a dendrohistorical view of the rural dwelling in 19th century palestine

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A Dendrohistorical View of the Rural Dwelling in 19th Century Palestine Author(s): Gideon Biger and Nili Liphschitz Source: Area, Vol. 24, No. 1 (Mar., 1992), pp. 45-55 Published by: The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers) Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20003051 . Accessed: 12/06/2014 19:57 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. . The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers) is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Area. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 195.34.79.174 on Thu, 12 Jun 2014 19:57:53 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

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Page 1: A Dendrohistorical View of the Rural Dwelling in 19th Century Palestine

A Dendrohistorical View of the Rural Dwelling in 19th Century PalestineAuthor(s): Gideon Biger and Nili LiphschitzSource: Area, Vol. 24, No. 1 (Mar., 1992), pp. 45-55Published by: The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers)Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20003051 .

Accessed: 12/06/2014 19:57

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range ofcontent in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new formsof scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

.

The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers) is collaborating with JSTOR todigitize, preserve and extend access to Area.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 195.34.79.174 on Thu, 12 Jun 2014 19:57:53 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 2: A Dendrohistorical View of the Rural Dwelling in 19th Century Palestine

Area (1992) 24.1, 45-55

A dendrohistorical view of the rural dwelling in 19th century Palestine'

Gideon Biger, Department of Geography, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, 69978, Tel Aviv, Israel, and Nili Liphschitz, The Botanical Laboratories, Institute of

Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv 69978, Tel Aviv, Israel

Summary Dendrohistorical research deals with the botanical analysis of timber used in construction of historical buildings. Botanical analysis of rural dwelling houses can point to the local arboreal vegetation which existed in the time of construction as well as to the economic life of the dwellers and their commercial activities. In the 19th century Palestine had no real local sources for timber. The indigenous rural inhabitants used every log and twig they could findfor construction, including fruit trees. The modern farmhouses built by wealthy Middle Eastern people were constructed with Middle

Eastern trees while the modern rural settlements built by Jews, Germans and Americans used European or American wood imported to Palestine for that purpose.

Dendroarchaeological investigations are concerned with analysis of wood remains from archaeological excavations and the dating of these sites by dendrochronological

methods (Eckstein et al. 1983; Ward 1987; Hackens 1988). Dendrohistorical research is

concerned with timber analysis originating in historical buildings, their dating has

become more frequent in the last decade. Such research has been carried out in Europe

(West Germany Eckstein 1979, 1980; Neugebauer 1980; France-Billamboz 1987; Guibal 1987; Guibal et al 1987, 1988; England-Meirion-Jones et al 1987; Austria Egger & Egger-Spiedlen 1988; Switzerland-Donati et al 1988; the Middle East

Liphschitz & Biger 1988; Kuniholm & Striker 1983, 1985, 1987), and in the United

States-Ferguson and Wright 1962; Stahle 1979. The extent to which timber was used in the construction of rural dwellings, and is

still used in certain regions of the world, depended on the environmental conditions of the site. In humid areas, characterised by forests and maquis, there were ample amounts of wood for construction, while semi-arid and arid regions suffered from insufficient sources of timber for this purpose and had to import it.

Dendroarchaeological investigations which have been carried out in Israel in numer ous sites show that during ancient times the timber for construction of simple dwelling houses was taken from the vicinity of the sites. As Israel has different climatic areas, the wood found in the excavations was part of the local characteristic vegetation (Liphschitz 1986, 1988). Thus, in arid and semi-arid regions of the Negev mainly wood of Tamarix aphylla (Tamarisk), Acacia raddiana (acacia) and Retama roetam (white

broom) were the timbers in the excavations, while in the Mediterranean region of Israel the wood remains which were found consisted mainly of Quercus calltiprinos (Kermes oak), Pistacia palaestina (Terebinth) and Olea europaea (Olive). Palaces, temples and other important houses used imported wood (Cedar of Lebanon, Red Juniper etc) for construction (Liphschitz and Biger 1991).

The aim of this paper is to present an analysis of the timber used in the construction of the dwelling houses in different types of rural settlement in Palestine in the 19th century. A comparison between the wood used in these villages might shed light on the

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Page 3: A Dendrohistorical View of the Rural Dwelling in 19th Century Palestine

46 Biger and Liphschitz

sources of the wood which has been used, the economic situation and the commercial

activities of the settlers in these villages.

The investigated area

Three types of rural settlements existed in Palestine towards the end of the 19th century. The traditional Arab villages were the most common. Although research was devoted to the traditional dwelling houses of the local villages (Canaan 1933; Dalman 1942; Avitzur 1976; Kroyanker 1985; Hirschfeld 1987), none of these investigations dealt with the timber used in the construction. During the second half of the 19th century two other types of rural settlements were established in Palestine: agricultural farms built mainly by local wealthy Middle Eastern people (Ben Arzi et al 1989) and

modern villages, constructed by immigrants who came to settle in Palestine. The

Jews came from Europe and built some twenty-five villages between 1880 and 1900 (Aaronson 1981; Ben Arzi 1988). A group of Germans built seven rural villages in Palestine at the same period (Carmel 1973), and an American group tried to establish an agricultural settlement near Jaffa (Holmes 1981).

Twenty-four traditional Arab villages, out of about 800 villages which existed dur ing the period under discussion, located in various geographic regions in Israel, were surveyed. Altogether 65 houses, most of which are still the original 19th century dwelling houses, were examined. In surveying the second rural type, the agricultural farm, all thirteen ruined buildings in eleven existing sites, located in the north and central regions of the country, were examined. For the modern village a survey was done in twenty-five Jewish settlements, all of which were established in the 19th century, and in which 109 buildings were examined. All seven German rural settle

ments, with 32 buildings, and six houses in the only American Colony established in Palestine were examined as well. Altogether this research dealt with sixty-eight different settlements of rural nature (Figure 1), in which 227 buildings were examined.

1,348 pieces of wood were collected and analysed. Wood pieces were taken from all wooden parts inserted in the construction: roof logs, wooden wall skeleton, windows, window-frames, doors, door-frames, frameheads, wall cupboard shelves etc. Part of the logs were unworked, especially roof-logs, while other wooden parts were worked. Small pieces of wood of 1-2 cms3 were taken for examination. Cross and longitudinal, tangential and radial sections were prepared, either by razor or by sliding microtome, stained with Safranin and mounted in glycerin or in Canada Balsam (Jensen 1962). Identification of the tree species was made by microscopic examination of the three dimentional structure of the wood studied in these sections. Comparison was made with reference material prepared from identified tree species as as from photographs obtained from atlases of wood anatomy available for the different regions of the world (Huber and Rouschal 1954; Greguss 1945, 1955, 1972; Panshin and Zeeuw 1970; Schweingruber 1978, 1990; Fahn et al 1986).

Analysis of the construction timber

Identification of the wood pieces gathered (Table 1) shows that the timber came

from four main geographical areas. The tree species found were local Israeli trees, North-Eastern Mediterranean trees, European trees and American trees.

Ninety-one pieces of wood (6-8 per cent) were made of fourteen different local

species: Ceratonia siliqua (carob), Quercus ithaburensis (Mount Tabor oak), Quercus calliprinos (Kermes oak), Cercis siliquastrum (Judas tree), Olea europaea (Olive), Amygdalus communis (Almond), Crataegus azarolus (Azarole), Punica granatum

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Page 4: A Dendrohistorical View of the Rural Dwelling in 19th Century Palestine

Rural dwellings in Palestine 47

0 25 50 m

A A A fJt

A 0

A A

HAIFA

AA NAZARETH0 0

XTowns 0 C0

Rural Villages 00

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o Jewish

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O Farm AO ^ (private) A

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E G Y P T

Figure 1 Israel-survey settlements

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48 Biger and Liphschitz

Table 1 Timber used in construction of the rural settlements

European East- (American*) Local

Mediterranean wood wood Settlement No of Total type and nos houses no. % no. ? no. % nos

Traditional 24 65 118 38-0 110 35 5 82 26 5 310 Farm 11 13 146 78-1 37 19-8 4 2-1 187

Modern* 33 149 131 15-4 715 840 5 0-6 851

Total* 68 227 395 29-3 862 63-9 91 6-8 1348

*American wood used in the modern settlements constituted 76 pieces and the European wood, 639 pieces. Hence, in the total sum, the American wood constituted 76 pieces and the European wood, 786 pieces

8 '' , . .fl ' -.

,,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4

Figure 2 Unworked logs of local trees: Kermes oak and carob in a traditional Arab village

(Pomegranate), Tamarix aphylla, Tamarix ( x 5) (Tamarisk), Ziziphus spina christi (Jujube, Christ thorn), Acacia raddiana (Acacia), Populus euphratica (Euphrates poplar), and Phoenix dactylifera (Date palm). Most of the tree species grew naturally in the investigated area. Some of the tree species, olive, pomegranate, almond, carob and date were cultivated fruit trees. Wood pieces made of tamarisk, acacia, euphrates poplar

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Rural dwellings in Palestine 49

Figure 3 Close up from the inner side of the room

Figure 3 Close up from the inner side of the room

and Christ thorn, which grow naturally only in arid and semi-arid areas, were found only in villages located in the southern region of Israel. Other tree species which supplied the wood for the villages located in the northern regions of the country, grow

wild or in cultivation in the humid Mediterranean region (Zohary 1959, 1973). Most of the logs made of these species were used as roof logs, all except two were unworked (Figures 2 and 3).

Six North-Eastern Mediterranean tree species were found: Cedrus libani (Cedar of Lebanon), Pinus brutia (Calabrian pine), Pinus nigra (Black pine), Abies cilicica (Cilicica fir), Acer platanoides (Norway maple) and Ulmus minor (Elm). All these species grew naturally and comprised important constituents of the forests of Lebanon, Syria and Turkey (Zohary 1973). In total 395 pieces of wood (29-3 per cent) were made of those tree species. All the timber and wooden parts found made from these tree species were

worked (Figure 4). More than half of the wood pieces, 58 3 per cent (786 out of 1,348) gathered in the

survey were made of five European tree species: Larix decidua (Common larch), Abies alba (Silver fir), Pinus silvestris (Scots pine), Cedrus atlantica (Atlantic cedar) and

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50 Biger and Liphschitz

Figure 4 Roof made of worked logs of East Mediterranean timber: Cedar of Lebanon and Calabrian pine in a farmhouse

Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas fir). Atlantic cedar and Douglas fir were introduced to

Europe (cedar from North Africa and Douglas fir from America) and were widely planted for timber during the last centuries (Humphries et al 1981). All the European

wooden parts found were worked (Figure 5). One tree species which was found in large quantities in the construction is the Scots

pine which grows all over Europe, and Turkey and might therefore have been brought from any part of the area. When the wood assemblage was of European origin, pieces of

Scots pine were considered as part of European trees. When all wood pieces found in a construction complex were of East Mediterranean origin these species were

considered as part of them. Seventy-six wood pieces (5 6 per cent) were made of four American tree species:

Pinus strobus (Eastern white pine), Larix laricina (Tamarack), Tsuga canadensis (Eastern hemlock) and Fagus grandifolia (American beech). They were found only in

the American Colony established near Jaffa.

Conclusions The origin of the wood differs in the three types of rural settlements. In the traditional villages the local timber constituted 26 5 per cent of the total wood pieces gathered, the

East Mediterranean wood 38-0 per cent and the European wood 35 5 per cent. The

use of local wood is well distinguished in this rural type. Most of the wood was used for

ceilings, mainly small twigs and branches for constructing a simple arched roof (Figure 3). The obvious use of all available wood material, both twigs and branches, results from lack of sufficient timber sources and the scarcity of natural trees. Specimens of

fruit trees, for example almond and olive, which ceased to set fruit were therefore used

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Page 8: A Dendrohistorical View of the Rural Dwelling in 19th Century Palestine

Rural dwellings in Palestine 51

Figure 5 Roof made of worked logs of European timber: Scots pine and Common larch in a German settlement

as a source of construction timber. Timber of North-Eastern Mediterranean source in this rural type was found only in dwelling houses of relatively wealthy people built during the second half of the 19th century. It was mainly used for doors (Figure 6) and door-frames which could not be produced form the local, twisted trees. The use of North-Eastern Mediterranean trees as a source of timber points to commercial relationships with neighbouring countries, especially Turkey and Lebanon. The relatively high percentage of European timber found in the traditional villages reflects later stages of restorations, mainly of windows and window-frames.

Most of the timber used in agricultural farms, was of East Mediterranean origin. European origin supplied the other timber while only small amounts of local species were used. These farm houses, were usually of much larger dimensions than the simple rural traditional dwelling house (Figure 7). The use of East Mediterranean wood can be traced to the owners of these farms. Most of them were owned by wealthy local families

who tried to establish agricultural farms in order to exploit more efficiently the land they owned (Ben Arzi et al 1988). Being rich urban dwellers, they could afford to build

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Page 9: A Dendrohistorical View of the Rural Dwelling in 19th Century Palestine

52 Biger and Liphschitz

Figure 6 A door made of Cedar of Lebanon in a dwelling house in a traditional Arab village

larger houses, which were used as farm houses rather than dwelling houses for them selves. These wealthy people, mostly merchants and bankers that had commercial links

with Turkey and Lebanon, could have taken advantage of these relationships and import suitable timber which grew in these countries for the construction of their farm houses.

Most of the timber found in the third type of rural village, the modern rural settle ment, was foreign, mainly brought from Europe. The wide use of European timber reflects the origin of people that emigrated to Israel and brought with them new construction methods and architecture as well as building materials. This is most prominent in the houses which were established by the Americans, who brought all the timber from their homeland in North-eastern United States (Liphschitz et al 1987). In the agricultural settlements built by the Germans (Figure 5) as well as in the Jewish settlements the percentages of the European timbers is very high as compared with the scarcity of timber made of local trees. This reflects the ample use of timber for con struction, mainly for tiled roofs which demanded timber construction as well as large

windows and doors according to the European style. In few Jewish settlements, mainly

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Rural dwellings in Palestine 53

''Afa

Figure 7 A large ruined farmhouse

in North Palestine, East Mediterranean timber was used (Biger and Liphschitz 1991). The close commercial relation between Northern Palestine and Lebanon might have helped the wood merchants to bring timber from Lebanon to this area. The introduc tion of steam ships and commercial relations with Europe and the United States helped to bring large quantities of European wood into Palestine during the second half of the 19th century (Avitzur 1972).

Therefore, the changes which took place in the second half of the 19th century in the rural landscape of Palestine can be demonstrated by historical-botanical investigation

which shows the different origin of the timber used for construction. During the 20th century most villages, new and traditional, have used and are still using, wood which is imported from Europe or Africa. Hence, no differences could be distinguished between the various types of the rural settlements. On the other hand, in a transitional period characterised by cultural and economic changes, historical-botanical analysis can illuminate the historical developments of the rural settlements in Palestine, and elsewhere.

Note 'This research was supported by The Fund for Basic Research Administered by The Israel Academy of

Sciences and Humanities.

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