Modern 20C

齊白石Qi BaiShi

Qing Renewal 18C

郎世宁Castiglione

Song Landscape 11C Song Flower & Bird 12C Song Ink 12C

梁楷Liang Kai

Guo Xi 郭熙

Huizong 徽宗

Jin 4C

Gu KaiZhi

顧愷之

Tang Portrait 8C

Zhang Xuan

張萱

All rights reserved. Rights belong to their respective owners. Available free for non-commercial, Educational and personal use. First created on April 2006. Version 3.0 - 19 Aug 2016. Jerry Tse. London.

A Brief History of Chinese PaintingA personal view on the development of Chinese painting

The Pre-history of Decorative Pictorial ArtsSome of the oldest pictorial arts in China.

Palaeolithic rock painting

Rock paintings are very difficult to date. Some date back to only 3-4000 years. Other claimed to be over 10,000 years old. Photo shows an old rock painting found in Helan Shan Ningxia near Yinchuan.

宁夏银川市以西 60 多公里处的贺兰山岩画

Decorative motifs on pottery

Yangshao 仰韶 pottery 3000 – 2000 BC

Pictorial decorations on bronze

Shang, Zhou, Warring States1500 -221 BC

Pictorial decorations on bronze

Shang, Zhou, Warring States1500 -221 BC

Buddhist Grotto mural

Buddhism arrived in China in the Han dynasty. The earliest Buddhist grotto mural is probably c4-5C AD during North & South Dynastic period.

Pictorial mural in tombs

Han 漢

After centuries of war, by the early years of Han Dynasty about 2C BC, a stable country enable China to return to wealth and prosperity. Decorative art flourished. Murals were very popular. They found in palaces, imperial schools, official buildings, temples etc. Most of the buildings did not survived and examples of these murals can now be found in tombs.

Decorative art on lacquer 3C BCFuneral banner on silk found in Tomb of Lady Dai

The Beginning of Painting - The Archaic Period

A clear distinction between art from craft is difficult to made. It is generally agreed that the history of Chinese painting began in the East Jin Dynasty 東 晉 (317-420).

The best known painter at the time was Gu Kaizhi 顧愷之 (346-407 AD). He was a court painter. None of his paintings survived but copies made centuries later had been attributed to him.

This is nearly a thousand years before the beginning of Renaissance in Europe.

Shang 商 c1600 - c1100 BCZhou 周 c1100 - 256 BCQin 秦 221 – 206 BCHan 漢 206 BC – 220 ADThree Kingdom 三國 220 – 265Jin晉 263 - 420Southern Dynasties 南 朝 317 – 589Northern Dynasties 北 朝 386 - 581Sui 隋 581 – 618Tang 唐 618 – 907Five Dynasty 五代 907 – 960Ten Kingdom 十國 907 – 979 Song 宋 960 – 1279 Yuan 元 1271 – 1368Ming 明 1368 – 1644Qing 清 1644 - 1911

Jin 東晉 (317-420 AD)

Palace Lady, attributed to Gu Kaizhi (317-407) from a 4-5th Century Tang copy. 女史箴图

東晉 Dynastic Periods

Gu Kaizhi 顧愷之 – Admonition Scroll 女史箴图The painting ‘Admonitions of the Court Instructress’, in the British Museum is one of the most famous Chinese paintings and possibly the oldest known painting attributed to a known Chinese painter.

An extensive study on the painting was carried out and the results published in 2001. It concludes that the painting is a copy of the original by Gu Kaizhi, painted around the 5th to the 7th century, by an unknown artist. The British Museum version of the painting has only 9 of the 12 scenes in the original, with 3 scenes missing.

Right. Scene 9 - Court Instructress Copies out the Admonitions, a detail scene on the Admonition Scroll. After Gu Kaizhi (c345-406). British Museum

Jin 東晉 (317-420)

Gu Kaizhi 顧愷之 – Admonition Scroll 女史箴图

Left. Lady Feng and the guards fighting off the bear (not shown). Right. Family scene. Detail scenes from the Admonition Scroll. After Gu Kaizhi (c345-406). British Museum

Jin 東晉 (317-420)

Northern Wei Northern Wdi 北魏 (386-535)

Since the 60s and 70s Chinese archaeology made many discoveries. It has given us a better picture of the development of arts in China. Like this narrative figures painted on the lacquer screen from an excavated tomb.

