46 science fair projects for the evil genius - software...

46 Science Fair Projects for the

Evil Genius

http://dx.doi.org/10.1036/0071600272

Evil Genius Series

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25 Home Automation Projects for the Evil Genius

46 Science FairProjects for

the Evil Genius

BOB BONNETDAN KEEN

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1036/0071600272

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DOI: 10.1036/0071600272

http://dx.doi.org/10.1036/0071600272

Bob Bonnet, who holds a master’s degree inenvironmental education, has been teachingscience for over 25 years. He was a statenaturalist at Belleplain State Forest in NewJersey. Mr. Bonnet has organized and judgedmany science fairs at both the local andregional levels. He has served as thechairman of the science curriculumcommittee for the Dennis Township Schoolsystem, and he is a Science Teaching Fellowat Rowan University in New Jersey. Mr. Bonnet is listed in “Who’s Who AmongAmerica’s Teachers.”

Dan Keen holds an Associate in Sciencedegree, majoring in electronic technology.Mr. Keen is the editor and publisher of acounty newspaper in southern New Jersey.

He was employed in the field of electronicsfor 23 years, and his work included electronicservicing, as well as computer consulting andprogramming. Mr. Keen has writtennumerous articles for many computermagazines and trade journals since 1979. Heis also the coauthor of several computerprogramming books. For ten years, he taughtcomputer courses in community educationprograms in four schools. In 1986 and 1987,Mr. Keen taught computer science atStockton State College in New Jersey.

Together, Mr. Bonnet and Mr. Keen have hadmany articles and books published on avariety of science topics for internationalpublishers, including McGraw-Hill.

About the Authors

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

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Introduction xi

PROJECT 1: Water, Water, Everywhere 1

The effect of fresh water and coastal saltwater flooding on lawns

PROJECT 2: Who’s Home? 5

Determining whether or not organismsother than birds live in birds’ nests

PROJECT 3: Go with the Flow 9

Lighthouses are cylindrically shaped, sothey can structurally withstand high-velocity winds

PROJECT 4: Kinetic Pendulum 13

Examining the relationship between thearc distance a pendulum travels and theswing period time

PROJECT 5: Melody Camouflage 17

Erroneously perceived sound whilemasked by noise

PROJECT 6: “Vlip!” 21

A pet dog responds to sounds ratherthan understanding the meaning ofwords

PROJECT 7: Got Salt? 25

Comparisons of back bay salt content totide cycles

PROJECT 8: In the Ear of the Beholder 29

The physics and social classification of“noise”

PROJECT 9: Flying in the Wind 33

Wind velocity at ground level may bedifferent at heights above the ground

PROJECT 10: Lighter Struts 37

Making materials lighter, yet still strongenough for the required need

PROJECT 11: Stock Up 41

Concepts of stock market investing

PROJECT 12: A Better Burger 47

Comparing the fat content in differentgrades of ground beef

PROJECT 13: Caught in the Spotlight 51

Devising an insect-collection device,and then evaluating the nocturnal insectpopulation in your area for healthhazards

Contents

vii

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PROJECT 14: Sweet Treat 55

The behavior of ants toward natural andartificial sugars

PROJECT 15: C, a Fantastic Vitamin 59

The effect of boiling on the vitamin Ccontent of carrots

PROJECT 16: Zenith Is Not a Radio 63

Comparing the Sun’s daily zenith to thetime between sunrise and sunset

PROJECT 17: Bold Mold 67

Environment affects the rate at whichfood spoils

PROJECT 18: M&M’s Ring Around the World 71

Determining the validity of sample size

PROJECT 19: Choices 75

Behavior: The position of an item willdetermine the selection by handedness(left hand/right hand) over color

PROJECT 20: Plants Exhale 79

A plant produces more oxygen whenlight intensity is increased

PROJECT 21: Melting Mountains 83

Alluvial runoff from melting mountainice

PROJECT 22: Sounds Fishy 87

Determining if goldfish have watertemperature preferences

PROJECT 23: Parallelogram Prevention 91

Simple bracing can greatly increase astructure’s capability to maintain itsshape under stress

PROJECT 24: A Taste of Plant Acid 95

Determining if a vegetable has a moreacrid taste if it has a higher pH

PROJECT 25: Split and Dip 99

Testing a strategy for making money inthe stock market

PROJECT 26: Johnny Applesauce 105

Cinnamon: A mold inhibitor

PROJECT 27: Backfield in Motion 109

The effect of an electromagnetic field onsingle-celled organisms

PROJECT 28: Green No More 113

Concepts in chlorophyll

PROJECT 29: Not Just Lemonade 117

Determining if the addition of lemon tocleaning products is strictly formarketing purposes

PROJECT 30: Less Is More 121

Determining if pH increases as standingrainwater evaporates

PROJECT 31: Natural Fences 125

Finding natural pesticide substances

PROJECT 32: The Nose Knows 129

Olfactory identification differences by age

viii

Contents

PROJECT 33: Germ Jungle 133

Checking for the presence of bacteria onpublic surfaces

PROJECT 34: Not ’til Christmas 137

Determining adherence to instructionsby gender

PROJECT 35: Space Farm 141

The effect of artificial gravity on radish-seed germination

PROJECT 36: Cooled Off 145

Comparison study between the coolingeffect of evaporating water and alcohol

PROJECT 37: Pass the Mold 149

A study on the capability of commonbread mold to be transferred from onefood to another

PROJECT 38: Hardwood Café 153

Determining if bracket fungi areparasites or saprophytes

PROJECT 39: Web Crawlers 157

Determining the effectiveness of variousInternet search engines

PROJECT 40: Night Watch 161

Circadian rhythms: Training a houseplant to be awake at night

PROJECT 41: Time for the Concert 165

A study of the effect of temperature onthe chirping of crickets

PROJECT 42: Flying, Walking, Crawling 169

Natural bait to keep pests at bay duringpicnics

PROJECT 43: High-Tech Times 173

A study of the willingness of people indifferent age groups to adapt to newtechnology

PROJECT 44: Commercial TV 177

A comparison of programming toadvertising content

PROJECT 45: Sold on Solar 181

The temperature in a climate as itrelates to the amount of possible usable sunlight

PROJECT 46: Getting to the Root of the Problem 185

A study of the effect of low water onradish seedling root systems

Index 189

ix

Contents

Welcome to the exciting exploration of theworld around us. . . the world of science!Researching a project for entry into a sciencefair gives us a glimpse into the marvels ofthis world.

Participating in a science fair is not onlyenjoyable, but it also encourages logicalthinking, involves doing interesting research,develops objective observations, and givesexperience in problem solving.

Before you do any project, discuss it indetail with a parent or science instructor. Besure they understand and are familiar withyour project.

Science fair projects must follow aprocedure called the scientific method. Thisprocedure is also used by actual scientists.First, a problem or purpose is defined. Ahypothesis or prediction of the outcome isthen stated. Next, a procedure is developedfor determining whether or not the hypothesiswas correct. Do not think that your scienceproject is a failure if the hypothesis is provento be wrong. The idea of the science fairproject is either to prove or disprove thehypothesis. Learning takes place even whenthe results are not what you expected.Thomas Edison tried over a thousanddifferent materials before he found one thatwould work best in his light bulb. Edison saidhe failed his way to success!

Generally, school science fairs have 12standard categories under which students canenter their projects: behavioral and social,biochemistry, botany, chemistry, Earth andspace, engineering, environmental, physics,zoology, math and computers, microbiology,and medicine and health.

Some projects may involve more than onescience discipline. A project that involvesusing different colors of light to grow plantscould fall under the category of either botanyor physics. This crossing over of sciencesmay allow you to choose between twocategories in which to enter your project. Itcan give you an edge at winning a sciencefair by entering your project in a categorywhere there are fewer competitors oravoiding a category where other entries are ofparticularly outstanding quality.

In this book, we present a wide variety of project ideas for all 12 science faircategories. Select a topic you find interesting,one you would like to research. This willmake your science fair experience a veryenjoyable one. Many projects in this book aremerely “starters,” which you can expand onand then create additional hypotheses for.

Know the rules of your school’s sciencefair before you decide on a project topic.Projects must follow ethical rules. A projectcannot be inhumane to animals. Never

Introduction

xiCopyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

interfere with ecological systems. Usecommon sense.

Safety

When planning your science fair project,safety must be your first consideration. Evenseemingly harmless objects can become ahazard under certain circumstances. Knowwhat potential hazards you are faced withbefore you start a project. Take nounnecessary risks. Have an adult or a scienceinstructor present during all phases of yourproject. Be prepared to handle a problemeven though none is expected (for example,keep heat gloves or oven mitts handy whenyou work around a hot stove). Wear safetyglasses when appropriate.

Be Especially Aware ofThese Hazards

• Sharp objects: Construction tools(hammer, saw, knife, scissors, drill). Becareful how you pick up sharp tools andglass objects, which can fragment andbecome sharp objects.

• Fire: Cooking fat can catch on fire;alcohol has a low flash point. To boilalcohol, use a “double boiler.” First, bringa pot of water to a boil. Next, turn off thestove burner. And then, lower a test tubefilled with alcohol into the water.

• Chemicals: Keep everything out of thereach of children that specifies “keep outof the reach of children” on the label(alcohol, iodine, and so forth). Know

what materials you are working with thathave extreme pH levels (acids, bases).

• Allergens: When growing mold insealable plastic bags, keep the bagsclosed during and after the project. Whenthe project is over, discard the plasticbags without ever opening them, so moldis contained and does not becomeairborne.

• Carcinogens, mutagens: Stand away frommicrowave ovens when in use.

• Water and electricity don’t mix. Usecaution whenever both water andelectricity are present (as with a fish tankheater that must be plugged into a walloutlet). Use only UL-approved electricaldevices.

• Heat: Use heat gloves or oven mitts whenyou deal with hot objects. When using aheat lamp, keep away from curtains andother flammable objects. Be aware thatglass may be hot, but it might not give theappearance of being hot.

• Secure loose clothing, sleeves, and hair.

• Wash your hands. When you return homeafter touching surfaces at public places,be sure to wash your hands to avoidbringing bacteria into your home.

• Rivers, lakes, oceans: Do not work nearor around large bodies of water withoutan adult present, even if you know how toswim.

• Nothing should be tested by tasting it.

• Be aware of others nearby. A chemicalreaction, for example, could cause a glasscontainer to shatter or a caustic materialto be ejected from a container. Keep

xii

Introduction

others in the room at a safe distance orhave them wear proper safety protection.

• Thermometers made of glass have thepotential to break and cause glass toshatter.

• Be aware of gas products that may becreated when certain chemicals react.Such projects must be carried out in awell-ventilated area.

• Never look directly at the Sun. Do notuse direct sunlight as a source of light formicroscopes.

• Loud sounds can be harmful to yourhearing.

Being aware of these possible hazardsand working with adult supervision shouldensure a safe and enjoyable projectexperience.

What Makes a GoodScience Fair Project?

A good science fair project is eithersomething that is unique or it is somethingthat is already common, but done uniquely.For example, many elementary studentsconstruct a small model of a volcano, andthen use the reaction of vinegar and bakingsoda to make it “erupt.” Such a project couldhave a unique “twist” to it by hypothesizingthat some other substance or chemicalreaction would effervesce and give a bettereruption.

A good project is also one where thestudent has done a solid background studyand fully understands the project. It’s fine tohave an adult or even a science professionalassist a student in their project, but a judgewill expect the student to understand theproject and be able to articulate the work tothe judges and others attending a science fair.A project will be judged on its completeness.Students should look at their projects as ifthey are the judges and check for anydeficiencies. Presentation is important, butmany science fairs weigh more heavily on thescience aspect of projects.

Good luck with your project!

xiii

Introduction

Suggested EntryCategories

• Biochemistry

• Botany

• Chemistry

• Earth Science

• Environmental Science

Overview

People often pay a high price to purchaseland and build a house along the coast, oralong a scenic river or stream. The view isalways magnificent; the fresh air and walkingalong the shore are especially healthy.However, not only is the initial cost of realestate expensive, but so is property upkeep.For coastal homes, the salt air and strongwinds act as sand blasters to pit the metal ondoor knobs, window casings, and housepaint. Coastal storms are an ever-presentthreat, too. Another risk for home ownersliving along rivers or oceans is flooding.

1

Water, Water, Everywhere The effect of fresh water and coastal

salt water flooding on lawns

Project 1


Even a small flood can damage the beautifuland expensive lawns around a home.

Is more damage done to a lawn by freshwater river flooding or coastal salt waterflooding?

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that more damage to lawns iscaused by coastal salt water flooding than bythe flooding of a fresh water stream or river.

Materials’ List

• Two large dishpans

• Several pieces of 1�2 lumber

• Small nails

• Use of a hammer and hand saw

• Several feet of cheesecloth

• Instant synthetic sea salt mix (availableinexpensively from school science supplycatalogs)

• Water

• Grass seed

• Potting soil

• Staple gun

• Funnel

• Scissors

• Kitchen measuring cup

• Four empty plastic gallon milk or waterjugs

• A warm, lighted area indoors, but not indirect sunlight

• Several weeks of time, because we aredealing with germination and growth

Procedure

Grass seed will germinate and grow in twowooden frames of potting soil. Both

2

Project 1: Water, Water, Everywhere

GRASS

SEED

“miniature lawns” will be kept next to eachother to maintain the same environment, eachreceiving an equal amount of light and beingkept at the same temperature.

The variable in this project is the exposureof one lawn to severe salt water flooding, andthe other to fresh water flooding.

Locate two large rectangular dishpans,used for washing dishes.

With several pieces of 1�2 wood andsmall nails (or screws), construct tworectangular frames that fit inside thedishpans. Cut a rectangular piece ofcheesecloth to cover a frame. Staple thecheesecloth to the wooden frame, keeping itpulled tight. Repeat for the other frame. Now,turn the frames upside down and fill themwith potting soil. The cheesecloth holds thepotting soil in the frames, but it allows excesswater to pass through.

Place the two dishpans in a warm, well-litarea, but not in direct sunlight. Across the topof each dishpan, lay two pieces of wood, andset a wooden frame over each one. Thepieces of wood will support the frames overthe dishpans. Pour some grass seed in akitchen measuring cup, and then spread theseeds out on the soil of one of the frames.

Pour an equal amount of seed into the cup,and spread over the soil in the second frame.Lightly cover the seeds with soil and moistenthe soil in the frames.

Make observations daily and keep the soil moist (but not soaked), watching forgermination. Equal amounts of water shouldbe given to each lawn frame. Allow the grassto grow until the blades are around one totwo inches tall. When that happens, continueto the next step.

Fill four 1-gallon plastic milk or waterjugs with tap water. To two of the jugs, add asynthetic sea salt mix, as per the instructionson the package. These mixes are available atscience shops and through science catalogsfrom your school science teacher. They areinexpensive. The mix contains all theessential major and minor elements to createa solution that closely matches ocean water.

Remove the two wooden supports on oneflat and lower it into the dishpan. Slowly, soyou don’t cause erosion of the soil, pour thetwo gallons of salt water solution into thedishpan. Leave the water in the pan for onehour, and then pour it off. You can save thesolution by using a funnel and pouring itback into the bottles. Lift the frame out of the

3


Staples

Cheesecloth

dishpan and place the wood supports backunder it, so the soil can drain.

Similarly, lower the other lawn frame intoits dishpan and flood it with two gallons offresh water. Let it sit for one hour, and thenpour off the water and place the supportsback under the frame.

Allow the lawn frames to dry for twodays. Make observations, looking for anychanges in grass (color, turgor, and so forth)Record your observations. If no differencesare observed, repeat the flooding procedureon the third day. Then, again allow to dry forthree days. Continue to repeat the floodingand drying process until you see anobservable difference.

Results

Write down the results of your experiment.Document all observations and datacollected.

Conclusion

Come to a conclusion as to whether or notyour hypothesis was correct.

4


Something More

1. If a lawn is killed by salt waterflooding, can the home owner simplyreplant grass seed on the lawn oncethe flooding has passed, or is the soilmade unfit for growing new plants? Ifthe soil is unfit, how can it be clearedof salt and made ready to support lifeagain? Should a home owner turn onhis lawn sprinklers after a flood todilute and wash the salts and othermaterials left by the sea water?

2. Is one type of seed more tolerant ofsalt water flooding? This would beimportant to know for landscapers andhome owners in seashore communities.

3. Does pouring salt in the cracks in asidewalk or driveway kill any grass orweeds that grow there? If so, thiswould be a safe way to kill unwantedweeds, because salt is not a hazard topeople or pets.

5



• Microbiology

• Zoology

Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to determine if a bird’s nest ishome to more organisms than just birds.

Overview

The Earth is teeming with life. Just think howmany things are alive within 100 feet ofwhere you are right now: worms in theground, flowers, trees, grasses, an insect on awindow screen, a microscopic mite on yourpillow, mold on a piece of bread leftuncovered in the kitchen, perhaps even afamily member in the next room. You mayhear the peaceful singing of a bird building anest outside your window.

Birds lack the carpentry skills of humans,and they obviously don’t have the use ofarms or hands. Yet, they are quite capable of

Who’s Home?Determining whether or not organisms

other than birds live in birds’ nests

Project 2


constructing nests that are structurallysufficient for the laying of eggs and raisingtheir young.

Nature provides all the nest-buildingmaterials a bird needs: twigs, feathers, animalhair, straw, moss, leaves, pebbles, blades ofgrass, and even some items provided byhumans—a piece of yarn, string, or paper.

Because nest building materials comefrom nature, and life is abundant all aroundus, do you think other things are living inbirds’ nests besides birds?

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that you can find other forms oflife besides birds in a bird nest.

Materials’ List

• Bird nest containing baby birds

• Desk lamp that uses a standard 60 to 75watt incandescent bulb

• Large funnel

• Clear jar about the size of a drinkingglass

• High-power hand lens (magnifying glass)

• Microscope

• Small plastic bag

• Ten petri dishes with agar

Procedure

Scout around the trees on your property or inyour neighborhood and look for a bird’s nestwith baby birds inside. The nest must bewithin reach or able to be easily and safelyretrieved (you don’t want one that is 50 feetin a tree top).

Once you locate a suitable nest, watch itonce or twice a day, waiting for the day whenthe last baby bird leaves the nest. Do not gettoo close or disturb the nest in any way.

As soon as possible after you see all thebirds are gone and the nest is no longer usedby the mother bird, carefully remove the nestand place it in a plastic bag.

Take the nest home (or to school), but donot take it inside your house, just in case itcontains insects or microscopic life thatwould not be good to have inside your home.Set the nest on a picnic table, a portable cardtable, or on a workbench in a garage. Tocollect tiny insects that may be living in thenest, place a large-mouth funnel in a clear jar.Then, set the nest in the mouth of the funnel.Position a desk lamp over the top of the nest,but keep a space of several inches betweenthe lamp’s bulb and the nest to prevent thenest from getting hot. The incandescent bulbin the desk lamp should be about 60 or 75watts. The heat from the bulb may drive anyinsects down into the glass, as they try toescape the heat. Leave the bulb on for onehour, and then carefully examine the glass foranything that has been collected. During thetime the light is on, do not leave itunattended. Watch that the nest is notbecoming too hot (to avoid a fire hazard and

6

Project 2: Who’s Home?

harming anything that may be living in thenest). Use a high-power magnifying glass toexamine any material that falls into the jar.Attempt to identify the organisms using fieldguides and other reference materials.

Next, check for the presence of smallerorganisms in the nest. Do this by taking tenpieces from different locations on the nestand wiping them several times on agar inpetri dishes. Cover the petri dishes and placethem in a warm, dark location. After twoweeks, examine each petri dish under amicroscope. Never open any of the petridishes once they have been closed.Eventually, when the project is over, disposeof the petri dishes, continuing to keep themsealed shut.

Results


Conclusion


7

Project 2: Who’s Home?Something More

1. Can you locate other similar nests inyour area that would indicate theywere built by the same species ofbird? The mother bird, the structure ofthe nest, and the size and designs onthe egg shells will help you identifythe species of bird using the nest. Agood book on birds will be necessaryto help you identify the species. Then,run the same tests as you didpreviously. Are the same organismsfound in these nests?

2. What else did you find in the nest:leftover food, a piece of egg shell?

3. What is the composition of the nest?Can you identify other materials usedmaking the nest?

4. How are nests adapted for rain? Howare they adapted to ward off attacksfrom other animals?

9


• Earth Science

• Engineering


• Physics

Purpose or Problem

Lighthouses must be built along the coast andthey must be tall, but that subjects thesestructures to fierce winds. Builders havelearned to make the shape of lighthousesround, causing air to flow around them withless resistance, and allowing them towithstand strong winds.

Go with the FlowLighthouses are cylindrically shaped, so they can

structurally withstand high-velocity winds

Project 3


Overview

Sea coasts are beautiful, but it’s not unusualfor them to experience violent storms withfurious winds. Through the years, buildershave had to take this environment intoaccount when they design lighthouses. Theseunique buildings that have aided storm-drivensailors for centuries must be constructed towithstand hard winds and weather.Lighthouses are also used for identificationby those at sea to help them get theirbearings as to where they are in relation tothe coast, a shoal, or a safe harbor.

A good defense against the wind is tooffer as little resistance as possible and todeflect the moving air past the structure, so itflows smoothly around it. Have you ever helda large sheet of plywood and tried walkingwith it on a windy day? Think about a sail ona sailboat; it presents a lot of resistance to thewind and uses the wind’s force to propel theboat.

A building with the shape of a cylinderguides the air flow around it and allows theair to continue behind it. Such a structure canwithstand higher winds, as it has less forcethan on a similar structure that catches thewind. Therefore, you may have noticed fromseeing pictures or visiting lighthouses thatmost of them are cylindrical in shape. Nowyou know why!

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that moving air flows moreeasily around a cylindrically shaped object

than one with a flat surface facing the windand, therefore, offers less resistance to wind.

Materials’ List

• Thirty-three (33) long straight pins

• Spool of thread

• Piece of plywood 1 foot square

• Piece of balsa wood 1 foot square (orseveral smaller pieces that can be laidside by side to cover a 1-foot-square area)

• Glue

• Ruler

• Pencil

• A cylindrically shaped object between 3 and 31⁄2 inches in diameter (a glass jar ora can of fruit—we recommend acardboard container for bread crumbs)

• Two pieces of 2�4 lumber, each about 5 or 6 inches long

• Hair dryer

• Pair of scissors

• Possible adult supervision needed

Procedure

The constant in this project is the velocity ofthe approaching air. The variable is the shapeof the object around which the air must flow.

For us to see the pattern of air flowaround an object, we must first construct adevice that visually shows us the presenceand direction of air flow (an “air flow table”).Obtain a piece of plywood that is at least 12inches square. Glue a 12"�12" sheet of balsa

10

Project 3: Go with the Flow

wood on top, or attach it by using severalvery small screws or nails. If you cannot geta single sheet of balsa wood that big, useseveral smaller pieces, lay them side by side,and carefully cut them with a utility knife toform a 1-foot-square area. Use extremecaution when you work with a utility knife.

Using a ruler, mark a grid pattern of linesat 11⁄2 inch increments, both horizontally andvertically, on the balsa wood. At the pointwhere each line intersects, carefully push along straight pin into the balsa wood withyour thumb. As shown in the illustration, donot put pins near the front of the board in thelocations covered by the shaded circle. Thisis where the objects under test will be placed.

Tie thread onto each pin, and position itnear the pin’s head. Using scissors, trim thethread to a length of 11⁄2 inches. You can use asmall drop of glue on the pin to hold thethread securely in place. This is helpful ifyou plan to move the project from home to aclassroom or a science fair.

Secure two pieces of 2�4 wood together,each about 5 inches tall (use glue, string,screws, or nails). This makes a structure thatis almost square on four sides. Stand itupright in the empty space on the balsaboard.

Hold a hair dryer in front of the balsaboard and aim it directly at the 2�4 woodblock. Place the hair dryer on a setting thatblows the most air. If the hair dryer has acool setting, use it, because heat is notneeded. Observe the pattern of the threads.Do the threads directly behind the blockmove?

Remove the wood block and replace itwith a cylindrically shaped object that isabout 31⁄2 inches in diameter. A largecardboard bread-crumb container works well.

With the hair dryer in the same positionand at the same setting, do the directions ofthe threads look different? Do the threadsdirectly behind the cylinder now indicate astrong air flow?

11


12 inches

Balsa woodglued ontoa piece ofplywood

Straight pins with11/2 inches ofthread tied tothe top

11/2 inches

11/2 inches

Direction ofair flow

12 in

ches

Results


Conclusion


12


Something More

1. Experiment with structures ofdifferent shapes (try a pyramid, forexample). Observe the flow of airaround them.

2. Construct a stream table, a devicethrough which water can flow andobjects can be inserted to study howshape affects the flow of water. Foodcoloring dye is dropped into thatwater to better visualize the pattern ofwater flow. Prove that the behavior ofthe flow of water and the behavior ofthe flow of air around an object aresimilar because they are both “fluids.”

13


• Math & Computers

• Physics

Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to understand one of theprinciples of pendular motion.

Overview

A pendulum is a weight hung by a tether (arope, string, or rod) from a fixed point, andmade to swing. When the pendulum is pulledaway from its motionless hanging state(perpendicular to the Earth), the weight gainspotential or stored energy. When released, thepotential energy is turned into kinetic orworking energy.

Once released, the pendulum is pulleddown toward the Earth by gravity, but it doesnot stop when it returns to the Earth’sperpendicular plane (called plumb). At thatpoint, the moving pendulum has momentum

Kinetic PendulumExamining the relationship between the arc distance

a pendulum travels and the swing period time

Project 4


(mass multiplied by velocity), which causes itto continue to swing past the plumb point,until the force of gravity slows it to a stop.The pendulum then swings back through theplumb and up to the point where it was firstreleased. This swing out and back is calledone oscillation period. Then, once again,gravity continues its effect, and the pendulumcontinues to swing back and forth.

If it were not for the friction with airagainst the pendulum and the friction at thepoint where it is secured to a fixed point, theswinging would continue indefinitely.

Many early scientists, including LordKelvin (1824–1907), Jean Foucault(1819–1868), and Galileo (1564–1642),devoted time to the study of the natural lawsof pendular motion. Galileo was reported tonote, while sitting in church, that a chandelierswung with the same time period, regardlessof whether it was swinging in a small arc or alarge arc (the sermon must not have beenvery interesting that day!). This project willattempt to prove this natural law of pendularmotion discovered by Galileo.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that the swing period of apendulum with a fixed rope length is thesame, regardless of the arc distance traveled.(Because of air resistance and other factors,we will state this hypothesis is true for thefirst five oscillation periods of ourconstructed apparatus.)

Materials’ List

• Two bowling balls of the same weight

• Two plastic bags with handles (used atgrocery and retail stores)

• Rope

• String

• Child’s outdoor swing set

• Yard stick or tape measure

• Large, heavy metal washer

• A day with negligible or no wind

• A friend to assist


Procedure

The mass of the bowling balls, the tapemeasure, the length of the ropes, and theenvironment (temperature, humidity, wind)are held constant. The distance each ball ispulled back from the plumb line is varied.

Find two bowling balls of equal weightand set each one in a plastic bag, the kindused at grocery and retail stores to carryproducts home. Although these bags are verythin, they are strong and have convenienthandles. Bowling balls can be hazardous ifthey fall on your feet. Pay extra attentionand take safety precautions when youwork with the bowling balls. Place them onthe ground, never on a table where they couldunexpectedly roll off.

Tie a long piece of rope through the twohandles on one of the bags. Tie another long

14

Project 4: Kinetic Pendulum

piece of rope through the handles on theother bag.

Tie a long piece of string onto a heavymetal washer. From a child’s backyard swingset, tie the other end of the string to the toppipe, letting the washer hang about one ortwo inches from the ground. Be sure thewasher hangs freely and does not touch anyof the swings.

Similarly, tie the two bowling balls intheir bags from the top pipe. Be sure theyhang freely and do not touch any of theswings or each other. Using a tape measure,make the distance from the top pipe to thetop of each bowling ball exactly the samelength.

The washer on a string acts as a plumbline, also called a plumb bob, which is a

weighted line that is perpendicular to theground.

Pull one of the bowling balls back aboutfour feet from the plumb line. Have yourfriend pull the other ball back about one foot.On the count of three, both of you should letgo of the balls at the same time. It isimportant for both of you to let gosimultaneously.

Notice that even though your ball hasfarther to travel, it will cross over the plumb-line point at the same time as the ball yourfriend let go.

Watch the balls swing through fiveperiods, and note they are still hitting theplumb line at the same time, proving thehypothesis correct.

Because of other variables, includingfriction with the air (one ball moves throughmore air than the other and, thus, experiencesmore friction), the balls may eventually stopmeeting at the plumb point.

You may want to measure the distancethe bowling balls travel by measuring thelength of the arcs. When the ball is pulledback one foot from plumb, how manydegrees is the angle from plumb? How manydegrees is the angle when the ball is pulledback four feet?

15


Results


Conclusion


16


Something More

1. A common natural law of gravity andastronomy (celestial mechanics) thatalso applies to pendulums is theinverse-square law, which states thefollowing: if one pendulum is twice aslong as another, the longer one willhave a period that is “one over thesquare of two,” or one fourth, as fast:

1—–4

Prove this expression byexperimentation.

2. Pendular mechanisms have been usedthroughout history to keep time.Construct a pendulum that completesone period in one second (clue: thelength of the string should be about39.1 inches).

3. Research the work of the Englishscientist Lord Kelvin and hisdiscoveries with bifilar pendulums(having two strings instead of one).

4. Research the work of the Frenchscientist Foucault, who used a largeiron ball on a wire to show that theEarth rotates.

5. Could you use pendulums or plumblines to detect earthquakes or othervibrations in the Earth?

17

Suggested Entry Category

• Behavioral & Social

Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to prove that often people“hear” what they expect to hear, even if thesound is not present.

Overview

Have you ever listened to a blank cassettetape on a stereo that had the volume set loud?All you hear is a high-pitched hissing sound.This “noise” is due to the nature of tape as arecording medium.

“Noise” in the reproduction of audio isunwanted sound caused by the tape andelectronic components in the amplifier. Thishissing sound was not part of the originalsource material.

Tape hiss has plagued the music andaudio industry for years. Today, electronicshas advanced to the point that hiss caused by

Melody CamouflageErroneously perceived sound while masked by noise

Project 5


electronic circuitry is almost nonexistent,especially on professional audio equipment.Another technological breakthrough, thecompact disc (CD), has made a tremendousadvancement in reducing audible hiss inrecorded music.

A psychoacoustical masking effect takesplace when music is played at high volumes.Noise such as tape hiss seems to disappearduring loud passages of music.

Another interesting behavioral effect isthat we sometimes hear what we expect tohear. In this project, we record music and“white noise” together, and then graduallyreduce the music until only the white noiseremains. Will people claim to continue to“hear” the music in the presence of whitenoise, even after it is turned off?

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that, when tested, a greaternumber of your friends and classmates willcontinue to “hear” music even after the musichas completely stopped, while the presenceof a high level of white noise remains.

Materials’ List

• Stereo audio mixer

• Blank cassette tape

• Headphones

• Cassette player

• Cassette recorder

• Cassette tape of a popular song all yourtest subjects are very familiar with

• Electronic music synthesizer keyboardwith a white noise sound

• 20 friends and classmates

• Stop watch or a clock/watch with aseconds display

Procedure

The volume level of the white noise will beheld constant. The volume level of the musicwill be varied.

You need to make a cassette tape withwhich to test your subjects. The tape mustcontain white noise recorded at a highvolume, along with a song your test subjectsare very familiar with.

To do this, you need a source of whitenoise, such as a musical instrumentsynthesizer keyboard, which has a whitenoise–like setting. Connect the synthesizer’soutput into an audio mixer. Into anotherchannel of the mixer, connect the output of acassette tape player. The output of the mixermust then feed another cassette recorder thathas a blank tape to record the results.

18

Project 5: Melody Camouflage

Cassette player

Audio mixer

Electronic music synthesizer

Cassette recorder

19

If you do not have access to an audiomixer, you can use a musical instrumentamplifier, such as a guitar amplifier, as longas it has two separate input channels, eachwith its own volume control. Place twomicrophones (for left and right channels) bythe amplifier’s speaker, and plug them into acassette recorder to record the results on ablank tape.

You will make a one-minute recording.Cue the blank tape past the cassette’s leader(the plastic part of the tape at the beginningof the cassette). Set the volume of the whitenoise source fairly high. Set the volume ofthe music being played at about an equalvolume. Start the recorder, the white noisegenerator, the music tape, and a stop watch.After ten seconds, slowly begin to turn thevolume of the music tape down, but leave thewhite noise at a constant level. The musicfade must be very, very slow. Pace yourselfso that at 50 seconds into the song, thevolume will be 100 percent reduced. At 60seconds, stop the tape recorder.

Once you make your test tape, place it ina cassette player with headphones. Have afriend wear the headphones and tell him orher to push the play button. Be sure you havecued the tape up past the leader at thebeginning of the tape, so when the play buttonis pressed, your test recording begins to play.Start timing the instant the tape begins toplay. Ask your friend to tell you as soon as heor she hears the music stop playing.

Remember, at 50 seconds into the tape,the music is gone. Does the tape recordingend (at 60 seconds) before your friend saysthe music has stopped? Does your friend saythe music never stopped?

Test at least 20 friends, and write downwhether each one could correctly identifythat the music ended before the taperecording ended.

Results

Write down the results of your experiment.

Conclusion


Project 5: Melody Camouflage

Something More

1. Does age have any effect on yourresults? In other words, do moreyoung people continue to “hear” themusic when it is gone than do peopleover age 50?

2. Does gender have any effect on yourresults?

3. People may claim to continue to hearwhat they expect to hear, but what ifthe music played to them was a songthey were not familiar with? Wouldthey still claim they were hearingmusic when it was no longer playing?

21



• Zoology

Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to prove that a pet dog who istrained to obey several commands, respondsto those commands because of associationwith the sounds and the action you want from

the animal, not because of any understandingof language.

Overview

Pet owners who train their dogs to obeyseveral commands naturally use words intheir own language. “Sit,” “bark,” and “rollover” are words those who speak the Englishlanguage understand. Although a dog mayappear as though it understands the meaningof commands, it is merely the sound of thesewords that produces the appropriate behavior.

“Vlip!”A pet dog responds to sounds rather than

understanding the meaning of words

Project 6


Hypothesis

Hypothesize that a dog can be trained to obeyseveral command words that are not words inany language, proving the animal is merelyassociating a particular sound with aparticular expected behavior.

Materials’ List

• Pet dog

• Book on how to train your dog

• Time and patience training the dog toobey several commands

Procedure

Decide on several behavioral responses youwant to train your dog to accomplish (sit,stay, run, bark, and so on). Then, make upyour own words to substitute for theseEnglish words. “Vlip,” for example, could be“sit.” Make up simple one-syllable words.

If you can train your dog to respond tothese made-up words, only the two of you(and no one else in the room!) willunderstand the commands.

Get a good book on how to properly trainyour dog to obey voice commands.

Just as most people like to be rewardedfor their achievements, so do your pets.Rewarding (giving a hug or a treat) is thebest motivation for your pet to learn.

Start by giving three rewards when thedog’s response to a command is correct: givea pat on the head, say “Good dog!” and givea food treat. As time goes on, don’t give foodevery time. Eventually, just a pat or hearingthe tone of your voice saying “Good dog!”will be sufficient to let the pet know you areproud of it.

Time and patience are needed to trainyour dog, but it will be fun for both of you.The training will seem more like playingtogether than work.

Results


Conclusion


22

Project 6: “Vlip!”

VLIP!

23

Project 6: “Vlip!”

Something More

1. Children can be bilingual and learntwo different words for the samething. This can happen when oneparent or grandparent speaks adifferent language than the otherparent or family members. Can a doglearn more than one command for thesame behavior?

2. Pet guinea pigs can be taught tosqueal and rattle their cages at thesound of chopping carrots on a woodblock, in their anticipation ofreceiving carrot treats. Can they betrained to get equally excited by avoice command indicating a food treatis coming?

3. Dolphins learn to do tricks bywatching their trainers’ hand signals.Can dogs learn commands by handsignals only?

25



• Earth Science

• Chemistry

Purpose or Problem

Comparing salt content in back bay waterduring high tides and low tides.

Overview

The gravitational pull of the Moon and theSun creates a daily flow of water toward andaway from sea coasts (high tide and lowtide). As water flows toward the coast, thewater level along the shore can be seen torise, and water flows through inlets, fillingback bay areas. Hours later, an ebb tideoccurs, when the water recedes out of thebays and away from the shoreline.

Does this tidal change affect the saltcontent of the water that accumulates in theback bays? If a significant difference existsbetween the salt content at high tide and low

Got Salt?Comparisons of back bay salt content to tide cycles

Project 7


tide, plants and animals living there wouldhave to be tolerant of these changes.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that a noticeable difference willoccur in the salt content in back bay waterdepending on the cycle of the tide (high tide,low tide).

Materials’ List

• Access to an inlet and bay areas thatexperience tidal changes, fed by an oceanor a large body of salt water

• Four wide-mouth jars (peanut butter,pickle, or other food containers) of equalsize

• Masking tape

• Pen or marker

• About two weeks of waiting time

• Several small twigs

• A sunny window

• Tide chart helpful, but optional


Procedure

The amount of water gathered for eachsample and the location the samples are takenfrom remain constant. The tide cycle is thevariable.

For this project, you must have access toan inlet and a back bay that receives tidal

flows from an ocean or a large body of saltwater. When you work around water, makesafety your number one concern. Knowhow to swim, wear a life preserver, andalways have a friend or an adultaccompany you.

Gather four clear glass or plastic jars thathave wide mouths. Jars of this type include16- or 18-ounce peanut butter, pickle, orsauce containers. All four jars must beidentical.

Place a strip of masking tape on each jarand label each one as to the location and tidalstatus that identifies the water sample theywill contain.

You need to determine the time of highand low tides. Tide tables are often found inlocal marinas, newspapers, or by listening toa National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration (NOAA) weather station(weather radios can be purchased at manyconsumer electronic stores). If you do nothave access to a tide table, you can spend aday making note of where the high- and low-tide levels are along bulkheads or other landmarkings. Throwing a small twig in the waterat an inlet and watching the direction it floatstells you whether the tide is flowing in orreceding out.

The figure on the top of the next pageshows two points where you should collectwater samples: one is located in a back bayarea, and the other is at the mouth of theinlet, where the bay meets the ocean.

When the tide is just beginning to flow in(just past the time of low tide), fill a jar withwater from Point A and one from Point B.Secure lids on the jars to keep the water fromspilling as you transport them home.

26

Project 7: Got Salt?

27

Later, when the tide is just beginning torecede (just past the time of high tide), fill ajar with water from Point A and one fromPoint B.

[Optional: If you have access to two inletsthat feed back bay areas, you can enhanceyour project by collecting additional samplesat points shown in the figure below.]

When you get home, place the jars in awarm, sunny window and remove the lids. Ittakes about two weeks for all the water toevaporate. You can decrease evaporation time

by placing them in an area of increased heat,such as near a heat duct or in an oven at alow temperature. Do not place the jarsdirectly on a stove burner, as the jars are notdesigned to be exposed to high temperatures.

When all the water has evaporated, screwthe lids on again to prevent any furthercontamination and to keep the contents intact.

Do you see chunks of salt in the jars? Saltsare crystals, and one of the characteristics ofcrystals is their unique shapes. Do the chunkshave shapes characteristic of crystals? Youmay also want to examine the salt chunksunder a magnifying glass or microscope.

Results


Conclusion



POINT“A”

Inlet

POINT“B”

To the Ocean

Back Bay

POINT“C”

POINT“A”

POINT

InletInlet

“D”

POINT“B”

To the Ocean To the Ocean

Back Bay

28


Something More

1. Is there a difference in salt content inwater near the surface compared towater at a deeper level? Construct adevice that lets you lower a containerto the bottom of the bay, and thenopen the lid to fill it with water. (Usea brick or a heavy object to weighdown the container.)

2. Does heavy rainfall affect the saltcontent in a back bay?

3. Is there any difference in salt contentbetween the water in a back bay andthe water in the ocean that feeds it?

29



• Physics

• Adaptable to Math & Computers

Purpose or Problem

Defining “noise” can sometimes be explainedby the physics of a sound, but it can also bein the mind of the listener, or it can even be determined by the society the listener lives in.

Overview

Some sounds are musical and some are noise.Music is usually made of vibrations that areorganized and come to our ears at regularintervals. A vibrating string on a guitar or apiano is an example. You can feel thevibrations of your vocal cords by placingyour hand on your throat while you sing.

Sounds that make irregular vibrationstend be thought of as noise. Such vibrationsare made when a door is slammed shut or abook falls from a desk to the floor.

But, it is not always easy to classify asound as music or noise. The difference

In the Ear of the BeholderThe physics and social classification of “noise”

Project 8


30

between music and noise may be in the mindof the listener. Young people’s music may beconsidered noise by their grandparents.Hitting a fence with a stick may be noise, butif you walk along a picket fence and hold astick against it, the regular repetitive soundmay be pleasing, as a drum or otherpercussion instrument would be.

Society also determines when a sound ismusical. Do research into the unusualinstruments used in other cultures.

Have you ever listened to someonesqueaking as they learn to play the clarinet,or screeching as they learn to play the violin?That’s hardly music!

Perhaps we can classify sounds as beingmore musical if we enjoy them. A sound mayeven be pleasing at one moment, but not atanother. A doorbell may make a harmonioussound, but if it dings at 3 o’clock in themorning and disturbs you while you aresleeping, you won’t like it. When music isplayed softly, it may be enjoyable, but whenthe volume is turned up to the point where ithurts your ears, the song becomes noise.

The time of day may also affect yourfeelings about a sound. If you are waiting fora friend to pick you up to go to the movies,

the honk of their car horn is welcomed. Butsomeone honking a car horn in front of yourhouse at 4 A.M. can be disturbing. A doorbellringing during the day does not have thesame alarming affect emotionally as it does ifit rings in the middle of the night. When amother knows why a baby is crying (if itneeds a diaper changed or is hungry), heremotions are not the same as when shedoesn’t know what is wrong.

Some sounds always seem to be pleasant:a babbling brook, the wind rustling leavesthrough the trees.

We are surrounded by sounds all daylong, and it is important that we have quiettimes and enjoyable sounds in our daily lives.Too much noise can cause stress and fatigue.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that in the categorizing ofcommon, everyday sounds as to whether theyare pleasant or noise, many differentresponses will be based on the age group.

Materials’ List

• Paper

• Pencil

• Clipboard

• A day of listening

• Ten friends of high-school age

• Ten adults over age 40

Project 8: In the Ear of the Beholder

MUSIC! NOISE!

31

Procedure

The list of commonly heard sounds will beconstant for all who are surveyed. The agegroups of those surveyed will be varied:teenagers and adults over 40.

For one whole day, pay attention to allthe sounds you hear. Carry paper, a pencil,and a clipboard to make a list of all the dailysounds around your home, school, andneighborhood. Some sounds you may nothave paid much attention to before: forexample, toast popping up in a toaster, a doorchime, a church bell, popcorn popping, a carhorn, the crackling of a fire in a fireplace, thetelephone ringing, birds chirping, someonetapping a pencil on a desk, an umpire orreferee blowing a whistle during a sportingevent, insects buzzing in your ear, the screechof car brakes, the blowing of air across thetop of a soda bottle, or someone driving by ina car with your favorite song playing.

Compile a survey sheet with a list of 50sounds, each followed by a multiple choice

selection of Pleasant, Noise, and NoResponse.

At the top of each sheet, make a place forchecking the two age groups: Tees and Over40. (You can also ask for male or female ifyou want to do the “Something More”suggestion.)

Use a copy machine to make 20 copies,or use a computer word-processing programor desktop publishing program to create yoursurvey sheet, and print out 20 copies.

Have ten high-school-age friends and tenadults over age 40 complete the survey. Totalthe results from each group. Compare theresponses by each group.

Results


Conclusion



Check each sound as to whether that sound is pleasing,“noise”, or neither to you.

1. A door bell ringing in the afternoon.

Age Group:

Sample Survey Sheet

Teens

Pleasant “Noise” No response

3. “Big Band” dance music.Pleasant “Noise” No response

2. A car driving by you as you sit outside your home,with its radio blasting.

Pleasant “Noise” No response

Over 40

32


Something More

1. Expand your survey by categorizingyour results by male and female, inaddition to age. Compare yourorganized data.

2. Sounds and songs may even bringmemories to our minds. Hearing apopular song that was once playedheavily on the radio may cause you toremember a special summer or time inyour life. When you hear the sound ofsleigh bells or a Christmas carol, doesa feeling or picture come to your mindabout snow falling or the excitementof waiting to open presents withfamily?

33



• Earth Science

Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to determine if wind speed isdifferent at ground level compared to 30 or40 feet above ground.

Overview

The rotation of the Earth and differences inatmospheric temperature give birth to aninexpensive and renewable source of energy… the wind.

Down through the centuries, wind hasbeen a powerful source of energy thatmankind has harnessed to do work. The windfills the sails of ships and turns the blades ofwindmills, which once were used to grindgrains and saw wood, and today are used forgenerating electricity.

Flying in the WindWind velocity at ground level may be different

at heights above the ground

Project 9


Studying the behavior of the wind is oneof the most important aspects of meteorology,and it leads to a better understanding ofweather and weather forecasting.

Is the speed of the wind different atdifferent heights above the ground? Have youever been sitting on the ground and, whileyou only felt a slight breeze, you could seethe tops of very tall trees swaying in whatappeared to be a stronger wind? Are theblades of windmills built up high because itis usually windier up high than it is near theground?

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that the wind is often stronger ata higher distance from the ground.

Materials’ List

• Nine feet of ribbon, 2 inches wide

• One-week period of time

• Several clip-type clothespins

• Use of a high flagpole

• Pencil and sketch pad

• Use of a camera (optional, but useful inmaking a science fair presentation)


Procedure

The location of the flagpole, the height ofeach ribbon wind indicator, and the ribbonindicators themselves are constant. The windspeed is the variable.

Get permission to use a tall flagpole thatis away from buildings and other structures.Sometimes, local businesses will have highflagpoles for promotion. Your school mayalso have a tall flagpole.

Cut three 3-foot lengths of ribbon, thekind used for decorative craft work. Theribbon should be about 2 inches wide.

Tie the three pieces of ribbon onto therope that hoists up the flag. Space the ribbonsso that when the rope is pulled up, one ribbonwill be at the top, one at the middle, and oneat the bottom of the pole.

Every day at the same time for sevendays, observe the position of the ribbons. Usea sketch pad to record your observations. Theribbons will give a relative indication of wind

34

Project 9: Flying in the Wind

35

speed. The straighter they stand out (parallelto the ground), the stronger the wind speed.

If there is a day when no wind is blowingand none of the ribbons are moving, do notrecord an observation. Instead, wait untilanother day when there is enough wind tomove at least one of the ribbons.

If stormy conditions exist, do not recordyour observations. Being outdoors in badweather is unsafe, especially during athunderstorm.

If the wind is very strong during one ofyour observation days, and all three ribbonsare standing out straight, try adding weightequally to all of them, so they will not allstand out straight. Weight can be added byclipping one or more alligator-typeclothespins to each ribbon.

Results


Conclusion


Project 9: Flying in the Wind

Something More

1. Compare your ribbon wind indicatorsat different times of the day: earlymorning, noon, and dusk.

2. Can you determine any relationshipbetween the strength or direction ofthe wind and a barometer reading andthe type of clouds?

37


• Engineering


Purpose or Problem

Determining the safety stress range of a 2�6piece of balsa wood, while making it lighterin weight.

Overview

Many times a material needs to be verystrong, because it will undergo a lot of stressor pressure. Sometimes, a material must bemade from a strong substance, like steel, butit may also have a requirement of being aslight as possible. Some bones in birds arestrong, yet they are hollow to make themlight. The struts used in aircraft often havelarge holes in them to make them lighter, yetthey must still be strong enough for the jobthey are required to do.

Lighter StrutsMaking materials lighter, yet still strong

enough for the required need

Project 10


Design engineers must know how muchforce a material can withstand beforebreaking, and whether or not that materialcan be made lighter by cutting holes in it, yetstill being able to support the weight needed.

While engineers may need a certainmaterial for its strength, the material may beable to withstand much more stress thanrequired. Therefore, they can reduce the mass (weight) of the material by cuttingholes in it. A margin of safety must also beincluded to ensure a safe design. Forexample, if 2 pounds of stress is to be exertedon a material, you may want that material tobe able to withstand 6 pounds before itbreaks, giving you a two-thirds margin ofsafety.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that you can lighten a piece ofbalsa wood by cutting holes in it, while stillkeeping much of its structural strength.

Materials’ List

• Plastic gallon jug

• Two-foot-long piece of strong string

• Wooden sawhorse

• Two pieces of balsa wood, 2 inches wideby 1 foot long

• Piece of 2�4 lumber about 12 incheslong

• Two pieces of plywood about 1 foot by 6 inches

• Wood screws

• Screwdriver (or electric screwdriver)

• Hand saw (or a power saw used underadult supervision)

• Gram weight scale

• Bathroom scale or scale to measurepounds

• Utility knife

• Pitcher of water

• Ruler


Procedure

The wooden box device that holds the balsawood in place is held constant, as is the waterjug device for adding weight to stress thebalsa wood. The mass of the piece of balsawood is the variable.

Cut two pieces of thin balsa wood,2 inches wide by 6 inches long, and set thesestrut-like pieces aside.

Cut two pieces of 2�4 lumber in 6-inchlengths. Cut two rectangular pieces ofplywood into pieces 1 foot wide by 6 inchesdeep.

Using screws, attach one piece ofplywood to the top of a wooden sawhorse.Using that as the bottom piece, make arectangular box by using the 2�4 pieces for

38

Project 10: Lighter Struts

39

sides and the remaining piece of plywood forthe top. Leave two sides of the box open.

Using a utility knife, cut a small V-shapednotch on one of the long sides of the balsawood near the end of the wood.

Stand the balsa wood vertically and insertone end into the opening of the box to adepth of 1 inch. Position the balsa wood sothe end with the notch in it is outside the boxand facing upward.

Tie both ends of a 2-foot-long piece ofstrong string to the handle of an emptyplastic gallon jug, making a loop. Hang thejug from the balsa wood by placing the loopof string in the notch.

Slowly add water to the jug until thebalsa wood breaks. Weigh the water in thejug and record this weight. (If the weight of afull jug is not enough to break the wood, tie asecond jug to the first one and begin addingwater to it.)

Take the second piece of balsa wood andcut a series of holes in the wood, each spaced at equal distances. Each hole shouldbe 1 inch in diameter.

Perform the same weight test. Record theamount of weight needed to break the “swisscheese” balsa wood strut.

Engineers need to know weights,percentage relationships, strengths, and otherimportant factors about a material. Use thedata you have determined by experimentationto compile stress data on the 2�6 pieces ofbalsa wood. The fact sheet you compileshould include these figures:

• Weight of the solid balsa wood piece (usea gram weight scale):_____

• Weight of the lightened “swiss cheese”balsa wood piece:_____

• Breaking weight of the solid balsa woodpiece: _____

• Breaking weight of the lightened “swisscheese” balsa wood piece: _____

• Percent lighter the lightened strut is to thesolid strut (the weight of the lightenedpiece divided by the weight of the solidpiece, times 100 for percent):_____

• The percentage of weight the lightenedpiece breaks at compared to the solidpiece (breaking weight of the lightenedpiece divided by the breaking weight ofthe solid piece, times 100 forpercent):_____

• The maximum weight the lightened piececan safely support, the safety marginbeing two-thirds beyond what is required(breaking weight of the lightened piecedivided by one-third):_____


Results


Conclusion


40


Something More

If the balsa wood was twice as thick,would it be able to hold twice the weight?Laminate two pieces of balsa woodtogether with wood glue. Let dry and test.

41



Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to serve as an introduction tostock market investing, and to develop anenthusiasm for saving and investing.

Overview

Every time you buy something, whether it isa can of soda, a pack of gum, or a pair ofsneakers, you are helping a company growand increase its earnings. Many bigcompanies are publicly traded, that is,individual investors can buy stock in thatcompany and actually own a small piece ofit. When a company does well, thestockholders may benefit from the company’sprosperity by receiving a dividend (a cashpayment) or by the value of their stockincreasing.

Stock UpConcepts of stock market investing

Project 11


There is a lot to learn about investing inthe stock market, but it is something all of usshould do during our lifetime. A portion ofour hard-earned money should be at work inthe stock market, earning us even moremoney. We must learn ways to get the moneywe earn to grow. Putting money in apassbook savings account or a bankcertificate of deposit (CD) is a common wayto invest. Although these forms ofinvestments are very safe (there is littlechance you will lose your principal), theygenerally do not give a very high return on your investment, perhaps paying only 2 percent to 6 percent annually. The stockmarket has always been a place where anindividual can get a much higher return onthe money invested. The catch is this:although the stock market has alwaysperformed well over time, it can suffertemporary drops, and investors can lose themoney they have invested. For that reason,many people invest in a mutual fund, where aprofessional money manager studiescompanies and their stocks, and makesbuying and selling decisions for you andmany other people who have their money inthe mutual fund.

However, there is a thrill of picking astock yourself and watching it on a dailybasis. While you should have a portion ofyour money invested long term (10 to 20years) in the stock market, it can be excitingand often profitable by “playing” the marketfor the short term. To do this will require alittle time every day studying the financialnewspapers and watching the financial newson television, and using the Internet to findcompany news and track your stocks.

Two developments took place in the lastthree years of the 1990s that enabled theaverage person to easily and cheaply get intothe stock market. The first was the explosivegrowth of the Internet and computers,enabling almost every home to be able toafford a computer and be connected to theInternet. The second development was theappearance of high-discount Internet brokers.Previously, an investor might have to pay$100 or more in commission fees to buystock. Using the Internet, a transaction cancost as little as $8, making it very affordableto the masses.

In this project, you gain valuableexperience learning about the stock market.You will do paper trades (pretend trades asopposed to trading with real money). Wehope this will give you a better understandingand insight into the stock market, and makeyou excited about saving and investing!

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that given an imaginary $10,000to invest, you can select stocks to buy andsell, and build your initial investment by 10percent within three months.

Materials’ List

• Computer with an Internet connection

• Daily financial newspaper (The WallStreet Journal or Investor’s BusinessDaily)

• One or two books on an introduction tothe stock market

42

Project 11: Stock Up

• Three months’ time

• Calculator

• Paper and pencil

Procedure

Go to a bookstore or your local library andread one or two books on an introduction tothe stock market. Become familiar with someof the terms you encounter.

Pick up a copy of a daily financialnewspaper (The Wall Street Journal orInvestor’s Business Daily) and browsethrough it.

In the project, the initial capital investedis constant. The stocks in your portfolio (youcan buy and sell them anytime during thethree-month period) and the fluctuations ofthe stock market are variables.

These are the rules of our short-termtrading portfolio:

1. You have $10,000 initially to invest. Ifany of your stocks increase in value andyou sell them at a profit, you can use theextra money to buy shares of anotherstock.

2. You can buy and sell any stock at anytime. However, assume there is acommission fee of $10 for everytransaction. When you buy a stock, add$10 to the total cost. When you sell astock, subtract $10 from the profit youreceive.

3. Any money left over from the $10,000that is not invested in stock is assumed tomake 4 percent annual interest, as it is

swept into a money market account byyour broker. Calculate the daily incomefrom that uninvested money and add it toyour three-month total. (4 percent dividedby 365 days in a year is about .01 percentper day earned on the uninvestedbalance.)

4. At the end of three months, sell all yourstocks. Total their value and add anyother profit you made from the selling ofstock during the three-month period. Addmoney market interest. Subtract anylosses you incurred by selling a stock thatwas underperforming.

5. You must maintain at least six stocks inyour portfolio at all times. This will giveyou diversity, which lowers your risk oflosing money by not “putting all youreggs in one basket,” in case one stocktakes a big drop.

To select the initial six or more stocks tobegin your portfolio, you need to make a listof potential stocks to invest in. Start bywriting down the names of companies whoseproducts you like or use. Do you like tocollect Disney toys? Do you like to drinkPepsi Cola? Is McDonald’s your favoritehamburger stop? Is your hobby surfing orrollerblading?

Once you have a list of about tencompanies, do research on each one. TheInternet has hundreds of free web sites whereyou can get information on a company,including a profile, fundamentals (the highestand lowest stock price for the year, Price toEarnings (P/E) Ratio, number of averagedaily shares traded, and so forth), and a pricechart showing the history of the stock.

43


Studying a chart is called technicalanalysis and, although a stock’s history is noguarantee of what will happen in the future, itoften gives a good indication of whichdirection the stock is likely to be headed. If achart shows a stock price has been droppingfor the last three months, it is probably acompany you want to avoid.

The Internet, daily newspapers, andfinancial TV programs are good sources forhearing news about your companies. Thisrequires daily monitoring. If a cold winter isexpected, that might be an opportunity toinvest in coat manufacturers. If a company isbeing sued, whether it is in the right or not,this can put a drag on the stock until thematter is settled.

The whole market goes up and down, andit can carry stocks with it. The stock market iscontrolled by perceptions of the investment“crowd.” The least little thing can drive themarket up or down. If the President stubs hisbig toe, the market may drop. But in suchcases, it will probably bounce back up.During times when the whole market takes a

dip, don’t panic and sell all your stocks. Aslong as there is no change to the fundamentalsof your individual companies, stay the course.

At times, there will be important news onyour companies that will affect their price.One of the biggest factors that affects theprice of stock is quarterly earnings, and youshould pay close attention to earnings’estimates.

As you follow your stocks daily, you canlearn about the factors that affect a stock’sprice: earnings, selling off a division of thecompany, acquiring other companies,announcing a stock split, and expandingoverseas operations.

You can also get ideas for your initialportfolio list by reading financial newspapersand magazines. Also, be observant ofproducts around you. What brand of shoesare most of your friends buying? Where arethey buying their school clothes? Who makesyour favorite computer games?

Results


Conclusion


44


http://quote.yahoo.comwww.askresearch.comwww.bigcharts.comwww.cnbc.comwww.freerealtime.comwww.iqc.comwww.marketwatch.com (CBS)www.schwab.comwww.stocksites.comwww.stocktools.comwww.vectorvest.com

Internet Web Sites ForFree Stock Market Research

http://quote.yahoo.com

www.askresearch.com

www.bigcharts.com

www.cnbc.com

www.freerealtime.com

www.iqc.com

www.marketwatch.com

www.schwab.com

www.stocksites.com

www.stocktools.com

www.vectorvest.com

45


Something More

1. Generally, financial advisorsrecommend buying a stock andholding it for a long time to get themost benefit. Continue your projectfor six months or even one year. Doyour stocks do better over time?

2. Get a book on an introduction to theoptions market. Set up a portfolio ofstocks and paper trade writing coveredcalls, buying Call options, whichrepresent the investor’s right to buystock, and selling Put options, whichrepresent the investor’s right to sellstock.

47


• Chemistry

Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to compare the fat content ofdifferent grades of ground beef. Too much fatin our diet may be unhealthy, especially if wedo not get enough exercise. We should beaware of fat in the foods we consume, so wecan make healthier choices when purchasingsuch items as ground beef (lean or extra lean)and milk (whole or skim).

Overview

Fats are substances found in animals andsome vegetables. Fats are used by the bodyfor energy. When the body’s demand for heatincreases, as it does during the winter or incold climates, more fat is required by thebody. Eskimos, for example, consume a greatamount of fat in their diet. When more fat iseaten than the body currently needs forgrowth or energy, the fat is stored in tissues.

Fats are made up of carbon, hydrogen,and other elements. The carbon and hydrogengive fats their capability to give off hugeamounts of heat. Have you ever cooked

A Better BurgerComparing the fat content in

different grades of ground beef

Project 12


chicken still in its skin on a barbecue grill? Ifso, you probably noticed that when thechicken fat fell into the fire, it caused a flare-up of flames.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize there is significantly more fat instandard ground beef than in ground beeflabeled extra lean.

Materials’ List

• Adult supervision (exercise cautionaround a hot stove)

• Package of ground beef

• Package of lean ground beef

• Package of extra lean ground beef

• Spoon

• Small cooking pot

• Kitchen gram-weight scale

• Three paper plates

• Water

• Measuring cup

• Clock or watch

• Pencil and paper

• Use of a kitchen stove

• Use of a refrigerator

Procedure

Fats can be liquefied by heat. When you frybacon in a pan, you have no doubt noticed allthe fat that appears in the pan. Heating baconin a microwave oven yields the same result.

The mass of each meat patty, the cookingtime, and the amount of water used forboiling are all constant. The fat grade ofground beef is the variable.

Obtain three small packages of groundbeef, one simply labeled “ground beef,” onelabeled “lean,” and one labeled “extra lean.”

From each package of meat, mold ahamburger-shaped patty. Use a small kitchenscale to make sure each patty weighs thesame.

Place the first patty in a pot and put it ona stove burner. Add one or two cups of wateras needed to completely cover the patty.Record the amount of water added.

Note the time on a clock or watch. Turnthe burner on its highest heat setting. Bringthe water to a boil. Carefully break up thepatty into small pieces as it is boiling, so the

48

Project 12: A Better Burger

boiling water can reach all parts of the meat.Use extreme caution when working aroundboiling water. The heat will extract the fatfrom the meat, and the fat will rise to the topof the water.

After several minutes of boiling, turn theburner off and note how much time haspassed on the clock.

Weigh a paper plate on a kitchen gramweight scale and record the weight.

Place the pot and its contents in arefrigerator. As the fat cools, it will coagulate(change into a thickening mass). After thecoagulated fat has cooled for several hours,scoop it off the top with a spoon and place iton the paper plate. When all the fat is on theplate, weigh it. Subtract the weight of thepaper plate (the tare weight) to determine theweight of the collected fat.

Clean out the pot and repeat the processfor each of the remaining two grades ofground beef. Use an equal amount of water toboil each patty and boil each for the samelength of time.

Compare the weights of the fat collectedfrom each grade of meat. Is the amount of fatsignificantly less in the extra lean grade thanthe other grades?

You know the original weight of thepatties and the weight of the collected fat.What percentage of each patty was fat?Divide the fat weight by the patty weight andmultiply by 100.

Results


Conclusion


49

Project 12: A Better Burger

Something More

1. Compare the fat content in meatmixtures (beef and pork are often soldtogether).

2. Ground beef that contains more fatmay not be as healthy, but is it tastier?

51


• Medicine & Health

Purpose or Problem

Insects can carry and transmit diseases thatare harmful and even life-threatening forhumans. We should be aware of the types ofinsects in the area we live in and know howto protect ourselves from them.

Overview

To many of us, insects and bugs are merelypests, getting in our food at a picnic or givinga bite that makes us hurt or itch. However,some insects can be very harmful to humans,even causing death. Many people are allergicto bee stings. Ticks can carry Lyme diseaseand Rocky Mountain spotted fever.Mosquitoes can spread deadly diseases,including malaria and yellow fever. It isimportant to know what species of insectslive in your community.

This project attempts to collect arepresentative sample of the type of insects in

Caught in the SpotlightDevising an insect-collection device, and then

evaluating the nocturnal insect population in your area for health hazards

Project 13


your area. First, several devices for collectinginsects will be constructed and tested. Then,the successful collecting device will be usedto gather insects, which can then be studied,identified, and researched to see if they mightbe a potential health hazard to humans.

Respect for all forms of life is imperative.Therefore, only a short period of time will beallowed to collect insects to have a minimaleffect on the environment and to prevent theneedless loss of insect life.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize which of the four insect-collecting devices you have constructed willcollect the most insects during a givenamount of time. Also, hypothesize that youwill collect more than ten differentorganisms.

Materials’ List

• Book on entomology (a branch ofzoology that deals with insects) to helpyou identify the insects you collect

• Four 2-liter plastic soda bottles

• Four wide-mouth jars

• Two flashlights

• Clock or watch

• Outdoor area away from bright lights inthe evening

• Black construction paper

• Adhesive tape

• Magnifying glass

• Scissors

• Marker pen


Procedure

First, we must construct a device that willcollect a sampling of nocturnal insects. To dothis, we will construct four different devicesand test them to see which is the mostsuccessful. Cut the top and bottom off four 2-liter plastic soda bottles, leaving just thehollow cylinders. Use caution whenworking with sharp scissors.

Find an outdoor location around yourhome or neighborhood that is safe, but awayfrom strong lights. On the ground, set up thefour plastic cylinders. Place flashlights insidetwo of them, with the beam facing straightup.

On top of each cylinder, set a wide-mouthjar. