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THIRD MILLENNIUM BUSINESS RESOURCE ASSOCIATES PRIVATE LIMITED 1

THIRD MILLENNIUM BUSINESS RESOURCE ASSOCIATES PRIVATE LIMITED

• Corporate Consulting • Learning, Development and Education • Human Resource Policies • Placement

• Corporate Consulting • Learning, Development and Education • Human Resource Policies • Placement

Study Material

PGDM Programme : 2009-11

Jagannath International Management School

Kalkaji, New Delhi

Study Material

PGDM Programme : 2009-11

Jagannath International Management School

Kalkaji, New Delhi


Trimester - IV

Paper

Training and Development

Unit – I: Training and Development – An Overview

Sub TopicsConcept of Training and DevelopmentModels of TrainingLearning and Training

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Human Resource (Personnel) Management

Traditional Definition

Human resource management is the moulding of the human resources in such a fashion that the goals of the organisation are met and at the same time the need satisfaction of all the employees at all the levels is attained to the highest possible degree.

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Human Resource (Personnel)

Management …Contd. Modern DefinitionHuman Resource (Personnel) Management is the planning, organising, directing and controlling of the procurement, development, compensation, integration, maintenance, and separation of human resources to the end that individual, organisational and societal objectives are are accomplished. - Edwin B. Flippo

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Human Resource (Personnel) Management …Contd.

Contemporary Definition

Human resource management (HRM) is the effective management of people at work. HRM examines what can or should be done to make working people more productive and satisfied. - John M. Ivancevich

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Profile of An HR ProfessionalTo be a successful strategic human resource management professional, one needs to have the negotiation skills of Mahatma Gandhi,the care and compassion of Mother Teresa,the brain of Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, the big picture mentality of Late Dhirubhai Ambani,the charm and charisma of Ms. Saina Nehwal and the hide of a Rhinoceros.

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Changing Role of HRM1900’s - Employee Advocate

1940’s - Passive Administrator

1960’s - Reactive Provider / Compliance Monitor

1980’s - Reactive Partner / Specialist Service Provider

1990’s - Proactive Partner / Business Manager

2000’s - Change Agent / Internal Consultant

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I. General Functions 1. Policies (Voluntary)2. Labour Legislation (Statutory)

II. Specific Functions1. Planning2. Hiring / Acquisition / Procurement /

Employment (Recruitment and Selection )

3. Development4. Reward / Compensation

Management5. Integration / Employee Relations6. Maintenance / Employee Services7. Separation

Human Resource Management

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1. Policy A. Guidelines for Carrying

Out Human Resource Management as desired by the organisational management.

General Functions

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2. Labour Legislation B.Guidelines for Carrying

Out Human Resource Management as desired by the Government of the country.

General Functions …Contd.

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1. Planning A. Job Analysis, Evaluation

and Rating

B. Human Resource Inventory, Accounting and Audit

C. Demand and Supply Forecasting

Specific Functions

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Specific Functions …Contd.

2. Hiring / Acquisition / Procurement / Employment (Recruitment and Selection)

A. Relevant Hiring Qualifications

B. Preferred Sources for Recruitment

C. Choosing Appropriate Selection Tools / Methods

D. Ensuring ‘Best Fit’ between Jobs and Candidates

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3. Development (Skill enhancement for appropriate Work Performance) A. Bases / Competencies for Employee

Career ProgressionB. Decision on Appropriate Mix of ‘On-the-

Job’ and ‘Off–the–Job’ TrainingC. Delivery of Non–Executive and

Executive Level Training ProgramsD. Other support for Employee

Development like opportunity to work on ‘Cutting Edge Technology Projects’


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4. Reward / Compensation (Financial and Non-Financial Rewards) A. Appropriate Compensation (Wage and

Salary) Structure benchmarked to Industry Norms and sufficient to keep employees motivated towards achieving Organisational Goals.

B. Other Reward Schemes like ESOPs, Opportunity to work on Preferred Projects, Dollars Salaries, etc.

C. Newer / Novel Ways of Compensating Employees


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5. Integration / Employee Relations (Harmony between individual and organisational interests) A. Designing of systems that automatically

recognizes good performers B. Designing grievance handling systemC. Delegation of authority and

responsibility with a view to develop a sense of ownership

D. EmpowermentE. Inter and intranetF. Gender issues


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6. Maintenance / Employee Services (Retention of able and willing employees) A. Employee Services to be

provided

B. Systems design to reduce Attrition Rate below industry norms


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7. Separation (Parting of ways in the most amicable manner) A. Ensure smooth processing of

resignations, retirements, terminations and in death cases.

B. Voluntary Retirement Schemes

C. Mechanism to learn from separations, e.g., Exit Interviews


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Diagnostic Model for Diagnostic Model for Human Resource ManagementHuman Resource Management

External Environmental

Influences

Internal Environmental

Influences

Acquiring Human

Resources

Rewarding Human

Resources

Developing Human

Resources

Maintaining and Protecting Human

Resources

Desirable End ResultsSocially responsible and ethical practices

Competitive, high quality product(s)

Competitive, high quality service(s)

Human Resource Processes

DiagnosePrescribeImplementEvaluate

Focus of each process is on people and results

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Six Senses of A Human Resources Professional

1. Sound Human Relations2. An Eye for Spotting Talent3. A Nose for Smelling

Opportunities4. A Feel for Team Work5. A Taste for Building

Organisational Culture6. Creative Initiative

Source: Wipro Infotech Ad

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Human Resource Development Concept

Human Resource Development

is the process of helping people

to acquire competencies.

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In the organisation context, Human Resource Development is a process by which the employees are helped in a continuous and planned way to:1. Acquire or sharpen capabilities required to

perform various functions associated with their present or expected future roles.

2. Develop their general capabilities as individuals and discover and exploit their inner potential for their own and / or organisational development purposes.

Human Resource

Development Concept …Contd.

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Human Resource Development Philosophy

Human Resource Development is based upon a recognition of the human potential inherent in every employee. It can also certainly be said that there is under-utilisation of individual, team and organisational potential.It also accepts the reality that there can be deviousness and dis-functionality in employee behavior in spite of genuine organisational initiative.

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Human Resource Development Philosophy …Contd.

Human Resource Development believes that this manipulative behavior is the weakness or a defense mechanism on the part of the employees arising partly from personality factor and partly from organisational factor and believe that such employees can be helped through appropriate fitment, feedback, counseling, training and other organisational actions.

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Steps in HRD Interventions

1. Detailed discussion with the top management regarding their expectations from the employees.

2. Identify management problems / issues in general and departmental problems in particular.

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Steps in HRD Interventions …Contd.

3. Involve line managers fully to understand their perceptions of HRD needs and initiate the process of participative management of the HRD function.

4. To identify Training and Development needs of employees at all levels as perceived by the management and as perceived by the employees themselves.

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5. To compare and match the training and developmental needs identified in step 4.

6. Design an HRD action plan in consultation with top management.

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7. Implement the plan

8. Evaluate periodically

9. Bring in continuous

improvement

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Pre-Requisites for Effective HRD

1. Intrinsic faith on the human capabilities and potential

2. Commitment of top management as also of all managers is essential for effective achievement of organisational goals through HRD

3. HRD for its optimal utility needs to have a receptive climate as the first step

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Pre-Requisites for Effective HRD …Contd.

4. Any HRD effort must encompass a majority of the workforce to retain its momentum and to give results.

5. HRD is not the prerogative of the staff functionaries alone. Role of line managers is of equal and vital importance.

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6. The HRD movement has to be an integrated approach going beyond simple training and development, continuously trying to explore new ways of developing people at various levels.

7. An organisation must develop its HRD philosophy based on it’s own history corporate culture and managerial participants. As a result, strategies of initiating and strengthening HRD efforts will vary from organisation to organisation.

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8. Patience and perseverance on the part of all concerned is of paramount importance. Since HRD is concerned with dynamic entities (Humans) who have a tremendous amount of inertia, changes can’t be brought about overnight.

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Integrated Human Resource Development Model

Vision

Mission

Business / Service Plan

Human Resource Policy and PlanningCompensation (Wage and Salary)

Administration

Procurement (Recruitment & Selection)

Induction and Orientation

Placement and Reportability

Successful Organisation

Succession Planning

Organisational Structure

Key Areas (Target, Performance, Result)

KTA, KPA, KRA

Recognition, Reward and

Incentive

Career Planning

Training andDevelopment

Appraisal (Performance and Potential

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HRD and HRMView: Baburaj V Nair

We have a mindset of following the

established notions of anything, rather

than exploring them. Further, any

attempt to look at differently is scorned

by one’s own peer groups. The main

issue seems to be lack of conviction.

They show an attribute of Avoidance to

Confront due to an acute fear of being

exposed of her / his ‘knowledge.’

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HRD and HRM …Contd.

Our motto seems to be ‘Better

Accept the prevailing notions,

rather than counter them’.

We hope that more people will

confront issues logically, without

keeping doubts lingering in their

minds.

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Quite a lot of professionals talk about

HRM and HRD with different perspectives.

We shall attempt to bring out sharply the

difference in perceptions on the

understanding of these terms.

Point of view: Human Resource

Development is a part of Human Resource

Management.

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Counter Point: Human Resource

Management is a part of Human

Resource Development.

The Point of Contention: The perceived

understanding of the word HRD and

HRM.

We felt that it is better to analyse the

uncommon parts of these terms i.e.

Development and Management.

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Many more such differences can be identified by minutely studying the word management and the style of managing people, especially in Indian Organisations.

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DevelopmentDevelop means becoming fuller or grow. Development means a process of growth or advancement or learning.ManagementManage means to regulate. Management means the process of controlling. [Management also means trickery; deceit – The concise Oxford Dictionary]

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DevelopmentEncouraging SHIP (Systems, Human beings, Information and Processes) to advance in a given context.ManagementControlling SHIP (Systems, Human beings, Information and Processes).

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DevelopmentFocus is: encourage to growManagementFocus is: regulate or control

DevelopmentNon-evaluative in natureManagementEvaluative in nature

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DevelopmentNon-bureaucraticManagementBureaucratic

DevelopmentResearch basedManagementNo research base is used

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DevelopmentLeadership style is participative, long-term result orientedManagementLeadership style is regulative, autocratic, short-term result oriented

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DevelopmentMentoring (Mentoring is more like the role of a wise advisor. Mentor, in Greek mythology, was Odysseus’ trusted counsellor, who became the guardian and teacher of Telemachus. The term ‘mentor’ is thus credited with the connotation of an advisor or a wise person) is a part.ManagementMentoring is not a part

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DevelopmentCrucial elements are: Trust, Openness, Empathy and Continuous learningManagementCrucial elements are: Conformity, Fear, Anxiety, Sympathy and Qualification oriented

DevelopmentGrowth oriented and pro-activeManagementMaintenance oriented and reactive (Fire-fighting)

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DevelopmentBased largely on theory ‘Y’ManagementTends to be based on theory ‘X’

DevelopmentMajor task is to institutionalise the processesManagementMajor task is development of systems, monitoring and reviewing

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DevelopmentIt involves finding out Choices. Exploring deeply. Experimenting and Acting on them.ManagementIt involves acting with the given choices. Without much exploration.

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Therefore, if HRD is a part of HRM, then does it mean in all organisations, the factors listed above as developmental is taking place under the umbrella of HRM? Where is the focus – on Managing people or Developing them?

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If HRM is really meant by professionals with an understanding that managing people in tomorrow’s context can not be done without developing people, and the points listed in the column under development are a part of managing people, then we may consider HRD as a part of HRM.But, if HRM is being meant by the elements of ‘Managing’ as depicted above, then HRM is a part of HRD, rather than vice versa.You can manage human resources without developing them, but can we develop individuals without trying to manage them?

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Rejoinder – T.V. Rao

The above view point is logical and reads well. The differences are commonalities of HRM and HRD are to be viewed in the historical context of HRD in India and not merely from Oxford dictionary of English. For me, HRM deals with people management or more respectively Personnel Management. People management is in a context – the context is that of business in organisations.

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Rejoinder – T.V. Rao …Contd.This organisational context changes the meaning of management. Management is a dynamic process. You are managing constantly. Regulating and controlling is only one part of management – may be an important part. A good manager is also a developer of resources. He mobilises people, inspires them, develops them, utilises them, monitors their work, progress, output, etc.

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Thus management by its role is inclusive of development. Development could be narrow and is possible to take place without management. You may develop the skills of an employee but what use it has if they do not contribute to the good of the organisation, fellow employees and the employee himself?

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It is this narrow meaning of development that makes it a part of management. Having said this I agree that HRM in the past neglected HRD. I also agree that ‘D’ gets submerged into ‘M’ and eventually gets neglected. That is the reason why in those organisations where such risk is involved we separate out HRD departments from personnel or HR departments.

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THE CONCEPT OF TRAINING AND

DEVELOPMENT (LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT)


How many of you are familiar with the following names?

Desh Prem Azad

Ramakant Achrekar

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They are the coaches of

Kapil Dev

Sachin Tendulkar

This is real teamwork. The coach works behind the scene unknown to people while their trainees become known all over the world.

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Why Training And Development?

Training and development are powerful tools to ensure that the ‘best fit’ established between a position and a person at the time of acquisition is maintained throughout the period of organisation – employee relationship

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Why Training And Development? …Contd.

Employee training has become increasingly important as jobs have become more sophisticated and influenced by technological changes.

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Training

Training is a short term process utilising a systematic and organised procedure by which non – managerial personnel learn technical knowledge and skills for definite process.

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Development

Development is a long term education process utilising a systematic and organised procedure by which managerial personnel learn conceptual and theoretical knowledge for general purpose.

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Training (or Development) is a learning experience that seeks a relatively permanent change in an individual that will improve his or her ability to perform on the job.

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Training, Development and Education

The terms training, development and education are used in different ways by various authors. Training is often described as focusing on the acquisition of KSAs needed to perform more effectively on one’s current job. Development is used by many to refer to the acquisition of KSAs needed to perform in some future job.

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Training, Development and Education …Contd.

Some value may come from distinguishing between KSA acquisition for a current job and a future job, but we feel that the use of the terms training and development create confusion, because the creation of KSAs is largely the same regardless of when the KSAs are needed. One cannot develop KSAs without some form of training or educational experience.

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We use the terms training and development here to refer to distinct but related aspects of learning: Training is a set of activities, and development is the desired outcome of those activities. Training is the systematic process of providing an opportunity to learn KSAs for current or future jobs; development refers to the learning of KSAs.

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In other words, training provides the opportunity for learning, and development is the result of the learning. “Training departments” and “management training” are now called human resource development (HRD) departments and management development, respectively. The change in terminology reflects the change from a focus on the process (training) to a focus on the outcome (development).

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Education is typically differentiated from training and development by the types of KSAs developed. Training is generally focused on job-specific KSAs, and education focuses on more general KSAs, related (but not specifically tailored) to a person’s career or job.

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This distinction is satisfactory, but education should not be thought of as something that is done only outside the organisation. For example, many organisations provide literacy training for their employees. This training is not tailored to the specific job requirements of these employees but is directed at developing general reading and writing skills.

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Current Scenario

o What should happen ?

(Ideal orientation)o What is happening ?

(Real orientation)o What can I / we do about it ?

(Action orientation)

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Experienced trainers know that effective training is structured as a continuous performance improvement process that is integrated with other systems and business strategies. The key word here is process.

Overview of Training

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The training process involves:

1. Identification of performance improvement opportunities and analysis of what caused the opportunity to exist.

2. Identification of alternative solutions to the opportunity and selection of the most beneficial solution.

Overview of Training …Contd.

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The training process involves: …Contd.

3. Design and implementation of the solution and

4. Evaluation of results.

A training programme (one of many possible performance improvement solutions) would emerge from the training process.

Overview of Training …Contd.

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Training and Development – A Strategic Perspective

Where is the organisation currently?

Where does the organisation want to be?

What human resource (Sum total of available competency) the organisation has?

What human resource (Sum total of needed competency) the organsation should have?

Business Gap

Human Resource Gap

• Knowledge• Skills• Attitudes

Whether training is the right solution to bridge the gap?

Design programmes with precise objectives to reduce the gap

Conduction of programmesEvaluation of programmes

NoYes

FeedbackImproved programme and organisation

Lack of improvement in programme and organisation

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Training and DevelopmentObjective:To achieve long-term lasting improvement in the way employees do their jobs.

Pre-Requisite:Removing mental blocks for attitudinal change and acceptance of any kind of change.

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Types of Training

Training and development activities can be either organised within the organisation or else employees could be sent to attend external courses organised by reputed training institutes. Employees can also be sent for educational courses in universities and other academic institutions. These three types of training activities shall be discussed briefly.

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Types of Training …Contd.

1. In-house Training Courses (programmes where all participants are from the same organisation)If the training can be organised and conducted on an in-company basis, there will be a number of benefits.a) Course content will be tailor-made to

suit the learning objectives of the trainees, in the context of the organisation.

b) Real organisational examples can be used, which will have a high degree of relevance for the trainees.

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1. In-house Training Courses …Contd.c) The trainees are more likely to find

themselves among people that they know, and will, therefore, have to spend less time becoming acclimatised socially and possibly geographically. They should therefore be able to start learning sooner.

d) The training can more readily be integrated with on-job instruction or practice, as the organisation will have control over the time tables for both and can arrange for half a day’s off-job instruction to be followed by half a day’s on-job practice to reinforce the instruction.

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1. In-house Training Courses …Contd.

e) If the organisation has the necessary resources and expertise within the organisation, it will be more economical to use these to meet the needs of a group of trainees, rather than paying course fee for them all to attend programmes at some other institution. One can always supplement it by selective use of external guest speakers.

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2. External CoursesThese too have a range of advantages which can make them a more attractive proposition in certain circumstances.

a) They can bring together the expertise of a number of specialists, over a range of subjects, which might not be available in-house.

b) They can bring together a range of facilities which would not be economically viable on a small training budget.

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2. External Courses …Contd.

c) They can allow for a valuable cross-fertilisation of ideas between organisations, which can prevent the sort of stagnation which occurs when an organisation becomes too introspective. Provided that this does not lead to leakage of confidential company information, this can be a very useful spin-off from external training.

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d) They create an opportunity for learning to take place away from the distractions and interruptions of organisational life. If there is a sudden crisis, it is all too easy to knock on the door of the in-house training room and ask for ‘Joe’ to come out and help downstairs for a little while. If Joe is out of the building at an external training establishment, there is a lot less chance of this happening.

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While these advantages and disadvantages will need to be weighed up carefully, the deciding factor in many cases will be the availability of a suitable external course.

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3. Educational Courses They are provided by colleges of distance / part-time / full-time education, technical colleges, polytechnics, universities and specialist colleges. They may also be offered by private institutions. Such courses, at whatever level, are designed, first and foremost, to meet educational objectives. That is, they are geared to providing the individual with a background knowledge, usually of a range of interrelated subjects.

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3. Educational Courses …Contd. This background knowledge may be essential for effective job performance, now and in the future, but it will not actually teach the individual how to do his present job.

Educational courses can, therefore, be used for all age groups and all types of employees.

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PrinciplesThe prime objective of Training and Development is to achieve a precisely defined and directed change in the ‘behaviour’ of the individuals which is meaningful to the organisation. The above premise suggests a few principles to be borne in mind while using the tool as an aid to modify the behaviour / attitude of the people.

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Principles …Contd.

1. The training cell should set its goals, in tune with the organisation’s requirements as the primary step and assess the feasibility of achieving these within the cell’s resources and capability as far as possible.

2. It should be ascertained that the learnings / changed behaviours are possible to be transferred to work situations with the support of the organisational climate and individual efforts.

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3. The participants to be enrolled for training events are important to the needs of the organisation.

4. The training events / exercises to be arranged and conducted in a way which would provide stimulus to learn through appropriate motivations during the training course.

5. The training cell should ensure systems / procedures to monitor the post-training developments in the activity and attitude of the participants / organisation.

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6. Training and Development activities are not to be treated as periodical exercises only, but as continuous attempts to probe into people’s ideas, talents, etc. and ‘wants’ of the organisation as well.

An awareness of these principles as guidelines shall enable the trainer to establish her / his positive role and justification of the investments made on training and development programmes.

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StrategiesThe simplistic dictionary meaning of strategy stands for the art of projecting and directing operations (in military context). However, for our discussion, the expression has a different connotation. It means the specific considerations the Trainer would have in regard to methods, arrangements, training and development exercises, effective in the context of the organisational climate and goals.

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Strategies …Contd.

Accordingly, the subject of discussion will be confined purely to those features and factors which would make the training (and development) in an organisation a meaningful use of the ideas / resources to be invested in training activities.

Mostly, the selection of strategies in training is dictated by expediency and rarely accompanied by a pause and need-based considerations.

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To ensure proper formulation of the required strategies, these should have the qualities of:

a. Compatibility, i.e. must be compatible with the objectives of the instructions, quality of the trainees, climate of the organisation, facilities available in the organisation and capability of the instructors.

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Strategies …Contd.b. Ingenuity / flexibility, i.e., since there is no

single prescription of strategies available which is universally applicable irrespective of the situation, the trainer should have in her / his ‘kit’ alternative choices (including innovative ones) which would work out the desired result of the training and development activities. Ignorance / negligence of these attending qualities, might render the learning process and trainee participation ineffective and thereby, the inputs of training events irrelevant to the training and development goals.

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c. Any sensible strategy must keep in mind both “Need to Know” as well as “Want to Know” aspects with regard to the participants in a particular programme.

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Factors in Strategy Selection

1. Instructional objectives2. Course contents3. Participant selection4. Instructors / faculty5. Facilities – space, equipments, course

materials6. Time available for conducting the

course7. Costs to be incurred for arranging and

completing the course

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Factors in Strategy Selection …Contd.

The strategies adopted not in tune with the considerations in regard to the above factors are likely to make the training efforts ineffective / partially effective.

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Learning and Development Proposal

A proposal typically must contain:1. Perspective / Background2. Objective(s)3. Content(s)4. Methodology5. Duration6. Faculty7. Administrative arrangements8. Investment / Cost Implications

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MODELS OF TRAINING


1. Need identification and analysis

2. Designing programmes

3. Methodologies to be used

4. Evaluation

Simplistic Model – Steps

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Simple Model of Training Process

Training

Participant

Organisation

Improved Participant Behaviour

Greater Organisational Effectiveness

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IMPACT Model1. Identify Training Needs

2. Map the Approach

3. Produce Learning Tools

4. Apply Training Techniques

5. Calculate Measurable Results

6. Track Ongoing Follow-Through

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1. Identify Training Needs

Determine if and how training can play a role in improving job performance; target training outcomes.

2. Map The Approach

Choose the appropriate training approach(es) that will best support the targeted outcomes and improve job performance.

IMPACT Model …Contd.

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3. Produce Learning Tools

Produce all training / coaching components (e.g., materials, audiovisual aids, job aids, etc.)

4. Apply Training Techniques

Deliver the training as designed to ensure successful results.


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5. Calculate Measurable ResultsAssess whether your training / coaching accomplished actual performance improvement, communicate the results, and redesign the process as necessary.

6. Track Ongoing Follow-ThroughHone in on the techniques that individuals and organisations can use to ensure that the impact of their training does not diminish.


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Elaborated Model of Training Process

TrainingParticipant

Organisation

Improved Participant Behaviour

Greater Organisational Effectiveness

System

Improved Organisation

Improved Training

Feedback

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A Training Process ModelA general systems model has for long been used as a description of business organisations. This model is called the Open System Model. Open systems have a dynamic relationship with their environment.The system is open to influences from its environment and, in fact, depends on the environment for input. The system takes inputs from the environment and transforms them into outputs. Outputs enter the system’s environment and may or may not influence future inputs into the system. A business is a type of open system, operating in the same manner as other open systems.

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A Training Process Model …Contd.

A system (such as a business) must be responsive to the needs and demands of its environment, because the environment provides the input needed for the system to replenish itself. For example, if a business is responsive to the needs of society by providing valued goods and services (output), it receives valued input from society in the form of financial and goodwill credits. These inputs are used by the business to continue operating. If the business does not provide sufficient value to its environment, it will fail because the environment will not provide the input necessary for the system to replenish itself.

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Although the business must meet the needs of its environment, it must also protect itself from aspects of the environment that are harmful to the system.The dotted line in the next slide represents the barrier between the system and the environment. The spaces in the line indicate the barrier is semi-permeable, allowing parts of the environment (input) and system (output) to cross over. The barrier represents the organisation’s policies, systems and procedures that are designed to allow only certain components of the external environment to enter the system.

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Open System

Input Process Output

Systems External Environment

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For example, the company must hire employees (input), but it does not hire just anyone. It wants to hire only those who can make a positive contribution to the organisation’s goals (desirable input). Therefore, it sets up criteria for selecting employees from the labour pool, allowing only those with the proper qualifications to enter the organisation. On the other hand, the company must comply with the laws set up by society or face sanctions (undesirable input) and some of those laws address the criteria that can be used in selecting employees (e.g., equal employment opportunity and affirmative action).

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Thus input from one area of the environment (the law) influences the nature of barriers that allow input from another area of the larger system (the labour pool). The organisation’s policies, systems and procedures allow it to examine and analyse the environment to determine which components of the environment to respond to and what response is most appropriate.Employee training can enable companies to adapt to changing conditions and be more effective in the marketplace.

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This increased effectiveness is made possible if training allows employees to learn how to improve performance and prepares them for changes in how their jobs are structured. However, training does not always result in these outcomes. Training is an “opportunity” for learning, but what is learned depends on many factors, including:

1. How well the training matches the needs of the employees and the organisation.

2. The quality with which training is designed and implemented

3. The learning climate of the organisation

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At its worst, training can be an isolated programme of activities unrelated to the goals of the business, the trainees’ performance or the nature of their jobs. Think back to a time when some one was trying to teach you something that you did not think would be useful or relevant to you. Did you pay much attention? How much did you remember of what the person was trying to teach one week after the lesson? When a training programme is designed without an understanding of the business reasons for the training and the ways in which the training will affect employee performance, employees tend to discount its relevance.

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Little learning or job improvement is likely to result. To avoid such training failures training professions apply the following principles to maximise the effectiveness of training:

1. Understand the needs of the organisation and the trainees.

2. Develop clear objectives for what the training should accomplish for both the organisation and the trainees.

3. Design and develop training to meet the objectives.

4. Provide a supportive learning environment for the training.

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5. Design and conduct the training in a manner that motivates trainees to learn.

6. Work with others in the organisation to identify and remove barriers to using the new knowledge and skills on the job.

7. Evaluate appropriately as feedback for improvement.Our training process model is a systematic approach to ensuring that the principles listed are applied and training objectives are achieved. Training, at its best, uses the following model as a set of processes aimed at continuously improving employees and organisational systems, including the training itself. The key is a commitment to the training processes.

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Training As An Open SystemMany open systems exist as part of another open system and are called subsystems of the larger system. For example, a product assembly system is a subsystem of a manufacturing system, which itself is a subsystem of the company, which is a subsystem of the industry and so on. In the open systems model, training can be seen as a subsystem within the larger system of HR, which is a subsystem of the company. Figure in the next slide illustrates some of the exchanges that take place between the training system and the larger organisational system.

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Training As A Subsystem Within the Organisational System

Training’s Organisational EnvironmentMission Strategy Structure Policies Procedures

Finances Resources People ProductsTechnology

Training Subsystem


Organisational NeedsEmployee Needs

BudgetEquipment

Staff

AnalysisDesign

DevelopmentImplementation

Evaluation

KnowledgeSkills

AttitudesMotivation

Job Performance

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Training As An Open System …Contd.

The organisation's mission, strategies, resources and the like all represent sources of input into the training subsystem. Of course, if the training department is part of a larger HR function, then these inputs would be filtered through that system. Organisational inputs are translated by the training subsystem into usable input such as organisational and employee needs, training budgets, staff, equipment and so forth. The input is utilised to produce the output of the training system (improved KSAs, job performance and so on).

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Training As An Open System …Contd.

This illustration shows how interconnected the training activities are with what is happening in the organisation as a whole. Unless training takes into account and meets the expectations of the business, the business will institute sanctions on the training system (e.g., reduced budgets, staff and other resources) rather than providing it with more desirable inputs. Training in Action ( Examples like TRAINING NEEDS IN THE STUDENT REGISTRATION OFFICE, SELLING PERFORMANCE APPRAISALS, TEAM BUILDING SIZZLES THEN FIZZLES ) demonstrate the consequences of a poor match between the training system and the organisational environment.

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Training: A ProcessImplied in the open systems model is that training is a process, not just a programme or a set of programmes. To be sure, training does consist of programmes. When a particular training need is identified, a training programme may be developed to address that need. However, prior to this point the organisation invested money in the training function, for which it expects a favourable return. At the end of the year, the organisation will determine how favourable the returns have been and determine what its next investment will be.

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Training: A Process …Contd.

Thus, viewing training as simply a programme or set of programmes, is too short-sighted. Effective training is about meeting organisational needs, not just conducting training programmes. When training is viewed as a set of integrated processes in which organisational and employee needs are analysed and responded to in a rational, logical and strategic manner, the organisation will improve and is likely to invest in further training. Our model of training processes, depicted in the next slide, reflects this approach.

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Training Processes Model

Evaluation Phase


Implementation Phase


Development Phase


Design Phase


Needs Analysis Phase


Triggering Event

Outcome Evaluation

Data

Process Evaluation

Data

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Training: A Process …Contd.

We will briefly describe the phases and their inputs and outputs.The training process begins with some type of triggering event. The triggering event is the recognition of an organisational performance deficiency (OPD). When the actual organisational performance (AOP) is less that the expected organisational performance (EOP), OPD exists.

The British Airways case provides an example of how a training system can be designed to ensure that training staff appropriately analyse and respond to the organisational environment.

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Case Study – Training a Key Factor in British Airways Turnaround

In the early 1980s, British Airways (BA) was in serious trouble. It lost £544 million (about $1.3 billion) in 1981-1982 and was continuing to lose money at the rate of about £200 a minute. The company faced laying off about 20,000 employees, closing down unprofitable routes and disposing of substantial assets just to stay in business. In 1983 the board of directors charged Colin Marshall with reestablishing the company as “the world’s favorite airline,” a title it once wore proudly. By 1987, Marshall and his executive team revitalised the company enough to merge with British Caledonian and be privatised.

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Case Study – Training a Key Factor in British Airways Turnaround …Contd.

British Airways then showed a steady rise in performance and profitability, bringing it back to world-class status. Training was a significant part of Marshall’s strategy for revitalisation. However, he recognised that just training people was not enough. He knew that employees’ new skills and abilities must be supported by the company’s systems and procedures. Thus he insisted that the training be integrated with all the other “people” and business initiatives being developed.

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The central focus of British Airways’ strategy was a total dedication to the passenger. “Winning for Customers” was a core programme in this strategy. It assessed manager’s skills and identified areas for development. The carefully chosen title constantly reminded managers to focus their activities on what was best for the customer.

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Other human resource development (HRD) systems redesigned to support this strategy included the following: 1.A programme of performance feedback, used on a quarterly basis, to measure strengths and weaknesses of managers via a framework of “key” management practices2.A series of programmes called “Managing Winners” developed to meet the training needs identified in “Winning for Customers”

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3. A number of customer-focused training initiatives to provide all employees with skills to deal with service failures and customer retention.

4. A new learning centre, using state-of-the-art learning and training systems, open to employees at all levels.

Training programs at BA are a part of an integrated system in which each programme builds on the learning achieved in earlier programmes.

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The following systems were put in place to ensure that training was linked to the customer service strategy:

1. To ensure training consistency, a framework was developed specifying the skills to be developed in each training module.

2. Professional capability performance standards (e.g., platform skills, content knowledge and use of training methods) are set for trainers.

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3. Customer service training is compared to “best practices” both within British Airways and externally.

4. Line managers are partnered with trainers to work out common language and concepts to ensure the practicality of training and its transfer to the job site.

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These practices help to maximise return to the organisation from the training investment. However, BA knew that training will not solve every customer service problem. The following seven-step process was used to identify the location and cause of the problem, then to develop the best solution.

1.Conduct customer satisfaction analyses to identify areas where customer service needs improvement.

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2. Conduct “root cause” analysis to determine whether the problem stems from employees’ abilities or from other factors such as motivation or work procedures.

3. Develop the appropriate intervention strategy. If it is a training intervention, develop learning objectives. Analyse training alternatives to determine the most cost-effective approach.

4. Ensure collaboration on the training design between professional training staff and line personnel.

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5. Set a tangible value for the training investment before training begins. Identify how much improvement in customer satisfaction is to be expected for training to be judged successful.

6. Determine whether this training is justified. If not, return to step 3.

7. Evaluate changes in customer satisfaction as a measure of the training’s effectiveness.

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In the mid-1990s British Airways recognised that it faced new and different challenges. Even though excellent customer service remained a competitive advantage, significant changes occurred in the air travel industry. For improvement to continue, British Airways needed to reinvent itself once again. With the input from a cross-section of employees, management redefined the mission, goals and values to address: global economics, increasing competition, employee satisfaction and continued improvements in customer satisfaction.

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The restated mission, values and goals are as follows:Mission:To be the undisputed leader in world travel.Values:Safe and secure, honest and responsible, innovative and team spirited, global and caring, a good neighbour.

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Goals:Customers’ choice – become the airline of first choice in key markets.Strong profitability – meeting investors’ expectations and securing the future.Truly global – global network and outlook: recognised everywhere for superior value in world travel.Inspired people – building on success and delighting people.

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British Airways is one of the most profitable airlines in the world, reporting a £640 million profit for the year ending 1997. That same year they announced a £6 billion, three-year programme to improve aircraft, products, facilities and training for employees. Their success in the area of customer preference and satisfaction is, in part, evidenced by the numerous awards received from industry travel publications. British Airways’ approach to human resources development dramatically improved its bottom line by establishing BA as a leader in customer service, creating a worldwide image as the preferred international airline.

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LEARNING AND TRAINING


LearningLearning has been probed and prodded by scientific inquiry since the late 1800s. The resulting theories led to practical application in both educational and industrial settings. The range of theoretical perspectives varied widely over the last century. We examine the essential elements of learning theories and identify their relationship to training.

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What is Learning?To understand the differences among learning theories, it helps to understand the difficulties of simply defining the concept of learning. Learning is not directly observable, but it is something that almost everyone says they experience. People can “feel” that they learned. Scientists assure us that it occurs physically, yet they are not sure how. It is clear from physiological evidence that learning is related to changes in the physical, neuronal structure of the brain and its related electrochemical functioning.

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What is Learning? …Contd.

Unfortunately, much is still unknown about how or why these electrochemical changes take place. Learning, of course, is closely tied to memory: Whatever is learned must be retained if it is to be useful. Electrochemical changes created during learning apparently create a relatively permanent change in neural functioning that becomes what is commonly termed memory. Again, relatively few definitive answers exist about how or where learning is stored in the central nervous system.

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Two Definitions of Learning

If we cannot actually observe learning occurring, then how do we know that learning occurred? We must use something influenced by learning that we can observe. That is, we must infer that learning occurred by looking at its observable effects. What things, influenced by learning, can we observe? The answer is that we are pretty much limited to observing the learner’s behaviour. For instance, in school you are often given tests to determine whether you learned. The behaviour being observed is the way you answer the questions.

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Two Definitions of Learning …Contd.

In the workplace, your supervisor might look for ways you perform your job differently after training. In science, concepts, events and phenomena are given an operational definition, which means that the concept is defined in terms of how it is measured. Because learning is measured in terms of relatively permanent changes in behaviour, this becomes the operational definition of learning for many theorists. Behaviourists in particular adopt this definition.

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Cognitive theorists on the other hand, insist that even though learning can be inferred from behaviour, it is separate from the behaviour itself. By examining the ways in which people respond to information and the ways in which different types of behaviour are grouped or separated, they developed theories of how information is learned. For cognitive theorists, learning represents a change in the content, organisation and storage of information.

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The term used to refer to the mental processing of information is cognition. For cognitive theorists, learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in cognition occurring as a result of experience. These theorists discuss learning in terms of mental infrastructures or schema rather than in terms of behaviour. Learning is seen as the building and reorganisation of schema to make sense of new information.

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Some Training Implications of Cognitive and BehaviouristLearning Theory

Issue Cognitive Approach

Behaviourist Approach

Learner’s role Active, self-directed, self-evaluating

Passive, dependent

Instructor’s role

Facilitator, coordinator and presenter

Director, monitor, evaluator

Training content

Problem or task oriented

Subject oriented

Learner motivation

More internally motivated

More externally motivated

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Some Training Implications of Cognitive and Behaviourist Learning Theory …Contd.

Issue Cognitive Approach

Behaviourist Approach

Training climate

Relaxed, mutually trustful and respectful, collaborative

Formal, authority oriented, judgemental, competitive

Instructional goals

Collaboratively developed

Developed by instructor

Instructional activities

Interactive, group, project oriented, experiential

Directive, individual, subject oriented

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1. Learning is enhanced when the learner is motivated.

2. Learning requires feedback.3. Reinforcement increases the

likelihood that a learned behaviour will be repeated.

4. Practice increases a learner’s performance.

5. Learning begins rapidly, then plateaus.

6. Learning must be transferable to the job.

Principles of Learning

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Learning principles are the guidelines to the ways in which people learn most effectively. The more these principles are reflected in training, the more effective training is likely to be.These principles are:1. Participation2. Repetition3. Relevance4. Transference 5. Feedback.

Principles of Learning …Contd.

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2147


Paper

Training and DevelopmentUnit – II: Training Need Analysis

Sub Topics

o Process and Approaches of Training Need Analysis

o Issues Affecting Training Need Analysiso Training Need Analysis and Training

Process Design

148


Analysing Training NeedsThe key task is to identify the training and development needs of a job or job-group. Only then can we consider how best these can be met.Training is not an end in itself; it’s only purpose is as a means of improving performance. It, therefore, follows that in analysing training needs, our concentration should be first on the job or job-group and what it requires and second on the job-holder and how he is able to meet these requirements.

149


Analysing Training Needs …Contd.

There are three basic levels of approach:

(a) the Company

(b) the Department and

(c) the Individual

Training and Development could be useful aids in improving the transformation process that takes place in an organization in terms of the processing of inputs to outputs.

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Training needs have to be related both in terms of the organization’s demands and that of the individual’s. Diversification of product lines, new technology and hence, new kinds of jobs demand the individual’s growth and development through induction training or training necessitated by job rotation due to an organization’s internal mobility policies.

