Another new important development was a recommendation to govern- ments to establish transparent mechanisms at the national level to evaluate protectionism sought by firms and sectors. and their implica- tions for both the domestic economy and for developing countries. Fmally. endorsing the organization’s work programme on services. the Confer- ence requested UNCTAD to analyse the implications of issues and prob- lems raised in the context of trade in services.

AI far as particular problems of least-developed countries are con- cerned the Conference stressed. irlter alia. the need for their national efforts to enhance development, diversifica- tion and structural adjustment through mobilization of human and other resources. the provlslon of in- centlves and the strengthening of their planning capacity. At the internation- al level, the need for the full imple- mentation of the ‘Substantial new programme of action for the 1980s for least developed countries’ was reaf- firmed. Increases in grants and other financial flows (particularly on conces-

sionary terms). an expansion of tech- nical assistance and cancellation of official development assistance debts were also recommended. Mention was also made of the need to support the efforts of least-developed countries to increase food production.

To conclude, the Conference took few decisions which could be im- plemented immediately to remedy some of the world economic prob- lems. Nevertheless. It did appear to mark a shift in thinkmg and percep- tions about these problems. More- over, it agreed on a comprehensive framework wlthin which attempts should be made to resolve the inter- related problems of debt, commod- ities and the trading system for revita- lization of growth, development and internatlonal trade.

S. M. Sha faeddin Versolx, Switzerland

The author IS a staff member of the UNCTAD secretariat. The views ex- pressed here are those of the author and do not necessanly represent those of the UNCTAD secretanat The author IS grate- ful to Mr Y. Berthelot, M. Zammit Cutajar

The importance of consumer beliefs

September-2 October 1987

This 7th Congress of Food Science and Technology, held in Singapore, was attended by over 1000 delegates’ and associates with over SO0 scientific con- tributions bemg presented at 50 sebs- ion\ during the four days of the meetmg.

Five of the seven speakers of the plenary lectures were concerned with human factors The economic milieu to be anticipated till AI> 2000 and the past (and future) development of functions of the International Union were considered by Dr Kmg and Professor Hawthorn. while Professor Bender discussed the growing interest in the interactions of diet and health. He warned of the dangers of acting on

7th World Congress of Food Science and Technology organized by the Singapore Institute of Food Science and Technology under the auspices of the International Union of Food Science and Technology, Smgapore, 28

unproven hypotheses. Dr Hulse. who has directed major a\sistancc prog- rammes. warned (as had Professor Bender) that the elimination of hun- ger is now a political rather than a technical problem. Dr Hulse stressed that proper planning should consider the rational, orderly allocatlon of re- sources. of which the human resource IS the most Important Thought must be given to the employment of people displaced from land or labour bl modern methods If the fabric of societies IS not to he disrupted. Dr Baumann spoke of the need for close relations between 011 staff (manage- ment, marketing, productlon sales and services) if an industrial organization

and A. Cornford for their valuable com- ments, but he IS solely responsible for any shortcomings

‘The secretariat submitted a report to the Conference Introducing Its own assess- ment of the world economic situation and policy optrons (See Revita//z/ng Develop- ment, Growth and lntematronal Trade, Assessment and folrcy Opbons, docu- ment TD/328/Rev 1, Umted Nations, New York, NY, USA, 1987.) The Secretary- General of UNCTAD also submitted his own report, Rev/vmg Multrlateral Co- operation for Growth and Development, document 329iRev 1, United Natlons, New York, NY, USA, 1987 ‘Some positive steps in this direction had already been taken In recent summits of the main lndustnallzed countries in Tokyo, Louvre and Pans. 3When the Fund comes Into operation, It IS

expected to contribute, through its ftrst account, to buffer stocking of commodities covered by commodity agreements. Through its second account it would contn- bute to activities on developmental meas- ures, research, marketing, etc 4The Fund could start operation when pledges of ratlflcation by countries which have signed the agreement are fulfllled, and the total percentage of directly contn- buted capital IS brought to 66 95% (In order to come into force, the Common Fund Agreement must be ratified by 90 countries accounting for two-thirds of the directly contributed capital.)

is to be successful; he illustrated how these objectlves could be met.