Many practices and conventions were formulated and continued to use for centuries to come.

Tang Dynasty – The Flowering of Chinese painting

China returned to a period of stability and prosperity in Tang. All major genres of Chinese painting – Figure, Landscape, Flower & Bird, Buddhist and even monochrome ink painting, began in Tang.

Pre-Tang is the Archaic period of Chinese painting and Tang is the foundation on which all genres and schools of Chinese painting were built on.

Most of the famous painters of the time were court painters.

A copy Lady Kuo-kuo and Her Sisters Setting Forth on an Outing. Zhang Xuan. Palace Museum. Tang women were among some of the most liberated women in the history of China, as the painting showed ladies were allowed riding in the out door. 張萱

唐

Man Herding Horses. Han Gan. 韓幹

Tang 唐 (618 – 907)

Tang Dynasty – Wang Wei’s Snow scene.

Wang Wei (698-759 Tang). He was a literary giant and influential painter in Chinese culture, as well as an official in the government. Note the vanishing landscape on the left and the birds perching and flying on the top of the trees. 王維 - 诗中有画，画中有诗

Tang 唐 (618 – 907)

Princess Yongtai and entourage (Detail). Tang dynasty tomb fresco. Note the fashion and the transparent fan, the low cut dress. Taken in Princess Yountai’s tomb in Xian, China. May 1984.

Tang Dynasty – Tomb Fresco Tang 唐 (618 – 907)

Tang 唐 (618 – 907)

唐

Tang Dynasty Buddhist painting

Buddhism arrived in China via the silk road, around 1st Century AD, during the Han Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was openly welcoming foreign influences. There were numerous travels of Chinese Buddhist monks to India either by land or by sea.

Tang Dynasty - Palace Concert 宮樂圖 Tang 唐 (618 – 907)

The painting shows 10 court ladies and two standing servants. The court ladies are drinking tea, while others drink wine and playing music – pipes, gugin, lute and flute. There is a small dog under the table. Note Tang make-up on the ladies and their hair style. (a larger image to follow).

Tang Dynasty - Court Ladies Preparing Newly Woven Silk 搗練圖卷

As nearly all historical Chinese paintings were painted on silk with water based colours, they aged badly. In time, the silk turns black and lost its colours and attractiveness. The above painting is the exception. It is one of the best preserved historical paintings scroll I have ever seen, because it was painted on a layer of gold on silk, close to a thousand year ago. It is striking when this is compared to China’s most famous painting Qingming Shang He Tu, which was painted at the same period and hardly visible.

Tang 唐 (618 – 907)

The painting is a copy of an earlier painting by Zhang Xuan in the Tang Dynasty roughly about 400 years earlier. It was probably painted by no other than the Song Dynasty emperor of Huizong. The costumes and the make-up were all in Tang’s style. Note the use of burning charcoal to iron the newly woven silk cloth.

During Tang Dynasty, the Silk Road traffic with India was flourishing again. The Maritime route between India and China was being developed. Buddhist pilgrims travelled to India. During this period we saw the rise of the Buddhist influences on Chinese painting.

Tang 唐 (618 – 907)

Tang Dynasty – Buddhist Painting

The Zen painting of Shi Ke Five Dynasty 五代 (907 – 960)石恪

Shi Ke was a Chinese Ink Wash painter of Zen Buddhism.

Song (960 – 1279) 宋A zenith of Chinese Painting

Wang Xi meng painted the above scene at the age of 18 at the Imperial Painting Academy. He died soon afterward.

About 200 to 300 years before the beginning of Renaissance in Europe or about 700 years since Gu Kaizhi, Chinese painting reached a zenith in its development, with all the branches of painting reached new heights, during the Song Dynasty (960-1279).

Song Dynasty was divided into Northern Song and Southern Song. In 1127, the capital N Song of Kaifang 開封 was overran by Jin 金 and the capital was moved to Hangzhou 杭州 . Song had always adopted a policy of in favour of the scholar official instead of the military. It was the ‘Golden age’ of scholar officials. As a result, Song was culturally and scientifically sophisticated but militarily very weak.

Song 宋 (960 – 1279)

Song Dynasty, the turning point. Song 宋 (960 – 1279)

Up until Song, naturalism was the main goal of painting development. Gradually, naturalism was replaced by the subjective and spiritualistic influences of the Impressionistic Literati movement, in late Song.

Objective views were replaced by the subjective views of the world. The Literati movement dominated the development of Chinese painting since and up until modern times.

Painters were taught not to copy nature but to paint the images in their mind.

During Song Dynasty the Chinese paintings reached a zenith. Science and performing arts e.g. opera, also flourished.

Children at Play on a Winter Day. Anonymous. Song. Palace Museum. Taipei.

Jagged Rocks and Bamboo Grove. Xia Chang. Ming.

Literati - Self Expressionism 文人画The Literati movement began by the Scholar Officials in Song, with Su Shih 苏轼 (1036-1101) being its chief spokesman. By Yuan Dynasty, it was the main stream of Chinese painting. In contrast, the court painting tradition was in decline.

Painting became a way of self expressions and personal cultivation. Plum blossoms, orchids, bamboo and chrysanthemums were the symbols of the movement, representing the moral qualities of the Confucius scholars. Daoism and Buddhism helped to reinforce this development toward the subjective view of the world. Painters were less interested in paint nature as it was but more interesting in using nature to express themselves. This took Chinese painting in a different direction from naturalism. It was the main stream of Chinese painting until early Qing Dynasty, with its influence felt even today.

Literati painted mostly landscape

Lofty Mount Lu. Shen Zhou. 沈周 1467. Ming.

Song 宋 (960 – 1279)

Bamboo. 1350 Wu Xhen. 吳鎮 (1280 – 1354). Yuan. National Palace Museum. Taipei.

Three main categories – Portrait, Landscape and Flower & Birds

The Chinese painting is traditional divided into 3 genres based on subject matter, but it makes more sense to include the Buddhist painting, as the fourth genre. The Portrait and the Buddhist painting being the oldest then followed by Landscape and then Flowers& Birds, sometimes called Gongbi 工筆 painting.

Portrait Landscape Flowers & Birds Buddhist

Late 12C - Early 13C (Song) by Zhang Sigon.

Early Spring. 1072 (Song). Monumental Landscape by Guo Xi.

16C (Qing). Anonymous. Bodhisattva as Guide of Souls. 9C (Tang). Anonymous.

Figure Painting and Portraiture.

Figure Painting was first developed in the 4C. It always associated with court painters. It has an affinity with naturalism. At times, Literati Impressionism influences were being felt. From the series of portraits above, it is clear from the development of naturalism was stopped in the 12-13C. It experienced a revival in Qing in the 18C. Last portrait above shows undoubtedly Western influence.

人物

2-3C Han 4C JinMid 7C Early Tang Late 10C Early Song Late 10C Early Song

Early 13C Late Song Mid 13C Late Song Late 13C Yuan

Late 15C Ming18C Qing - Emperor Kangxi

Landscape 1 山水Early development of Landscape can be traced back to 8C in Tang. After the collapse of Tang, during the Five Dynasty many painters sought refuge in the mountains, leading to the development of Monumental Landscape style.

Left - A Monumental Landscape by Guo Xi 郭熙 N Song 1072. From the moral order of the Five Dynasties, landscape became more heroic and timeless in N Song.

宋A Song Literati landscape by Mu Qi 牧溪 , with a impressionistic look.

宋

Right - Landscape by Huang Gongwang 黃公望 . 1350. Yuan. Monochrome more impressionistic. Could have painted by Wang Wei in Tang, some 600 years ago.

元

Landscape 2

Composition and styles were essentially unchanged from Song to Qing. Literati influence is strongest in Yuan but can still be seen in Qing. Ming’s landscape paintings were similar to those in Song.

山水 Left - Dong Qichang 董其昌 (Late Ming) More colour. Essentially Song Landscape.

明

Qing’s landscape painting were more colourful and saw the return of Monumental Landscape painting. Individual styles began to emerge.

Tang Yin 唐寅 (Mid Ming 1523) used a tried and tested composition form.

明

Wang Hui 王翚 one of the orthodox painter. Painted in 1692. The return of the Monumental Landscape.

清

Shitao 石涛 late 17C Qing, a nonformist, impressionistic in style.

清

Flowers & Birds 花鸟The development of Flower & Bird paintings is one of the main driver toward naturalism and it is the last of the three major genres to be developed. Its origin can be traced back to the Animal painting of Tang and to the floral decorations on Buddhist art.

Literali movement has also made its influence fell here. Song marked the height of its development. During the reign of Song Huizong (1082-1135), over half of the imperial collections were Flower & Bird paintings. Naturalism has achieved to such a degree of naturalism that individual species can be identified easily in painting.

Qing saw a revival of the Flower & Birds genre with new vigour. The hare ran across the path noisily. The jay asked “What is the

hurry to disturbed the peace?”. The hare turned and looked back,

at the jay. Hare & Jays. 1061. Cai Bai 崔白 National Palace Museum. Taipei.

The Zen Buddhist and Dao 禪道

The scope of sacred art in China is vast. The presentation only refer to Buddhist paintings with known artists.

The first well-known Ch’an or Zen and Dao painters in China were Guanxiu 貫休 and Shi Ko 石恪 in the late Tang and early Five Dynasties, around the 10th century.

Buddhism and Daoism played a significant role in the history of Chinese painting, from the beginnings of the landscape tradition to the origins of the literati movement. It is difficult to isolate any distinctly elements and styles across the entire spectrum of sacred painting, apart from its subject matter.

Patriarch and Tiger (copy after Shi Ko 石恪 ) 10th Century.

五代十國

Sakyamuni Preaching. Zhang Sheng Wen 張勝溫 Late12thC.

宋

Along the River During the Qingming Festival c1127 Song 宋 (960 – 1279)

This is regarded as the most precious Chinese painting. It depicts the Northern Song capital in round 1127.

Along the River During the Qingming Festival c1127 Song 宋 (960 – 1279)

This is detail section of the 5 meters scroll in the last slide. As the scroll unrolls views of different parts of the city are revealed. The original painting is in a very fragile state and it is unlike to leave China. It is permanently stored in special box. The original painting can hardly be seen, as the silk had turned black. The two images here had been digitally enhanced, so the painting can be seen. The painting shows a bustling of city in Qingming festival (around early April), when grain ships arrived in the capital bring grain from south China. The painting is like a time machine, which took us back into history some about 900 years ago.

Yuan Dynasty – Self Expressionism元Song Dynasty ended in 1279. Not since the Qin Dynasty, the Chinese experienced such a repressive regime. Many of the scholar officials were no longer work for the bureaucracy. They were in recluse.

As the Imperial Academy was defunct and court painting was in decline, there was a fundamental shift toward literati painting. Chinese painting entered into the stage of Self Expressionism, in which paintings reflect the moral and self-cultivation of the painter. Instead artists painted for their own enjoyment, to limited audiences. All attempts to develop naturalism further was abandoned.

During this period, landscape painting became the dominant subject, though which the literati was able to use it as a form of expression. In term this led to monotony of subject-matter and reduction of compositions (few objects in painting). It is also an era of monochrome bamboo and plum flowers paintings.

A rather untypical of late Yuan painting by Wang Meng 王蒙(c13081385), being a more colourful and more complex composition.

Flowers & Birds Yuan 元 1271 – 1368)

Ming Dynasty - Revivalism 明The return of ethnic Han’s rule with the founding of the Ming Dynasty, led to revivalism. Painters were looking backward into history and innovations were not encouraged. It was only in late Ming that sparks of innovations started to appear.

The return of the Imperial Academy bought back some of the Bird & Flowers painting styles of Song. However, the Literali movement was firmly established and continued its expansion to dominate the general thinking of artistic activities.

Guan Yu capturing His Enemy Pang De (Detail). Ming. Shang Xi 商喜

Gibbons at Play. 1427. Emperor Xuan De 宣德

Ming 明 (1368 – 1644)

Ming 明 (1368 – 1644)The Unfortunates by Zhou Chen

This Unfortunates. 1516 (Ming Dynasty 1366-1644). Ink & colour on paper by Zhou Chen 周臣 (1460-1535).

Qing – Revitalised Energy 清Paintings in Qing can be divided into three main schools – Orthodox, Individualistic and Eccentric. Paintings get a boost from its contact with the West. Paintings become more colourful.

The Orthodox was the major current in Early Qing when Manchu Emperors were busy embracing the traditional Han culture. It continued the tradition of painting monumental landscape, perhaps with a bit more colour.

The Individualists introduced stylistic changes to traditional painting. Among them were Shitao 石涛 and Zhu Da 朱耷 , who were monks, influenced by Ch’an paintings.

The Eccentric School begin in the 18C, with the “Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou” 楊州八怪 . It was the beginning of commercial painting in China. Their eccentricity was employed very successfully as a marketing tool.

One of the Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhoul.

Prosperous Suzhou 姑蘇繁華 by Xu Yang 徐揚 Qing 清 1644 - 1912

Prosperous Suzhou.1759. Ink & colour on silk. 35.6x1153 cm. Xu Yang. Chinese. Liaoning Provincial Museum.

Detail scenes to follow.

During the early Qing Dynasty, the long scroll cityscape genre paintings were very popular. The style was started in Song Dynasty by Zhang Zeduan, with his famous painting, Along the River during the Qingming Festival. This type of genre paintings are very rare as it demand a lot of detail work. A genre cityscape scroll may take half a dozen artists, some five or six years to complete. Many of these were made to document the southern tours of the Qing emperors, giving us a gleam into the daily life of the time.

Prosperous Suzhou姑蘇繁華

by Xu Yang徐揚Qing 清 1644 - 1912

Perfumed bathhouse

Passenger ferry

Traffic Jam

Wine & cake shops

Money exchange

Boot shop

Prosperous Suzhou姑蘇繁華

by Xu Yang徐揚Qing 清 1644 - 1912

The painting was painted to show the prosperity of China, during the reign of Emperor Qianlong.

Impact of the West - Giuseppe Castiglione

Qing 清 1644 - 1912

Giuseppe Castiglione 郎世寧 (1688-1766) was an Italian Jesuit, who arrived in Macau in 1715. Macau was the place where missionary to China was trained in the Chinese language and culture before starting their life in China. Castiglione was sent to China by the request of the Qing emperor for a painter. He adapted his Western painting style to Chinese themes and taste.

The arrival of Giuseppe Castiglione marked the beginning of Western influence on Chinese paintings, within and outside the court. It provided the impetus for Chinese painting to break away from centuries of stagnations, to explore new styles and new subject matters that we can still witness today.

Modern Chinese Movements – A New Beginning 现代Western painting gave traditional Chinese painting a boost in Qing Dynasty. In the early 20th century there was a strong desire of the Chinese artists wanting a decisive break with the past and to branch out, while others wanted to incorporate the Western approach in a Chinese context. This was also echoed in the politics of the period.

Paintings became more colourful and the subject matter widened significantly. In the early half of the century, we had The Shanghai School, the Lingnan School and the Woodcut movements. Many artists were consciously experimenting or importing Western techniques and styles, to merge with the traditional Chinese painting.

The second half of the 20C Chinese painting was dominated by political the atmosphere at the time. The early years saw the strong influence of the official Soviet art. In the final years of the 20C, Chinese painting was once again freed to find its outlets.

Lotus and Frog. 1954. Qi Baishi. 齊白石

Xu Beihong (1895-1953) a modern Chinese painter, who drew inspirations from the traditional as well as Western sources. He studies in France.

A modern Chinese woodcut

The Chinese woodcut has a very long history in China. It originates as woodblock printing. The earliest dates back to the Han Dynasty (206BC -220 AD).

In the 20th Century, Chinese woodcut underwent a dramatic renaissance, which saw the introduction of more expressionistic and realistic techniques, drawing inspiration from the West as well as from Japan. On the right is modern woodcut by Yuan Qinglu in 1995.

Although the water based Chinese painting limit its ability to represent real objects. However, it is not difficult to imagine that the Chinese would have painted with oil, if there is such a need. The fact that the Chinese did not do so, suggest that naturalism is not the primary driving force behind their painting, at least after the Song Dynasty. As we seen previously, this is highlighted by the development of the Literati Movement.

Another noticeable difference is the format (or size) of their paintings. The Chinese favour hanging scroll and hand scroll in which different parts of the painting is revealed simply by scrolling the painting. Thus the Chinese perspectives is the perspective of a moving observer. This is not unlike the computer game graphic (isometric) perspective, which is also used in Engineering drawings. This contrast with the single stationary observer perspectives developed in the West.

Both the West and the Chinese also use tonal perspective to give painting its depth by fading of strong colours to show receding distances.