151



Many methods have been proposed for identifying training needs, the important ones being:

1. Views of the line manager2. Performance appraisal3. Company and departmental

plans4. Views of training manager5. Analysis of job difficulties

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Discussions with the trainees should form an integral part of this analysis. In some instances, one might discover that the trainee has a basic lack of confidence in his / her own ability to do the job. Training, may therefore, be required not so much to teach him how to do the job as to assure him that he does know how. Conversely, a jobholder may not recognize that he is not coping effectively with his present job and therefore, be resentful of the idea of training.

153



Some managers are tempted to overcome this by selling training as a reward. The danger here is that the trainee may then choose to regard the training as a holiday, deriving little benefit himself and interfering with the learning of the participants.

154


Pre-Training AnalysisI. Data Collection Relating to:

1. Company2. Management3. Human resource profile4. Technology5. Positioning6. Goal setting7. Job standards8. Performance standards9. Communication, etc.

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Pre-Training Analysis …Contd.

II. Interviews of Key Personnel:1. Directors2. Managers3. Some supervisors4. Senior workers5. Union leaders, etc.

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Training Philosophy Development by Determining Training Needs in Terms of :1. Attitudinal and behavioural requirements2. Skill requirement3. Knowledge requirements4. Problem areas5. Priorities6. Major emphasis areas (subject matter, level, etc.)

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Defining Training Objectives and Plans Along with Budgets:Preparing Training and Development (Learning and Development) Plan for short, medium and long – term objectives with cost-benefit (not necessarily financial) analysis, if possible.Answering Questions Like: A.What ? B. For Whom? C.By Whom?D. How? E. Where? F. When?

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Specific Programme Development (Training Module Preparation)

1. Subject wise2. Level wise3. Function wise4. Methodology / Treatment of subject

Conducting the ProgrammesA.Faculty B.Training materials, aids, etc. C. Administrative arrangements

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Evaluation1. Immediate2. After transference of learning ( intermediate / long term )

Will be Done by1. Written or Oral feedback2. Analysis of comments, suggestions,

observations3. Inferences

Use of Evaluation Data160


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Paper Training and Development

Unit – III: Training Design and Evaluation

Sub Topicso Understanding & Developing the Objectives

of Trainingo Facilitation of Training: Trainee, Training

Design and Organisation Interventionso Training Methodso Implementation and Evaluation of Training

Programme


Understanding and Developing

the Objectives of Training


Analysing Training NeedsThe key task is to identify the training and development needs of a job or job-group. Only then can we consider how best these can be met.Training is not an end in itself; it’s only purpose is as a means of improving performance. It, therefore, follows that in analysing training needs, our concentration should be first on the job or job-group and what it requires and second on the job-holder and how he is able to meet these requirements.



There are three basic levels of approach:

(a) the Company

(b) the Department and

(c) the Individual

Training and Development could be useful aids in improving the transformation process that takes place in an organisation in terms of the processing of inputs to outputs.



Training needs have to be related both in terms of the organisation’s demands and that of the individual’s. Diversification of product lines, new technology and hence, new kinds of jobs demand the individual’s growth and development through induction training or training necessitated by job rotation due to an organisation’s internal mobility policies.



Many methods have been proposed for identifying training needs, the important ones being:

1. Views of the line manager2. Performance appraisal3. Company and departmental

plans4. Views of training manager5. Analysis of job difficulties



Discussions with the trainees should form an integral part of this analysis. In some instances, one might discover that the trainee has a basic lack of confidence in his / her own ability to do the job. Training, may therefore, be required not so much to teach him how to do the job as to assure him that he does know how. Conversely, a jobholder may not recognise that he is not coping effectively with his present job and therefore, be resentful of the idea of training.



Some managers are tempted to overcome this by selling training as a reward. The danger here is that the trainee may then choose to regard the training as a holiday, deriving little benefit himself and interfering with the learning of the participants.


Facilitation of Training: Trainee,

Training Design and Organisation Interventions


Training Programme Design

A training programme is a summary of the training required to enable an employee to perform a particular job to the required standard. This involves the following:1. Identifying Learning Objectives2. Specifying the Sequence3. Choosing the Learning Methods4. Choosing the Location5. Choosing the Instructor6. Drawing up the Programme


Identifying Learning Objectives

A learning objective is a statement of what the trainee will be able to do, to what standard and in what circumstances, at the end of the programme. The content of the programme will be determined by the number and type of learning objectives that it is designed to meet.


Specifying the Sequence

The learner will need to build from the known to the unknown for learning to take place effectively.


Choosing the Learning Methods

There are a variety of learning methods available and the method to be used must be dictated by the learning objectives. The important thing in choosing a method is to recognize the nature of the learning that is desired to take place and to select a method which will facilitate that.


Choosing the LocationThe learning objectives and the learning method will, between them, dictate where the training should take place.


Choosing the InstructorThe only real consideration here should be the competence of the persons in question in using the chosen learning method to reach the required learning objectives.


Drawing up the ProgrammeThe final stage is to bring together the what, when, how, where and who and place them on paper as a training programme. But writing the programme down is only the beginning. Unless, you can actually put it into operation to satisfy the training needs, it will be worthless.


In-Company Training and Development …Contd.

Specific Programme Development / Training Module Preparation

1. Subject wise

2. Level wise

3. Function wise


In-Company Training and Development …Contd.

Evaluation1. Immediate2. After transfer of learning

Can be Done by1. Written or Oral feedback2. Analysis of comments, suggestions,

observations3. Inferences Use of Evaluation Data


Training Methods


Training MethodsTraining methods are a means of attaining the desired objectives in a learning situation. The choice of a particular method would depend on a wide variety of factors, such as competence of instructors, relevance to the participants, the programme design, etc. i.e., is a particular method the best vehicle to put across the contents and finally, its cost implications. In using a particular method in a given situation, one should know its strengths and weaknesses, its relevance, its purpose and if it is found useful, how to get the most out of its.


Training Methods …Contd.

This would provide the rationale of the various training methods. The trainer should know the rationale of each of the methods before attempting to use any of them.Depending on the learning outcome and the process by which it is attained, the training methods are classified as: 1. On-the-Job Oriented Methods2. Simulation Methods3. Knowledge Based Methods4. Experiential Methods


On-the-Job Oriented MethodsThe objectives here are centred around the job itself or more specifically, learning on the job itself by a variety of methods like:

1. On-the-job training

2. Job Rotation

3. Guidance and Counseling

4. Brain Storming

5. Syndicate method or working in small groups


Simulation Methods

Real life situations are simulated for importing training. The main methods in this category are:

1. Role-play

2. Case method

3. Management games

4. In-basket exercise


Knowledge Based MethodsAn effort is made to expose participants to concepts and theories, basic principles and pure and applied knowledge in any subject area aimed at creating awareness of the knowledge of fundamentals. The methods in this category are:1. Lecture2. Seminars, Workshops3. Educational training programmes at academic

institutes4. Programmed instruction in which knowledge is

disseminated in book form to be learnt at the individual’s pace

5. Films and Television6. Group discussions in combination


Experiential MethodsThe forms in this category is on achieving a better understanding of oneself and others through group processes and dynamics. Some such methods are:1. Sensitivity Training or T Groups2. Transactional Analysis3. Achievement Motivation

Workshops, etc.


Training Methods …Contd.

It should be realised that each method has some strengths and weaknesses. Given the nature and purpose of a training programme, the background of the participants, the availability and competence of trainers, the appropriate method has to be chosen to impart training.


On-the-Job Training

Definition

Employee training at the place of work while he or she is doing the actual job. Usually a professional trainer (or sometimes an experienced employee) serves as the course instructor, and employs the principles of learning (participation, repetition, relevance, transference, and feedback) often supported by formal classroom training.


On-the-Job Training …Contd.

Strengths


On-the-Job Training …Contd.

Weaknesses


Job Rotation

DefinitionJob rotation involves moving an employee through a series of jobs so he or she can get a good feel for the tasks that are associated with different jobs. It is usually used in training for supervisory positions. The employee learns a little about everything. This is a good strategy for small businesses because of the many jobs an employee may be asked to do.


Job Rotation …Contd.

StrengthsPractically performing Proper Guidence by your supervisor while doing the task Doudbt could be cleared


Job Rotation …Contd.

WeaknessesTheorytical knowlegde will be less while propering the task you will come to know the process Long Process and time consuming


Guidance and Counselling

Definition


Guidance and Couselling …Contd.

Strengths


Guidance and Counselling …Contd.

Weaknesses


Brain StormingDefinitionBrainstorming is a process for generating new ideas

Brainstorming is "a conference technique by which a group attempts to find a solution for a specific problem by amassing all the ideas spontaneously by its members" - Alex Osborn

To brainstorm is to use a set of specific rules and techniques which encourage and spark off new ideas which would never have happened under normal circumstances


Brain Storming …Contd.

Strengths


Brain Storming …Contd.

Weaknesses


Syndicate MethodDefinitionWorking in a small group to achieve a particular purpose is described as a syndicate method. The essence of the syndicate method is that participants learn from each other and contribute their own experiences to the fullest. The syndicate method is designed to provide the participant an environment that would help him:1. To reflect critically on his own work and

experience


Syndicate Method …Contd.

Definition …Contd.2. To update his knowledge of new

concepts and techniques with the help of other co-participants

3. To develop sound judgement through greater insight into human behaviour.

This method is suitable for training and development of executives with considerable experience. It is not so useful in the case of management students without any experience.


Syndicate Method …Contd.Mechanics of the Method:1. The participants are divided into group

consisting of about ten participants. These groups are called “Syndicates.”

2. Each Syndicate functions as a team that can represent various functional as well as interest areas. On the one hand, it has representatives from a wide cross-section of organisations like private sector undertakings, public sector, banking, civil service etc. and on the other it is a balanced management team with men from functional areas such as Marketing, Personnel, Production Management, etc.


Syndicate Method …Contd.Mechanics of the Method: …Contd.3. The Syndicate are given assignments which

have to be finished and a report submitted by a specified date and time. There are also in-built pressures under which groups have to work.

4. By rotation each member of the syndicate becomes the leader (Chairman), for completing a specific task or an assignment. Each member also gets a turn to be the secretary to the group. He generally assists the Chairman in preparation of the report.



Mechanics of the Method: …Contd.5. Each assignment to a Syndicate is given in the

form of a “Brief”. This is a carefully prepared document by the faculty.

6. Each Syndicate is placed under a member of the Directing staff who acts as a resource person rather than as a lecturer. He develops a friendly relationship with the member of the Syndicate and gives them advice and guidance without giving his own answers for the task assigned. He watches the development of each member and ensures that everyone gets a fair opportunity to play his role effectively.



Mechanics of the Method: …Contd.

7. Generally, each Syndicate is required to submit a report which is circulated to other Syndicates for critical evaluation.

8. The Chairman of each Syndicate is required to present the view of his team on the task assigned to them at a joint session of all the groups.



StrengthsThe Syndicate methods has the following advantages:

1. It secures a very high level of involvement from the participants. There is friendliness as well as healthy competition within each Syndicate as also amongst syndicates.

2. For the practising managers, their own experience is the starting point in the Syndicate method. Through various work assignments, the participants can assimilate new concepts, techniques and information more easily. Thus, it is a process of self-education and development for participants.


Syndicate Method …Contd.Strengths …Contd.3. The availability of the Directing staff and outside

experts can stimulate critical thinking on the part of the participants and enable them to bring out their best.

4. The Syndicate method also gives the participant a practice in communicating with his colleagues and understanding them. It provides an environment far away from his daily working situation and thus free from the pressures and biases. In such an environment, the participant can understand the value of specialists in other areas and appreciate them. This will help them in relating to peers when they return back to their companies.



Strengths …Contd.

5. Working in Syndicates involves interaction over an extended period of time and living together with a large cross section of people from different types of organisations with varied functional interests. This results in a broad-minded realistic approach to managerial as well as national problems.



Weaknesses1. The role of the directing staff is quite

crucial and neglect by them can convert the Syndicate method to an exercise in futility.

2. If the Syndicate is not structured properly, it could lead to a lot of waste of time and cause frustration.



Weaknesses3. In the absence of proper pressure on

the participants by trainers or participants themselves, some participants might start dragging their feet.

4. Differences of opinion or view-point may be ignored to avoid friction.


Role-play

DefinitionCreating a realistic situation and having trainees assume parts of specific personalities in the situation. Their actions are based on the roles assigned to them. Emphasis is not on problem solving but rather on skill development.


Role-play …Contd.

StrengthsGood if the situation is similar to the actual work situation. Trainees receive feedback that gives them confidence. Good for interpersonal skills. Teaches individuals how to act in real situations.


Role-play …Contd.

WeaknessesTrainees are not actors. Trainees sometimes are not serious. Some situations cannot be implemented in role playing. Uncontrolled role playing may not lead to any sufficient results. If it is very similar to actual life, it may product adverse reactions.


