

actic

e un

der m

aste

ry

goal

s.

Lect

ures

Lo

w c

onfi

denc

e R

ole

play

s tr

aine

es.

Trai

nees

susc

eptib

le to

st

ress

.

Inte

ract

ive e

x-

Unf

amili

ar te

am

chan

ge a

mon

g m

embe

rs.

team

mem

bers

. Eg

ocen

tric

trai

nees

.

Sens

ory

and

Proc

edur

al

Cog

nitiv

e

psyc

hom

otor

Sensory

and

Proc

edur

al

Cog

nitiv

e

psyc

hom

otor

Proc

edur

al

Cog

nitiv

e

Dur

ing

initi

al a

nd

inte

rmed

iate

stag

es

of tr

aini

ng.

For a

ll ta

sk ty

pes.

Dur

ing

initi

al ta

sk

acqu

isiti

on.

For s

tress

ful t

asks

whe

n co

ping

is re

quir

ed.

In fi

nal s

tage

s of

train

ing.

For c

ompl

ex, f

ast-

pace

d ta

sks.

In fi

nal s

tage

s of

train

ing.

cn ?


that Table 3 might be a useful source of information, both as a means to drive further research (many of the assertions made by this table are easily testable) and to guide practitioners.

Summary and Conclusions

As training researchers, we have tended to be complacent regarding the precise nature of practice and its relationship to learning and performance despite the existence of ample studies in the literature upon which to base new propositions about practice. The future of practice research needs to examine practice on a broader scale that incorporates the conditions of practice that occur before, during, and after practice. By gaining an understanding of the interactions and influences that the three types of conditions have on each other, greater benefits from practice can be realized.

Tables 2 and 3 provide a framework for guiding future research into practice conditions. Specifically, it is first necessary to isolate and test particular assertions made regarding the underlying mechanisms of pre- practice conditions (Table 2). For example, that advance organizers are effective in improving practice because they foster development of knowledge structures and integration of new knowledge needs to be Val- idated. It is also of interest to determine how the pre-practice conditions are related to each other. Clearly, there is overlap in the processes that are affected by pre-practice conditions. It would be useful to determine, therefore, whether the effects are complimentary, redundant, interactive, additive, and so forth. The next step would be to determine em- pirically whether our hypotheses hold regarding the application of pre- practice conditions. Specifically, Table 3 provides testable propositions associated with the particular content and format of the pre-practice conditions, as well as assertions about which trainee characteristics might moderate effectiveness. Taken together, these tables provide an agenda for future research in this crucial area.

Conclusions

Perhaps the most important conclusion that those designing training can draw from this review is that not all preparation for practice is equal. In fact, the extent and strength of learning and transfer will de- pend largely on the particular way that trainees are prepared for practicing the task components. Obviously, it is of crucial importance to determine the best way to design pre-practice conditions for various tasks. This call is perhaps more important when considering the fact that many of the interventions reviewed here are relatively inexpensive and easy


to implement. For example, designing an advance organizer might take only a few hours; however, the impact on job performance may be large and practically significant. Therefore, optimizing the effectiveness of practice sessions can be an extremely valuable, low-cost training intervention. We hope what we have presented here will stimulate further attention in this area.

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a framework for understanding pre-practice conditions and their impact on learning

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