Chinese painting is primarily water based, compare to the oil base painting of the West. According to John Berger oil painting was invented so that it can present a object accuracy or to create an illusion of reality.

“What distinguishes oil painting from any other form of painting is its special ability to render the tangibility, the texture, the lustre, the solidity of what it depicts. It defines the real as that which you can put your hands on.” Ways of Seeing p88.

Some Different between the Western and Chinese traditions

Perspectives in Chinese Painting

Chinese paintings use a different techniques to express perspectives. Unlike the West’s single point or station perspective, the Chinese use a moving point perspective. Therefore Chinese paintings has no vanishing point. It also uses colours to enhance distance. Chinese paintings do not use shading and objects can appear flat and without solidity.

The way perspective used in Chinese painting scroll is like a bird flying along the scene at 20m to 30m high, varying its height and distance as it goes along. There is no clear horizon in the painting. It is a truly bird eye view of the area. It is similar to perspective used in engineering technical drawings.

A device used to draw parallel lines thus maintaining the isometric perspective, like engineering drawing.

Restaurant on the upper floor.

The Environment of the practitioners - Painters

The history of Western painting began around 13-14C. Many of the early painters were craftsmen. They depended their livelihoods on patronage and more importantly on commissions. It was common that well-know painters had their own workshops to help in the production of paintings. Competition between rivals led to improvement in techniques, which can made rapid changes in decades.

Religion particular the use of paintings in churches played a crucial role in the early development of painting in the West. Masterpieces are on displayed in church for all to see.

By the 17C painters started to sell their paintings to the middle class in the Netherlands, making it possible for artists to pursue an independent career as a painter.

Chinese painters were primarily scholar officials or court painters, who do not need to win commissions and to earn a living from selling their paintings. In fact the practice was frown on. They normally came from the more privilege background.

Painting together calligraphy were seen as part of the activity of the educated elites. Unless one had the access of the imperial painting library or belong to the Scholar Official class, masterpieces were unlikely to be seen by the public.

Commercial paintings only appeared in China in the mid-19C.

Observations and Conclusions

The answer to the question why the Chinese never develop naturalism to the same level of the West is that they did not want to. Naturalism was not their goal. [at least after Song]

This outcome must throw back to the cultural context, the philosophy and the social values in which Chinese painting was developed. In my view the critical environment for the development of painting in China and in the West were affected by the social, economic and political environment of its practitioners, ie. the roles of the painters in its historical settings and their relationship with society.

From the history of painting in the West and in the China, the early driving force is naturalism. Once reached the driver for further development passes from the objective reality in painting to subjective expressionism of the artists. The collision of two cultures, the West and the Chinese, in this case does not lead to the suppression or domination of one cultures over another. The impact of Western painting gave the Chinese new incentives to revitalise its own tradition, which remains virtually unchanged for 700 years between Song and Qing Dynasties.

Giotto 14C

Appendix - Confession and Words of Caution

Because most of Chinese paintings were painted on silk, which darken with age. Unlike oil paintings, they do not preserve well. Furthermore the much longer history of Chinese painting mean it has more time to deteriorate. Thus it is more difficult to appreciate Chinese painting in its original state. All the paintings in this presentation have been digitally altered to produce a clearer image, with different degrees of satisfaction. Thus many of the paintings in this presentation would look different in books or other alternate media.

Furthermore many of the original paintings were lost because of the length of time involved and works by well known painters are usually copies made by other lesser painters at a later period.

The presentation is based on an essay I wrote during Christmas of 2001 to construct a model of understanding of the history of Chinese painting. The model gives me a valuable perspective to relate to other Chinese paintings I encounter.

The purpose of the presentation is to share with the reader, a simple, clear cut understanding of the historical development of Chinese painting in the briefest possible way. Like any other model, it should be tested to destruction, as you explore Chinese paintings in the future.

The major risk of this approach is over-simplification. Inevitably, I can only focus on the main events and the main currents in history. In reality, history is more complicate and never clear cut as presented. Counter movements and currents are part of history and like all generality in history must be heavily qualified.

All rights reserved. Rights belong to their respective owners. Available free for non-commercial and personal use.

The End

Music – Chopin Etude No 3 Op 10 E Major ‘Tristesse’, performed by Lang Lang.

Wang Meifang and Zhao Guojing. Flowers & Birds style, contemporary.

History Powerpoints