Professor Linko described develop- ments in biotechnology. He instanced work in Finland where barley starch is used industrially to manufacture sugars (dextrose. glucose and maltose syrups, high fructose products and pure fructose) by enzyme techmques. He also outlined future possible ap- plications of biotechnology.

Maillard reactions

The Maillard reactions, by which different substance\ are formed. occur between protems and sugars m food. Some provide colour (of bread crusts and roasts) or aromas (of cooked food) while other5 give rise to ‘off flavours’ (of ctale products). Some

Maillard products are towlc, others

have beneficial actions. Professor Kate Hiromichl reviewed the research

FOOD POLICY May 1988 217

on Maillard reaction\ which 14 exsen-

ti:rl If these tr~unsformnti~)ns ;lrc to be

f:ivournbly controlled.

The overall Impression from the presentations at the Congress con- firms that ‘quality ;md ‘fitness for

purpose ’ are now prcfcrred research

objective\.

About 40% ~ :~lmo\t 700 ~ of the

papers described proces\lng research.

:tbout 100 of which were concerned

with physlc;il technques \uch ax expeller-eutrudcr methods (over 30). with ;I further 40 rclatcd to ultrafiltra-

tion. reverse osmosis, aseptic h:mdlmg

and Irr:ldi:ltlon of foods. Another 40

submissions reported use of biotech-

nological products such ;IS ent.ymr\.

:miino acid\. flavourinp agents :md

biomass. M:my contribution\ discus-

sed traditional fermented foods of

Asia. Africa and South Americ:t

while, by contrast. httlr w;is \aid

:ibout European food fermrnt:ltions.

Raw materials

Char:lctcristlcs of raw materl;lls :rre of

concern to food processor\ ;is well ;ks

to agriculturahsts competing in :in

oversupplied market. Some 70 pre-

sent:itions investigated r;iw rii:itcrl:ds,

tither features Importiunt for present

use\ or propertles which could cncour- age novel :ipplications.

About 200 papers described food ‘quality’. with overall quality and

nutrition each attritcting over 50 prc-

srntations. Further papers referred to

problems of analyst\ for production control alid the detection of toxin\ and

contaminants whether chemical or

microbial. Most of the remaining prr-

sent:itmn\ related to storqe ~ 20

referring to the Maillard reactions

Several papers dc:dt with legal

problems - how to ensure standard\

without hindering innovation or intcr-

mltmnal trade. Education for manage-

ment, marketing, production :md re-

search w;ls thoughtfully dlscusaed.

The maJor issues covered under the

topic of entering were problems of

quality assurance in iurline operations

nnd problems relating to food-borne

infections. The ‘Huwker centrcs’ of Singapore

were established to provide the

itinerant providers of ‘reitdy to eat’

food with permanent sites to ensure

approved conditions of hygiene :md

cle:mllness. Success is obvious from

thr popuklty of these centre\. the

qu:ility of the food :md the low IIICI-

dence of food-related disca4c in Singa-

pore. These centre\ were tt~cellcnt

local exemplar\ of wh:it I\ possible

with educ:ltion. legi+tmn and In\prc-

tion. M:my regret th:lt \lrnll:n high

standards ;tre ithsent from sonic so-

called developed countrle\!

Methods entailing brief exposure to

very high temperatures (LJI {T) effcc-

tively elimimltc microorganisms with-

out seriously aftccting fla\our. UHT

processes ;ire used on ;I Lirge scale for

hquids (which c;m be quickly he:ited

:md cooled) \uch ;I\ milk and fruit

juice. Problems of heat penekltion

(nnd thus of sterlhty) :md handling

have prevented applic:ltion of UHT to

preparations contulning solids. Sevcr-

al papers showed that thrsc difficult&

h:lvr now largely been ovc‘rcomc.

Ecpnpment :md processes were de-

scribed for the continuous UHT ster-

Ihzation of particulate foods and their

trmisfer to, nnd sealing within. sterile

cont:nncrs under :l\cptic condition\.

The requirements for product ;md

process ;ipprovJ in the USA were

presented :md it W;I~ stated that these

product\ ;ire about to be marheted.

Safety assessment

Safety evaluation, especially of fla-

vours, presents sermus problems in

that about 7300 \&stances ;Lre known

to be prc\cnt m fkivours, whether

natural or \ynthetlc. :md that these

will ultimately require s:ifrty ;issess-

ment p:irticularly in relation to c;ircI-

nogenr\ls. A few ye;lrs ago ;I simple

microbi:il test for mutqrnicity

appeared to offer ;I quick solution but

it is now known that mutagen\ :lre not

carcinogens :md many carcinogens ;lrc

not mutagens. The animal test. with

:LII its problems. cannot now be

avoided. Dr Hall noted the es\entlal

features (often previously nrglcctrd)

for these test\: (I) the euperimcnt

must recognize the clrcumstancc\ of

use 111 the human diet (eg subskmccs

mu4t not be given by injection);

(7) multiple dose\ ;lre essctntl:ll to

brilchet putative human experlrnce,

and (3) extraneou\ effects must be

:lvoided such ;IS tho\c :uislng from

dietary deficiencies or from the LIW of

:mim;lls which are p:lrtlcularly SLIS-

crptlble to disorders being investi-

gated. Two of the topics discus4 have ;I

lot to offer. but face considerable

problems in their qq4lcatlon\. One IS

the u\e of hormcme\ to Improve the

yield and qu;ility of :inim;tl products.

The other i\ the nppllcation ot irradia-

tion to incrca\c the s:lfety :md shelt

life of foods.

Hormones

Certain synthetic substances with hor-

mon:il effects were once used in e~ces-

\ive amounts. Mr:lt from treated

imimals led to very serIou\ effects when incorporated into infant foods.

The uhe of these substances. which are quite different from any natural hor- mones of the body. w;~s rapidly prohl- bited. Many different hormones art’ formed In the body and are ub- quitously present m aII animal pro- ducts. These hormones arc now avail- :1bk and \ome Improve output of

animal products. Numerou\ Invcstlga-

tions show the products to bc safe :rnd

to contain hormones of the same type

:ind :Lt similar concentr:itions ;IS nor-

Mel. The EEC hits. ho-ever. pro- po\ed the complete ban of all hor- mone\ in spite of the finding\ of man) Gentific groups and of It\ own \peclfl- tally appointed commlttee. This odd

political m:mifc\tation mav result

from ;I failure to appreckte tc:lt differ-

ent substances c:m exert hormonal

effects ~ some urc dnngerous. others

;ire univrrsiilly present in animal tis- sues.

Thirty years of invrstigatlon have failed to \how harmful effects from Irradiated foods though the proce\\ can eliminate pathogens and increa\r storage life. Several countries and the Co&x Alimentariu\ of the UN have

approved Irradiation. Many consumer organizations have \uch grave reserve- tlons that the procas may not be

commercially viable in 4omc‘ countries even if legally permissible. Several paper\ reported public mistrust of irradiation and the fact that thl\ prob- ;tbly depends on the strong a\\oclation

FOOD POLICY May 1988

between the term ‘irradiated’ and the harmful effects of ‘radioactivity’. This relation has led many to beheve that trradtated food is radioactive and so could lead to harm.

Both of these processes could be beneficial were it not for mistaken beliefs. These two instances should warn manufacturers and innovators that even when all needs for safety, costs and convenience are met. suc- cess still depends on the beliefs of the consumer. If these are adverse the facts become Irrelevant. Who would serve sucking pig in blecca. or

horsemeat steaks at a pony club din- ner, no matter how nutritious or hygienic these products might be?