Case Method

DefinitionA written narrative description of a real situation, issue, or incident that a manager faced in a particular organisation. Trainees are required to propose a suitable solution or make on appropriate decision.


Case Method …Contd.

StrengthsCases are usually very interesting. Much group discussion and interaction about many solutions, since there is no absolute solution. Develops trainees’ abilities in effective communication and active participation. Develops trainees’ ability to figure various factors that influence their decision building. Develops trainees’ ability to make proper decisions in real-life situations (transfer of learning).


Case Method …Contd.

WeaknessesA slow method of training. Often difficult to select the appropriate case study for specific training situation. Requires high level of skills by both trainees and trainer, as the discussion can become boring. Can create frustration on part of trainees, especially if they fall to arrive at a specific solution.


Management GamesDefinitionGiving the trainees information about the organisation and its environment, then dividing into teams. Each team is required to make an operational decision and then evaluate its decision.


Management Games …Contd.

StrengthsDevelops practical experience for the trainees. Helps in transferring knowledge and in applying administrative thoughts. Helps to evoluate and correct the trainees’ behaviour.


Management Games …Contd.

WeaknessesOften, it is difficult to study the results of each team’s decision. Some teams may not take it seriously. May be a slow process.


In-basket ExerciseDefinitionCreates the same type of situations trainees face in daily work. Trainees observed on how they arrange the situations and their actions regarding them. Trainees evaluated on the basis of the number and quality of decisions. Used for MD and assessment centres.


In-basket Exercise …Contd.

StrengthsEffective for corrective action or reinforcement. Widely used in assessment centres for measuring supervisory potential.


In-basket Exercise …Contd.

WeaknessesTendency to be or become overly simplistic.


Lectures

DefinitionA speech by the instructor, with very limited discussions.


Lectures …Contd.

StrengthsClear and direct methods of presentation. Good if there are more than 20 trainees. Materials can be provided to trainees in advance to help in their preparation. Trainer has control over time. Cost effective (cheap).


Lectures …Contd.

WeaknessesSince there is no discussion it is easy to forget. Sometimes it is not effective. Requires a high level of speaking ability. Requires a high level of quick understanding by trainess.


Seminars, WorkshopsDefinition

A small group of advanced students in a college or graduate school engaged in original research or intensive study under the guidance of a professor who meets regularly with them to discuss their reports and findings.A course of study so pursued.A scheduled meeting of such a group.

A meeting for an exchange of ideas; a conference.


Seminars, Workshops …Contd.

Strengths


Seminars, Workshops …Contd.

Weaknesses


Educational Training Programmes

Definition


Educational Training Programmes …Contd.

Strengths


Educational Training Programmes …Contd.

Weaknesses


Programmed InstructionDefinitionProgrammed learning or Programmed Instruction is one of the innovations in teaching technology developed in recent years. The material to be learned is prepared in such a way that it can be presented to the learner in a series of sequential steps. These steps progress from simple to more complex levels of instruction. The information to be taught is presented in a form known as a PROGRAMME.


Programmed Instruction …Contd.

Definition …Contd.The person who writes the programme is called the PROGRAMME WRITER or PROGRAMMER and the people for whom the programme is written are referred to as the TARGET POPULATION. Programmes are generally presented in the form of a book. “HOW TO READ A BALANCE SHEET” brought out by ILO is an excellent example of Programmed Instruction.



The biggest advantage of this method is that the learning takes place at the student’s own pace. He proceeds from frame to frame. If his response is correct, he immediately gets information indicating that his response was correct and he can proceed to the next step. If his response is incorrect, he is instructed to restudy the material or he is told why his response was wrong.



It is thus possible to guide the progress of a student in an orderly manner just as a tutor would do. But, the biggest disadvantage of this method is the absence of a teacher. The book becomes the teacher. Hence, it is absolutely essential that the trainee is highly motivated to continue learning.



There are three forms of Programmed Learning:1. Linear Programming: In this

method, which was developed by Dr. B.F. Skinner, the student works through all the sequences of a book in a straight path from the first page to the last. He is given feedback at every step.



2. Intrinsic (or branching) Programming: This form developed by Dr. Crowder makes the student work through the programme by one of several “paths” or “branches” according to the responses he chooses. Since the student’s choice of reply determines which path of learning he would take through the programme, this form of programming is known as “Intrinsic.”



Features of P.I.3. Adaptive Programming: Developed by

Gordon Pask, these programmes can only be presented in machines which “adapt” to the trainees. This form makes allowance for more variations in student ability.

4. The student works his way through a course by a series of small steps.

5. He actively responds by answering questions on solving problems.



3. The correctness of his response is immediately established. It is an accepted fact that learning is the highest where feedback is quickest. One of the disadvantages of the modern training systems is that the student does not get a quick feedback. On this ground this is an effective method. Where necessary, he is also provided with additional information to correct his answer.

4. The learner works toward predefined goals.


Differences Between PI and Other Instructional Methods

1. It is self-instructional. Other methods depend greatly on a teacher or a facilitator.

2. The subject matter is carefully analysed and each unit is designed to meet specified objectives.

3. Trainees are required to take part actively and receive immediate feedback. In most other methods, it is difficult to give immediate feedback to students.

4. Programmes are thoroughly tested and proved to teach what they are intended to teach. This avoids problems associated with inexperienced and inadequate teachers.


Programmed Instruction …Contd.Strengths The use of P.I. should be considered for knowledge inputs as it has the following two major advantages:

1. Efficiency – Administrative simplicity and increased productivity in training result in lower training cost per student. An individual may receive instruction at anytime. He does not have to wait till a class is scheduled or till the class is filled up. P.I. can be used to provide prerequisites for a later classroom opportunity. Research shows that learning by P.I. results in longer retention than conventional classroom teaching.



Strengths …Contd. 2. Effectiveness – Through P.I. it is

possible to improve the quality and effectiveness of learning. Since the objectives are laid down for the programme, it is more likely that the student will learn what he is supposed to learn in each course.



Strengths …Contd. In a country which is geographically very vast and where educational infrastructure leaves a vast majority from its reach, this system needs more and more encouragement. While standard materials are available from sources like ILO, each trainer can write brief programmes for use in specific subjects. This is most effective method when teaching has to be done through post.


Films and TelevisionDefinitionRecording and producing certain events or situations with clear descriptions in order to cover certain subjects. Can be shown many times, then reviewed and discussed to help trainees understand more fully.


Films and Television …Contd.

StrengthsTapes can be played many times to ensure individual’s understanding. Many events and discussions can be put on one tape. Because time length is known, presentation and follow-up can be scheduled.


Films and Television …Contd.

WeaknessesRecording and producing has to be done by professionals to get good quality. Expensive (a typical 20 to 30 minutes cassette costs $50, without projector or screen).


Group Discussion

DefinitionA speech by the instructor, with a lot of participation (questions and comments) from the listeners. Sometimes an instructor not necessary, however, a leader is needed.


Group Discussion …Contd.

StrengthsGood if the participants are in small groups. Each participant has an opportunity to present own ideas. More ideas can be generated.


Group Discussion …Contd.

WeaknessesSometimes they get away from the subjects. Some group leaders or instructors do not know how to guide discussions. Sometimes one strong individual can dominate others.


Sensitivity TrainingDefinitionUsed for organisational development. Creating situations and examining the participants’ reactions and behaviour, then having feedback about behaviour. Group members exchange thoughts and feelings in unstructured ways.


Sensitivity Training …Contd.

StrengthsHelps individuals to find the reasons for their behaviour (self-insight). Helps individuals to know the effects of their behaviour on others. Creates more group interactions.


Sensitivity Training …Contd.

WeaknessesPeople may not like information about their behaviour, especially if it is negative. May lead to conflict and anger within the group. May not be related or transferable to jobs.


Transactional Analysis (T.A. for short) has gained immense popularity in recent years and is claimed to have been the next best thing to happen in the field of Psychology and Psychotherapy after Freud. The concept of T.A. was first pro-pounded by Dr. Eric Berne, M.D., in the early 50s. Berne was much impressed by the works of Adler and Sullivan and was apt to differ from Freud in considering sexual motivation to be the sole determinant of all human behaviour.

Transactional Analysis – An Overview

253


Berne noticed that an individual depending upon various stimuli tended to behave as if more than one person was inside the individual. He observed that these various ‘selves’ interacted with other people in different ways and that these interactions were amenable to an analysis of sorts. T.A. was initially developed by Berne as a Psychotherapeutic tool but gradually it became clear that it provided an excellent method for understanding the whole gamut of human behaviour, ‘pathological’ as well as ‘normal’.

Transactional Analysis – An Overview …Contd.

254


Basically, T.A. consists of the following four kinds of analysis:

1. Structural Analysis2. Transactional Analysis3. Game Analysis and4. Script Analysis Let us see in brief what these four analyses are all about and how T.A. is useful in understanding and improving human behaviour.

Transactional Analysis – An Overview …Contd.

255


Man at any particular time is said to be having three Ego States. The Ego States are separate and distinct sources of behaviour. They, according to Berne are not abstract concepts but realities and should not be equated with the Freudian concepts of Id, Ego and Super Ego.

Structural Analysis

256


These Ego States are the Parent Ego State, the Adult Ego State and the Child Ego State and are commonly called Parent, Adult and Child and are represented by Capital Letters P, A and C respectively. The Ego States can be diagrammatically represented as in the next slide by what is called an Ego gram.

Structural Analysis …Contd.

257



P

A

C

Parent Ego State

Adult Ego State

Child Ego State

258


Let us see what these three Ego States involve:1. Parent Ego State:This contains the ‘recordings’ of a person’s early years (usually the first five years) of life. Everything a child sees his parents do or tell is imbibed here. Since a child is dependent and rigorously follows whatever is told to him by his parents or parent substitutes, the data recorded here is in an unmodified form. In the Parent are recorded all the rules, laws, the don’ts as also the rewards and looks of pleasure given by the parents of the child.


259


1. Parent Ego State …Contd.Thus, an individual’s father and mother become internalized in a person’s psyche and they continue to influence him / her throughout his life. This Ego State is inwardly experienced as archaic parental dictions while externally it may be manifested as a nurturing or critical behaviour. The Parent Ego State is hence sub-divided into :1. Nurturing Parent 2. Critical Parent.


260


2. The Child Ego State:During the same time (birth to five years) when the external events are being recorded in the Parent, the internal feelings of the child are recorded in the Child Ego State. Since the Child has yet to develop his analytical ability and hence the recordings consist almost entirely of ‘feelings’ which are a direct consequence of his reactions to the various environmental demands put upon him / her.


261


2. The Child Ego State …Contd.In a child there exists the various natural urges like the urge to explore, to experience pleasant sensations, to make bowel movements, etc. However, these urges are regulated by the environmental demands predominantly in the form of parental approval / disapproval. In the child also resides the curiosity, a desire to explore, to have newer and newer experiences. The Child Ego State is hence sub-divided primarily into two divisions viz., 1. The Free Child and2. The Adapted Child.


262


2. The Child Ego State …Contd.The Free Child has all the positive urges stored in him / her while the Adapted Child is one which learns to behave intuitively by observing and suitably adapting its behaviour according to environmental / parental reinforcements. The Adapted Child is in turn divisible into two parts: 1. The Rebellious Child2. The Complaint Child.


263


3. The Adult Ego State:This is the state which is geared to the present reality. It gathers information, organizes it; tests the information gathered, analyzes it and takes decisions. Studies tend to point out that from the tenth month onwards, the Adult begins to differentiate. The Adult is continuously testing and updating data, sometimes even Parent and Child data. The Adult, hence, is often likened to a computer and almost functions like one. The Adult is associated with all the rational decisions taken by man.


264



Parent

Adult

Child

Nurturing Parent

CriticalParent

Natural Child

Adapted Child

Rebellous Child

Compliant Child

265


Structural Analysis …Contd. The boundaries between Parent, Adult and Child are not very strong and are vulnerable to the bombardment of incoming data. One Ego State may get blocked out from another Ego State and even contamination of one Ego State and another is possible.

266


Transactional Analysis According to Berne, a transaction is the basic unit of social interaction. Whenever two persons come together they transact. The transaction consists of a stimulus by one person and a response by another. As we know each person has three ego states and hence when two persons transact, actually six ego states become involved. Depending upon the Ego States that are activated, transactions have been classified as Complementary, Crossed or Ulterior.

267


Transactional Analysis …Contd. Complementary Transactions

A complementary transaction occurs when a message sent from a particular ego state gets the predicted response from a specific ego state in the other person. Complementary transactions are natural and expected, and so they usually lead to healthy relationships. A complementary transaction can occur between any two ego states, e.g., it could be Parent-Parent, Adult-Adult, Parent-Child etc.

268


Transactional Analysis …Contd.

Complementary Transactions …Contd.

Complementary transactions are open-ended. Theoretically, the two persons can continue to transact with each other almost indefinitely. Examples of complementary transactions are illustrated in the next slide.

269



Complementary Transactions …Contd.

P

A

C

P

A

C

1 2Adult – Adult Transaction

1. Where are you going ?2. I am going to my office.

270


Transactional Analysis …Contd. Complementary Transactions …Contd.

P

A

C

P

A

C

1 2Child - Nurturing Parent Transaction

1. I am just not able to solve these problems.2. I shall help you out with them.

271


Transactional Analysis …Contd. Crossed Transactions:Often, it so happens that a stimulus does not receive the intended response and as a result, the communication process gets crossed. In a crossed transaction, the appropriate ego state is not activated and the transacting lines between the people become crossed. At this stage, communication usually comes to a halt. People tend to withdraw or else choose a new topic.

272



Crossed Transactions …Contd.

Crossed transactions may lead to misunderstanding and pain as may be evident from the illustration given in the next slide.

273


Transactional Analysis …Contd. Crossed Transactions …Contd.

P

A

C

P

A

C

1

2

Typist

1. Typist: Here is the report.2. Boss: You should have typed it out at

least two hours back.

Boss

274


Transactional Analysis …Contd. Ulterior Transactions Ulterior transactions differ from complementary or crossed transactions since ulterior transactions involve more than one ego states. Ulterior transactions usually have a covert massage which is disguised in the form of a socially acceptable transaction. Ulterior transactions are represented in the diagrams in the broken line form.

275


Transactional Analysis …Contd. Ulterior Transactions …Contd.Ulterior transactions are of two types :

1. Angular2. Duplex.

In case of Duplex transactions, persons transact at two distinct levels viz. the underlying covert, psychological level and the overt, social level. Examples of Angular and Duplex Ulterior transactions are given in the next two slides.

276


Transactional Analysis …Contd. Angular Transaction

P

A

C

P

A

C

1

2

X

X 1: I really blew my top today, no ? (overt communication of information)

X 1a: (An attempt actually to hook up the parent). If the angular transaction is successful, then the parent may be hooked and response may be:

Y 2: You are unmanageable.Y

1a

277



Duplex

Transaction

P

A

C

P

A

C

22a

X

Student 1: I worked at night but don’t have the homework ready

1a: (Ulterior: I am bad, punish me).

Teacher 2: Sorry, this is the last day for the assignment. You shall not be marked for it.

2a: (Ulterior: Yes, you are bad. Here is your punishment).

Y

1a1

278


Game Analysis People often tend to play psychological games with one another. The psychological games have a beginning, a set of rules and end in a ‘pay off’. These games are not played merely for the sake of fun and may have ulterior motives. Berne stated that a psychological game has “a recurring set of transactions, often repetitive, superficially rational, with a concealed motivation; or more colloquially as a series of transactions with a gimmick”.

279


Game Analysis …Contd. Games usually have (I) a series of complementary transactions which are meaningful at the social level (ii) an ulterior transaction which is the underlying message (iii) a pay off which is the conclusion and the reason why game is played.Games are wasteful and do not encourage honest, intimate relationships amongst the participants. People often play games to kill time, to get attention or to prove early prejudices.

280


Game Analysis …Contd. In T.A. terminology games have Slogans or Motto by which they can be easily recognized, the slogan of the game is often called a ‘sweat shirt’ and the name of the game may be taken from the slogan of the game. One such game is called ‘Uproar’ and may proceed somewhat like this:

281


Game Analysis …Contd.

When X is starting the game, the interactions may be:X: Begins to make signs of being disturbed.Y: What’s wrong:X: ‘It’s none of your business, leave me alone’.Y: May go out without a word.X: When Y returns, there is a show-down and each party accuses the other, the pay off may be in the form of X breaking down, running to a room and slamming the door shut. Y may retreat elsewhere. The whole day may then be spent without any further contact.

282


Game Analysis …Contd. Games are played with different degrees of intensity ranging from the socially acceptable to the criminal homicide or suicide level. Berne divided games into three types:

(a) First Degree GameThis is one which is socially

acceptable.(b) Second Degree Game

This does not involve any permanent damage but the players tend to conceal it from public.

283


Game Analysis …Contd.

(c) Third Degree GameThis is played for ‘keeps’,

ending in some permanent change. The end is either at the courtroom or the morgue.

284


Script AnalysisEach person has a life plan, these life plans are called scripts in T.A. language. A person usually feels compelled to play out the life plan. This life plan is usually based on childlike illusions which seem to persist throughout the life time. A script is related to the early ‘life positions’ taken by a child and is present in the Child Ego State. The inscription takes place through the transactions between parents and their children.

285


Script Analysis …Contd.

The childlike illusions which go to make the script is often removed by certain intelligent people; however, the removal involves a bit of a crisis. Such a crisis may be an adolescent reappraisal of parents, middle age protests and emergence of a philosophical self in later years. Sometimes, however, attempts to maintain the illusions may lead to depression or a complete abandonment of the illusions and despair.

286



A life script can be likened to a theatrical script, wherein the actor is compelled to act as per the script. The life script scenes are also set up and motivated ahead of time just like theatrical scripts. A life script requires the following: 1. Parental directives2. A suitable personality development3. A childhood decision4. An attuning to a particular method of success or failure5. A credible stance

287



A life script starts early in childhood where other players are limited to parents and siblings. Through the trial and error methods, the child writes and rewrites the final script. The script is ultimately aimed at the last performance, the final pay off. If the script is ‘good’, he might get kudos, if it is ‘bad’, he might end up in a prison cell, on the gallows or a lunatic asylum.Life scripts are based on parental programming; a child seeks it out because it gives him a purpose of life, a method for structuring time and learning how to do things.

288



Usually life scripts are of three types:1. Winner script2. The non-winner scripts and3. The loser scriptWhile a child may be free to choose the kind of script he wants, the outcome is based on parental directives. Parents may want their children to be losers or winners; a winner is a person who fulfills the agreement with the world and himself, while losers are those who do not accomplish the goal. There are also those persons who are not losers but are non-winners.

289



Scripts, like games are artificial systems and are liable to limit creative human endeavours. Also scripts are not restricted to individuals only; cultural, sub-cultural and family scripts also exist. However, once the predominant games one plays or the script one has is recognized, desirable changes can be effected. Intelligent people can determine their own course of life although the process may not always be an easy one and may involve much hard work.

290


Life PositionsPeople, very early in life develop certain life positions. These life positions can be grouped under the following four categories:

1. I am Not OK – You are OK2. I am Not OK – You are Not OK3. I am OK – You are Not OK4. I am OK – You are OK

291


Life Positions …Contd.

Usually I am Not OK: You are OK is the first decision early in life; by the end of second year, this is either confirmed or position two or three is adopted. These life positions remain with a person for the rest of his / her life unless (s)he consciously changes it to the fourth position.

292



1. I am Not OK – You are OKThis is the position taken by everyone in early childhood. In this position, a person feels that he is at the mercy of others and there is an overwhelming need for recognition. This position may often prompt people to either withdraw or else push others to such states where they punish him / her, thus reinforcing his / her Not OK feelings. Another manifestation of this position could be eagerness and excess compliantness towards other persons’ demands.

293



2. I am Not OK – You are Not OKIf a child early in life feels unwanted, then (s)he may develop this position. In this position there is no place for any hope and even when others want to give help / support, the position tends to selectively perceive all experiences to support his / her position as being totally unwanted.

294



3. I am OK – You are Not OKA child who early in life has very painful experiences while interacting with others (including parents) may take succour in the feeling that I am OK, the rest of the people are Not OK. ‘A Battered Child’ is most likely to develop this position. Later he may just not be able to see his own short comings and for him, it may always be ‘their fault’, ‘not mine’.

295



4. I am OK – You are OKThis is of course the ideal life position. The greatest difference between the first three positions and this position is that this position is an outcome of a conscious decision whereas the first three are unconscious. Since the fourth position is based not solely on feelings but on thought, it is much more rational and objective. However, as has been said, the position does not come by itself. It is a decision which one makes and efforts obviously have to be put in to attain this position.

296


Transactional Analysis –A Critique

Charges of popularization and oversimplification notwithstanding, T.A. is an excellent method by which human behavior can be understood. The end aim of T.A. is to help a person have freedom of choice, to respond to recurring and new stimuli at will. We have seen, how much of the freedom may be lost at the early childhood stage. Restoration of this freedom is the end aim of T.A. The freedom may come from the knowledge regarding what is contained in one’s Parent and the Child. This data influences present day transactions and the realization that everyone with whom one deals also has a Parent, Adult and a Child.

297


Transactional Analysis –A Critique …Contd.

This knowledge helps an individual to select a suitable combination of transactions, which may improve interpersonal relations. While concluding however, a note of caution would not be out of place. T.A. should never be assumed to be panacea, to ascribe upon it the powers of cure all, would be unnecessarily burdening it and may result in disillusionment. Nevertheless, T.A. if understood in its true spirit and used intelligently, it enables persons to have a Game-Free, Win-Win relationship with each other, which is the most fruitful one. In other words, T.A. gives us the blue print to live a richer and happier life.

298


Achievement Motivation Workshops

Definition


Achievement Motivation Workshops …Contd.

Strengths


Achievement Motivation Workshops …Contd.

Weaknesses


Implementation and Evaluation of

Training Programme


Training is far more than just standing in front of a

group of learners andconveying information.

Roles of the Trainer


This is the function of doing everything possible to cause learning to take place.

The secret is to develop skills in using a wide variety of training tools and in expanding the roles.

Roles of the Trainer …Contd.


The trainer is a person of many roles,

the most important one being that of

a facilitator of the learning process.

Roles of the Trainer …Contd.


Facilitating involves utilising all the trainer’s abilities and available resources in order to provide the best access to the knowledge and skills that the training is designed to impart

Facilitation is a Composite Role


1. Subject Expert – who works closely with other experts, especially in training – event preparation

2. Counsellor – who helps learning with the help of learning processes

3. Leader / Motivator – of the learners

The Most Critical Roles of the Trainer are


4. Psychologist – who deals with many different kinds of people

5. Manager – for self and for the learners

6. Human Being – who is just like the learners

The Most Critical Roles of the Trainer are …Contd.


There are timeswhen

the obvious parts of training,

such as instructing,may be

the least important.

Flexibility is Important


Training Evaluation

You can waste a great deal of money on training if you do not bother to check to see if it has been worthwhile. This evaluation of training programmes, or a component part of it, can be carried out at different levels.


CIRO FrameworkContext Training needs identification, environment, problems

Input Alternative available resources

Reaction Immediate or subsequent

Outcome Immediate, intermediate, long term


CIRO Framework …Contd.

Basis1. What needs to be changed?2. What procedures are most likely to bring about this change?3. What evidence is there that change has occurred?


Levels of Evaluation -KIRKPATRICK’s ModelStep 1 – Reaction

Step 2 – Learning

Step 3 – Behaviour

Step 4 – Results


KIRKPATRICK’s Model …Contd.

Basis1. How well did the participants like it?2. What principles, facts and techniques were learnt?3. What changes in job behaviour resulted?4. What were the tangible results?


Reactions LevelThe way in which the trainees reach to the training in terms of enjoyment and perceived learning; is one basic, but sometimes unreliable, yardstick. The fact that trainees have enjoyed themselves may indicate that they found themselves in a congenial social group, rather than that they have actually learnt anything. And the fact that they think they have learnt something may be a reflection of their unwillingness to admit that such a happy social event was, from the learning point of view, a waste of time.


Reactions Level …Contd.

Evaluation at this level can be either informal or formal:1. Informal: Trainees give oral feedback

in answer to general questions such as ‘How did you enjoy it?’ or ‘Which parts were of most use to you?’

2. Formal: A questionnaire can be designed to elicit trainees’ reactions to the course as a whole and to specific aspect of it.


Immediate Outcome / Learning Level

The learning objectives, if properly written, will have included some method of assessing whether or not the desired learning has taken place. Evaluation at this level takes the form of an examination or test of some kind. This is designed to sample the kind of learning that the training was designed to provide.


Intermediate Outcome / Job Behaviour Level

If the training has been carried out in response to a clearly identified training need, arising out of the way in which the trainee was doing his job prior to the start of the programme, it should be possible to evaluate the training by seeing whether his job performance has changed for the better. The ease with which this can be done will vary with the size and complexity of the job and the factors affecting it.


Ultimate Outcome / Organisation Change Level

The ultimate evaluation of training comes when the organization either does or does not manage to sustain its goals. Some people would argue that this is the only truly significant level of evaluation. It doesn’t matter how well trained the staff are, if the organization is not achieving what it should. This is also the most difficult level of evaluation to carry out, and, for that reason, the most rarely applied.


Evaluation Of Training and Development

Evaluation1. Immediate2. After transfer of learningCan be Done by1. Written or Oral feedback2. Analysis of comments, suggestions,

observations3. InferencesUse of Evaluation Data


The CIPP Model is a simple systems model applied to programme evaluation. A basic open system includes input, process, and output. According to Stufflebeam, CIPP stands for context evaluation, input evaluation, process evaluation, and product evaluation. These types are typically viewed as separate forms of evaluation, but they can also be viewed as steps or stages in a comprehensive evaluation.

CIPP Model


Context evaluation includes examining and describing the context of the programme you are evaluating, conducting a needs and goals assessment, determining the objectives of the programme, and determining whether the proposed objectives will be sufficiently responsive to the identified needs. It helps in making programme planning decisions.

CIPP Model …Contd.


Input evaluation includes activities such as a description of the programme inputs and resources, a comparison of how the programme might perform compared to other programmes, a prospective benefit / cost assessment (i.e., decide whether you think the benefits will outweigh the costs of the programme, before the programme is actually implemented), an evaluation of the proposed design of the programme and an examination of what alternative strategies and procedures for the programme should be considered and recommended. In short, this type of evaluation examines what the programme plans on doing. It helps in making programme structuring decisions.



Process evaluation includes examining how a programme is being implemented, monitoring how the programme is performing, auditing the programme to make sure it is following required legal and ethical guidelines and identifying defects in the procedural design or in the implementation of the programme. It is here that evaluators provide information about what is actually occurring in the programme. Evaluators typically provide this kind of feedback to programme personnel because it can be helpful in making formative evaluation decisions (i.e., decisions about how to modify or improve the programme). In general, process evaluation helps in making implementing decisions.



Product evaluation includes determining and examining the general and specific outcomes of the programme (i.e., which requires using impact or outcome assessment techniques), measuring anticipated outcomes, attempting to identify unanticipated outcomes, assessing the merit of the programme, conducting a retrospective benefit / cost assessment (to establish the actual worth or value of the programme) and / or conducting a cost effectiveness assessment (to determine if the programme is cost effective compared to other similar programmes). Product evaluation is very helpful in making summative evaluation decisions (e.g., What is the merit and worth of the programme? Should the programme be continued?)



As you can see, the CIPP Evaluation Model is quite comprehensive, and one would often not use every part of the CIPP Model in a single evaluation. On the other hand, it would be fruitful for you to think about a small programme (e.g., a training programme in a local organisation) where you would go through all four steps or parts of the CIPP Model. (Again, there are two different ways to view the CIPP model: first as four distinct kinds of evaluation and second as steps or stages in a comprehensive evaluation model.) The CIPP Model is, in general, quite useful in helping us to focus on some very important evaluation questions and issues and to think about some different types or stages of evaluation.



Comparison of the Evaluation Models

Kirkpatrick (1959)

CIPP Model (1987)

IPO Model (1990)

TVS Model (1994)

1. Reaction: to gather data on participants reactions at the end of a training program

1. Context: obtaining information about the situation to decide on educational needs and to establish programme objectives

1. Input: evaluation of system performance indicators such as trainee qualifications, availability of materials, appropriateness of training, etc.

1. Situation: collecting pre-training data to ascertain current levels of performance within the organisation and defining a desirable level of future performance


Comparison of the Evaluation Models …Contd.

Kirkpatrick (1959)

CIPP Model (1987)

IPO Model (1990)

TVS Model (1994)

2. Learning: to assess whether the learning objectives for the programme are met

2. Input: identifying educational strategies most likely to achieve the desired result

2. Process: embraces planning, design, development and delivery of training programmes

2. Intervention: identifying the reason for the existence of the gap between the present and desirable performance to find out if training is the solution to the problem



Kirkpatrick (1959)

CIPP Model (1987)

IPO Model (1990)

TVS Model (1994)

3. Behavior: to assess whether job performance changes as a result of training

3. Process: assessing the implementation of the educational programme

3. Output: Gathering data resulting from the training interventions

3. Impact: evaluating the difference between the pre- and post-training data



Kirkpatrick (1959)

CIPP Model (1987)

IPO Model (1990)

TVS Model (1994)

4. Results: to assess costs vs. benefits of training programmes, i.e., organisational impact in terms of reduced costs, improved quality of work, increased quantity of work, etc.

4. Product: gathering information regarding the results of the educational intervention to interpret its worth and merit

4. Outcomes: longer-term results associated with improvement in the corporation’s bottom line- its profitability, competitiveness, etc.

4. Value: measuring differences in quality, productivity, service or sales, all of which can be expressed in terms of dollars


Suggested Future Directions

1. Accept the reality of the situation

2. Identify opportunities

3. Develop the needed competences

4. Utilise talent pool for short / long term requirements of customers


Training Audit and

Cost Analysis


Introduction of the Participant1. Name :2. Age :3. Gender :4. Designation:5. Nature of Job :Expectations from the Programme1. Conceptual Inputs

2. Utility at Work Place

Note: You may mention a situation / problem which you would like the faculty to discuss on the other side of this sheet.


Action Planning FormatProgramme :Date (s) :Name :Designation :1. List at least ten learning points of this programme.2. List those learning points which you can put into

practice at your work situation, in order of priority.3. Briefly state how you will put them into practice.4. What is the time frame for implementation of those

points?5. What management support would you require for

successful implementation of your learning from this programme?

Place :Date :Signature :


Training Programme – Feedback Form

Organisation :Programme :Date (s) :Venue :

Your feedback regarding the programme, its achievements / drawbacks and your comments / suggestions will help us to evaluate this programme and make changes wherever necessary. Kindly fill up carefully and elaborate your comments and suggestions.


Training Programme – Feedback Form …Contd.

Topic Content Exercises / Interaction

Remarks

1. Did the programme achieve its objectives? (Please check mark in the relevant column)- Fully _________________- Partly _________________- Not at all _________________

2. Your comments on the coverage of topics:(Please rate content and exercises / interaction on the following scale: Excellent – 4; Good – 3; Average – 2; Poor – 1)



3. Duration of the programme wasa) Too Long ___ b) Just right ___ c) Too short ___

4. Duration of the sessions werea) Too Long ___ b) Just right ___ c) Too short ___

5. Appropriateness of training methodology:a) Very appropriate _____b) Somewhat appropriate _____c) Better methods should be searched _____

6. Scope for participation and improvement:a) Enough opportunity was given and efforts were made by the faculty member (s) _____b) Some opportunity was given _____c) Sufficient opportunity was not given _____



7. Manner of presentation:a) Very systematic _____b) Somewhat systematic _____c) Not very systematic _____

8. Communication style of faculty members:

a) Very clear ___ b) Somewhat clear ___ c) Not very clear ___

9. Was sufficient opportunity provided for discussion and clarification of points / doubts?a) Yes __________ b) No _________

10. Mention any specific session(s) which you found most useful.a)b)



11. Mention any specific session(s) which you found irrevalent.a) b)

12. What other topics do you suggest for inclusion in future programmes of this nature?a) b)

13. On which topics would you want more information and of what nature?a) b)

14. The administrative arrangements for the programme were:a) Excellent ____ b) Good ____ c) Average _____

15. How do you plan to use the knowledge, concepts and skills you learnt during this programme in your work

place?



16. Overall assessment of the programme: on the whole, do you think the programme was useful to you?a) Extremely useful and stimulating_____b) Very useful_____c) Somewhat useful _____d) Of little use_____e) Of no use at all _____

17. Any other observations / suggestions you would like to make?

THANK YOU


Evaluating the Costs of Training

Looking at the outcomes of training is only half the battle in evaluating its effectiveness. The other half is determining whether the results were worth the cost. If grievances do go down and if the new behaviours are exhibited and the skills learned, then training might be considered the cause of the reduction, although cause-and-effect relationships are never a sure thing. The examination of all four levels of evaluation provide evidence of cause and effect and appropriate designs enhance the level of confidence in cause and effect but not to an absolute certainty.


Evaluating the Costs of Training …Contd.

Many managers today still might ask, “So what? Was the training cost worth it?” In other words, did the benefits related to the reduction in grievances outweigh the training costs incurred? The “Is the training worth it?” question can be answered two ways:

1. Cost / benefit evaluation 2. Cost-effectiveness evaluation


Cost / Benefit EvaluationA cost / benefit evaluation of training compares the monetary cost of training to the nonmonetary benefits. It is difficult to place a value on these benefits, which include attitudes and working relationships. So, the labour peace brought about by the reduction in grievances is difficult to assess but rates high in value in comparison to the cost of training. The conflict resolution skills learned by supervisors provide the nonmonetary benefit of better relationships between supervisors and union officials. Although cost / benefit analysis is important and of value, it is also possible to assess the reduction in grievances (for example) in a way that directly answers the cost-effectiveness question.


Cost-Effectiveness Evaluation

A cost-effectiveness evaluation compares the monetary costs of training to the financial benefits accrued from training. Two approaches can be used to assess cost effectiveness:1. Calculation of the actual cost savings,

based on the change in “results.”2. Utility analysis, which examines the

value of overall improvement in performance of the trained employees.


Cost-Effectiveness Evaluation …Contd.

The difference between the two is that the cost savings analysis only looks at the financial value of improvement in the problem that training was intended to correct (e.g., reduction in labour grievances).

Utility analysis looks at all the ways in which the trainee’s improved job performance will financially benefit the organisation (e.g., reduced grievances, improved relations with labour force, less turnover and so on).



Cost Savings Analysis (Results Focus)

The common types of costs associated with training programmes are compared to the savings that can be attributed to training. Suppose the cost of training is $32,310. Now let’s determine the savings when training is completed. To perform this cost savings analysis we must first determine the cost of the current situation given in the next slide. The company averaged 90 grievances per year. Seventy percent of these (63) go to the third step before settlement. The average time required by management (including HR managers, operational supervisors, etc.) to deal with a grievance that goes to the third step is 10 hours.


Cost Savings for Grievance Reduction Training

Pre-training Post-training

Management Time

(for those going to third step) 10 hours per grievance

10 hrs. x 63 grievances = 630 hrs. 10 hrs. x 8 grievances = 80 hrs.

Union Reps Time

(paid by management)

7.5 hrs per grievance

7.5 x 63 grievances = 472 hrs. 7.5 x 8 grievances = 60 hrs.

Total Cost

Management time 630 hrs. x $50 per hr. = $31,500 80 hrs. x $50 per hr. = $4,000

Union reps time 472 hrs. x $25 per hr. = $11,812.50 60 hrs. x $25 per hr. = $1,500

Total $43,312.50 $5,500.00

Reduction in cost of grievances going to the third step

$43,312.50 - $5,500 = $37,812.50

Cost of training ______ -$32,310.00

Cost saving for the first year

$5,502.50



Cost Savings Analysis (Results Focus) …Contd.

The management wages ($50 per hour on average) add $500 to the cost of each grievance ($50 x 10). In addition, union representatives spend an average of 7.5 hours at $25 per hour ($187.50) for those grievances, wages that are considered paid time as stipulated in the collective agreement. The total cost of wages to the company per grievance is $687.50. Thus, as noted in the previous table, the total cost for those 63 grievances that go to the third step is $43,312.50. Now, the savings as a result of training are indicated in the previous slide.




In the first year, the number of grievances dropped by 50 percent and only eight of those went to the third step. The drop in grievances suggests training was worth the cost. The drop should be coupled with a more positive relationship with the union and rank and file, a benefit some would say is value enough. But, let’s calculate the actual cost savings. Sixty-three grievances cost $43,312.50 prior to the training and the eight grievances after training cost $5,500. Thus training reduced the cost of grievances by $37,812.50.




Subtracting the $32,310 training costs from this amount leaves a savings to the organisation of $5,502.50 in just the first year. You will note that this conservative estimate does not include the cost of materials, facilities and other overhead in the cost of grievances.

The data show a $37,812.50 return on a $32,310 investment. Dividing the return by the investment produces a return-on-investment ratio of 1.17. If the ratio is exactly 1.0, the training broke even. If it is below that, it cost more than it brings back to the company.




In this case we calculate a 17 percent return on investment for the first year. Most companies would be delighted if all their investments achieved this level of return. In addition, the nonmonetary benefits described earlier are also realised. Presenting this type of data to the corporate decision makers at budget preparation time is certainly more compelling than stating, “Thirty supervisors were given a 5-day grievance reduction workshop.”




Many training departments are beginning to see the importance of placing a monetary value on their training for a number of reasons:o HRD budgets are more easily justified and even

expanded when HR can demonstrate it is contributing to the profit.

o HRD specialists are more successful in containing costs.

o Showing dollar value for training improves the image of the training department.




Because of the time and effort required to calculate the value of training, many small business managers simply do not do it. However, assessing the value of training is not an exact science and can be done more easily by means of estimates. Table in previous slide provides a simplified approach for small business. When estimates are necessary in completing this form, it is useful to obtain them from those who will receive the report (usually top management). If you use their estimates, it is more likely that your final report will have credibility. Of course, larger organisations can also use this method.



Utility AnalysisIn the previous example, training supervisors in grievance handling reduced the total number of grievances by 50 percent and the number going to the third step from 63 to 8. We calculated only the cost savings of the change in third-step grievances. Utility analysis permits us to estimate the overall value to the organisation of the supervisors’ changes in behavior. In other words, if those trained, on average, are better performers and better performers are worth more in dollar terms, utility analysis allows us to estimate that increased worth.



Utility Analysis …Contd.

A general approach to utility is presented next:∆U = (N)(T)(DT)(SDY) – C

where ∆U = dollar value of improved performanceN = number of traineesT = time the benefits will lastDT = difference in performance between trained

and untrained groups (in standard deviation units)SDY = dollar value of untrained group’s performance (in standard deviation units)C = total cost of training the trained group



Utility Analysis …Contd.Some of the variables in the equation can be directly measured whereas others must be estimated. For example, N, C, and DT can be objectively determined. On the other hand, determining how long the benefits will last is really an estimate, which will be more or less accurate depending on the estimator’s experience with training, the types of employees involved and so on. Calculating the dollar value of the untrained group’s performance falls somewhere between. It is relatively easy, for example, to determine the compensation costs.



Utility Analysis …Contd.However, it is often more difficult to translate their actual performance into dollar amounts. Recall our third-step grievance example. Even though we know what a third-step grievance costs in management labour compensation, we don’t know the impact of those third-step grievances on the productivity of the work unit or the quality of the product / service. Thus, what is included in determining the dollar value of performance becomes a subjective decision. The final result will be an estimate of the value of the increased performance in dollars.



Utility Analysis …Contd.Utility analysis is complex and beyond the scope of this discussion; what has been presented here is just a taste of the complexity.

More complex models account for even more factors that may affect the true financial value of training outcomes. Our purpose here is to demonstrate the difficulties of getting a true picture of the financial benefits associated with training outcomes. However, these complexities exist for any area of the business when we try to determine the effects of change. By becoming more quantitative in the assessment and description of training outcomes, training managers can put themselves on an equal footing with the other managers in the organisation.



Utility Analysis …Contd.One important note regarding the use of utility methods for gaining support of the training programme you wish to promote: Some recent research indicated that utility is not an effective method for garnering support for human resource policies. In fact, the research concluded that using utility analysis to bolster your claim as to the value of a project actually decreased managerial support for the project. Until it is clear why this tendency is the case, it may not be wise to use this particular type of analysis to sell a project. It may still be useful for showing the benefits after the fact.


Training Investment Analysis

Part 1: Calculating the Revenue Produced by TrainingOption A – Itemized Analysis Increased sales: ___ Additional sales per employee

x ___ Revenues (or margin) per salex ___ Number of employees= ___ Revenue Produced by

TrainingHigher productivity: ___ Percent increase in productivity

x ___ Cost per employee (salary plus benefits plus overhead)x Number of employees= ___ Revenue Produced by

Training


Training Investment Analysis …Contd.

Option A – Itemized Analysis …Contd. Reduced errors: ___ Average cost per error

x ___ Number of errors avoided per employee

x ___ Number of employees= ___ Revenue Produced by Training

Client retention: ___ Average revenue per client x ___ Number of clients retained= ___ Revenue Produced by Training

Employee retention: ___ Average cost of a new employee

(training plus lost productivity) x ___ Number of employees

retained = ___ Revenue Produced by

TrainingOther: ___Total Revenue Produced by Training:$__________



Option B – Summary Analysis __________ - ___________ = ____________Revenue Revenue RevenueAfter Without ProducedTraining Training by Training

Part 2: Calculating the Return__________ - ___________ = ____________Revenue Cost of Total ReturnProduced Training on TrainingBy Training Investment


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Paper – EHR 5101


Unit – IV: Management Development

Sub Topicso Approaches to Management

Developmento Types of Management Developments

Programmes

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Approaches to Management Development

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Why Focus on Management Development?

We have already discussed in detail the training process and a great many training techniques. So why single out managers for special consideration? Don’t the processes and techniques already presented apply to them? The answer is yes. However, several reasons prompt us to examine this part of the organisational community in more detail. Perhaps foremost is how important management development is in today’s environment.

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Why Focus on Management Development? …Contd.

Evidence indicates that those companies that align their management development with their strategic planning are generally more competitive. So, we need to thoroughly understand such an important part of organisational competitiveness. Other related reasons include the following:

1. Managers get a lot of training2. Managers are accountable for success3. Managers’ jobs are complex

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Managers get a lot of trainingOne of the most frequent types of training provided by companies over the last several years is management development and executive leadership. This is true across every industry from financial and banking institutions to manufacturing to communications to utilities. Management training is more important as the organisation increases in size.

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Managers get a lot of training …Contd.For companies of all sizes approximately 37 percent of all training budgets go toward management and executive training. Thus, whether large of small and regardless of industry, management training is seen as a vital part of improving organisational performance. A training professional needs to understand a part of the business that is in such demand.

369



Managers are accountable for successManagers carry a different and more complex burden for ensuring the success of the enterprise than non-managers. The business environment over the next decade is expected to place even more demands on management. Consider the following responsibilities of the manager of the new millennium:

o Managers face a shrinking labour pool in terms of the skilled and educated. It is management’s responsibility to grow and keep the talent necessary to be competitive.

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Managers are accountable for success …Contd.

o At the same time, more technologically sophisticated systems are being implemented and management is responsible for ensuring that employees obtain the knowledge and skills required to perform their jobs.

o They must also deal with a more diverse workforce and see that diversity is a strength and not allow it to become a focus of divisiveness.

371



Managers are accountable for success …Contd.

o Mergers, acquisitions, downsizing and fast-paced changes must all be managed effectively.

In fact, it is management’s responsibility to ensure that all systems and resources are appropriately integrated so the organisation can achieve its objectives. No wonder companies place a high priority on developing the KSAs of their managers.

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Why Focus on

Management Development? …Contd.

Managers’ jobs are complex.

Perhaps the most important reason to closely examine management development lies in the nature of managerial effectiveness. What makes a manager effective is more complex and difficult to ascertain than are most other targets of training and development. Thus it is more difficult to assess needs, to develop training content and methods and most certainly, to evaluate the effects of training.

373



Managers’ jobs are complex …Contd.

A good training process first develops an understanding of the employees’ training needs before designing the training programme. For management development this is not easy. Typically, a manager’s effectiveness is determined by how well her / his unit meets its objectives. However, determining his training needs from the performance of the unit is problematic. A complex alignment of many factors influences the unit’s performance and the manager can affect these factors in many ways.

374



Managers’ jobs are complex …Contd.To understand a manager’s development needs, you must first understand the context in which the manager and the unit operate. This context includes the strategic direction of the organisation, the technology of the manager’s unit, the human and financial resources available to the unit and how the unit relates to the rest of the organisation.Information about the context in which the manager must operate is collected from an organisational analysis.

375



Managers’ jobs are complex …Contd.The operational analysis identifies the managerial competencies required to create the appropriate match between the organisation’s strategy and the unit’s structure, resources and technology so the unit is able to achieve its objectives. To identify the manager’s developmental needs, her / his attitudes, knowledge, skills and behavioural styles are compared with the competencies required for the job.

376



Managers’ jobs are complex …Contd.

The job in this case is the management position in a particular unit. Determining all these factors is difficult enough, but it becomes even more difficult when you realise in how many ways a manager may go about achieving the unit’s objectives. Just identifying a manager’s developmental needs is a complex task filled with ambiguities. Identifying or developing a training programme to meet those needs is just as difficult and ambiguous.

377


Our Approach to Management Development

It is only after the managerial process is understood that appropriate needs analysis can occur. This understanding is also required for the trainer to be able to select the instructional strategy that will best meet the manager’s developmental needs. Although we may identify some sources from which training programmes can be acquired or developed, the fact that literally thousands of programmes are available and new management development programmes are developed frequently, as older ones fall out of favour and then many years later suddenly reemerge as a “favoured” approaches throws up its own problems.

378


Our Approach to Management Development …Contd.

The focus is on increasing your ability to determine management development needs. Our philosophy is that the educated consumer makes wiser choices. Understanding the match required between managers and their organisational context provides two long-lasting benefits to the training professional:1. An increased ability to determine a manager’s

development needs

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Our Approach to Management Development …Contd.

2. An increased ability to assess accurately the appropriateness of a particular training programme for meeting those needs.

Thus we provide an integrated framework (a model) for assessing managerial behaviour within the organisational context. Again, doing so takes a systems perspective in which we look at the manager within the unit and within the organisation.

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General Overview of the Managerial Job

A well-established principle of management holds that the effectiveness of particular managerial styles, behaviours and traits is contingent on other organisational variables. That is, a successful managerial approach in one situation can be unsuccessful in another. How, then, can general statements be made about managerial duties and responsibilities across industries ? Actually, no real contradiction arises here.

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General Overview of the Managerial Job …Contd.

The general activities carried out by managers seem to show more similarities than differences. However, the frequency, the relative importance and the manner in which these behaviours are performed differ greatly between organisations, even within the same industry. The first task is to understand the general makeup of the managerial job. With that understanding, we can turn our attention to some of the contextual factors that determine the frequency and style in which these activities are performed.

382


Managerial RolesMuch of the research on managerial activity is integrated into general roles that are “customised” to fit into a particular management position in a particular organisation. There is a relationship among these roles, which form an integrated whole in which each role affects the others. One implication of this model is that managers must not only demonstrate the KSAs required to perform each role, but also the KSAs required for their integration.

383


Managerial Roles …Contd.

Although individual managers may give more or less importance to a particular role, eliminating or neglecting one role results in direct consequences on the performance of other roles and hence on managerial effectiveness.Mintzberg defined a manager as anyone who is in charge of an organisation or one of its sub-units. The manager’s roles derive directly or indirectly from the formal authority and status granted to the position.

384



Some less systematic but more flavourful descriptions of day-to-day managerial work are listed here:o Engaging in brief, varied and discontinuous

activitieso Accommodating an unrelenting pace of activityo Performing numerous regular duties, as well as

handling the exceptions in their own as well as subordinates’ routine

o Making decisions on the basis of judgment and intuition

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o Providing subordinates with a clear understanding of their jobs and boundaries (yet jobs overlap and boundaries blur)

o Recognising that routine and standardisation are required to achieve efficiency but often must be sacrificed to create change; feeling comfortable doing either

o Needing controls and valid information, yet knowing that controls reduce information validity

o Regarding rules and standards as important constraints that must be observed, but acknowledging they are often inconsistent and making decisions about which must be ignored to meet others. 386



From the descriptions of managerial activity above it is clear that managers operate in a dynamic internal environment where they must constantly act to meet the challenges of new circumstances. Managers of subunits must not only adapt to new circumstances themselves, but coordinate their actions with other subunits that are also adapting. Typically little time is available for careful planning and reflection. When careful planning occurs, it often would not reflect new circumstances that arose after the plan was developed.

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Managers must be able to get their hands on the knowledge and skills necessary to meet these challenges as soon as they arise. This is not to say careful planning and reflective analysis are not important in organisations. Managers, however, often cannot take much time for this important activity. For that reason, many organisations maintain staff units whose job it is to provide the manager with recommendations based on careful planning and thoughtful reflection.

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A typical manager, however, must quickly diagnose a situation, develop an appropriate response, see that it is implemented and move on to the next task. This process requires that the manager understand the organisation, its strategies and capabilities, how his unit fits into the puzzle and how his behaviour will influence events.

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Management Development Implications

The key to effective management development is to determine the roles required for the position and from these roles the relevant KSAs (operational analysis). Then as in a traditional needs analysis you assess the current KSAs of the managers (person analysis). The 360-DF, when used properly, is an effective tool for determining the managers’ current KSA levels.

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Management Development Implications …Contd.

A number of methods can be used to obtain the relevant training for managers, from externally based programmes to corporate universities. Depending on the need—conceptual, technical, interpersonal, or even development of personal traits—all can be provided through various programmes.The technical manager faces special problems. When training is primarily technical, success is typically based on that expertise.

391



So, when a technical professional is promoted and suddenly needs management skills to be effective, that person is often not prepared. Developmental plans to prepare the technical manager for moving into the management position will make the transition more successful. The manager needs to understand the importance of these skills and be provided with opportunities to develop them.

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Development of executives is critical to organisational functioning but again, it is often ignored. Special attention needs to be focused here because executives are already at the top and likely feel competent or at least do not like to ask for help. It is difficult for someone who is a peer or lower to be credible enough to offer advice. Executives are also busy, often working long hours, making it difficult to find the time to receive any training.

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Executive coaching is one way to deal with these issues. Its use has grown at a tremendous rate over the last few years. Other methods are also available and the key to smooth development is succession planning. An effective succession plan will allow all executives and high-level managers to be constantly appraised and provided with opportunities to develop using many of the methods mentioned, such as coaching, action learning, executive MBAs, and so forth.

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Executive Coaching / MentoringNot long ago, coaching was considered a corrective method for inadequate performance. Not any more. A personal coach provides one way for the executive to deal with a busy schedule. For the CEO, the coach is an ideal training format. It can be done at the CEO’s convenience, it is one-on-one and it provides an opportunity for feedback from a professional from outside the organisation.The difference between coaching and mentoring is that mentoring is generally more of an on-going relationship and cosching is often for a shorter, more specific length of time.

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basket exercise

cipp model

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standard deviation

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