W.F. J. Cuthbertson Harefield

Middlesex, UK

‘The strength of the UK contrngent (about 70 delegates), tncludtng a substanttal proportton of young food sctentrsts, was greatly augmented by frnancral assrstance from the Royal Society, the UK Councrl for Food Science and Technology and from the Socrety of Chemical Industry. whose help IS gratefully acknowledged.

Book reviews

The mutual benefits of reducing agricultural assistance NATIONAL POLICIES AND

AGRICULTURAL TRADE

OECD, Paris, France, 1987, 333 ppg FF 2500 hb, FF 120 pb

Fourteen years ago when Professor Timothy Josling outlined the method- ology for calculating assistance to agri- culture which IS central to Nrrr~~r~rrl Poli&s rml Agm’ultwrrl Trrrtle. it

would have been unthinkable that all the OECD governments would have agreed to the publication of this book under the OECD imprint. with a title which directly linked national agrt- cultural policies and agricultural trade

Even five years ago, when the OECD mmisterial meeting provided the mandate to ‘Analyse the approaches and methods for ;I bal- anced and gradual reduction of pro- tection for agriculture, and the fuller integration of agriculture within the open multtlateral trading system .‘, the mandate was still hedged with qualifications about the ‘specificity’ of agriculture and the need for ‘compata- bihty between agricultural policies and ‘orderly’ trade.

This book is therefore a very signifi- cant publicatton, since it constitutes

the first offtctal recognition by all OECD governments ~ albett implicitly by their tactt acceptance of the text - that domestic agricultural policies are the direct cause of the agrtcultural trade problem.

The agricultural trade problem IS

well known and is documented throughout the book. Global produc- tton of most major bulk agricultural commodities has risen to the point where the surpluses avanable for in- ternational trade grossly exceed the international market’s capacity to absorb them, even at prices which are heavily subsidized, or all but inadequ-

ate to provide reasonable returns to

the most efficient exporters.

Footing the hill

The root cause of this imbalance lies in the domestic policies of most of the developed - and Increasingly of the developmg - countries where. in an attempt to achieve various strategic, socud and environmental objectives, subsidies are paid to producers. or prices for agricultural produce are set at higher levels than would be neces- sary tf only economtc considerattons were taken into account. As a result producers respond to the distorted

price signals by increasing production. and consumers by decreasing or hold- ing static consumptton. The taxpayer and/or consumer foots the bill.

The resulting imbalance bctwecn consumption and production is cx- ported. typically with a subsidy, to disrupt such tntrrnattonal markets as

do exist, or is stored at htgh cost and wtth the threat of future market dts- ruption.

The Increases in production are made possible by ;I vast reservoir of agricultural technology whose effects, in my opinion, may defeat attempts to reduce production for many more years than this book appears to anti- cipate.

The heart of the book, in which the agricultural trade problem 1s quantt- fied and analysed, IS an I l-country, 14commodtty model of agrtcultural production. demand and trade In this model a complex system of supply and demand elasticities are used to de- scribe demand, supply and effective

prices to producer and consumer for the various commodittes tn each coun- try. Countries are linked through trade: again. elasticity esttmates pro- vide the method by which consumers and producers can respond to changes in world prices. Changes in world

prices are assumed to be passed back

fully to consumers and producers.

The key policy concept which I\

used to trigger changes in world prices

and to link domestic agricultural poli-

cies and agricultural trade is the PSE -

the Producer Subsidy Equivalent. A

less important concept 1s the CSE. or

Consumer Subsidy Equivalent. The CSE is also quantified and discussed In

the text.

Essentially the PSE is a summation

of: (I) direct and imphctt budgetary

payments to producers in the indt-

vidual countries (eg income transfers, input subsidies, tax rebates, subst- dized R&D, etc): and (2) market price

support to producers m the various

countries.’ The PSE is. therefore. ;I

comprehenstve estimate of the level of

assistance to producers in the various

countries which can be expressed

either as an aggregate monetary sum,

or per unit of production, or as ;I

percentage of producer values.

The CSE, the other measure of

FOOD POLICY May 1988 219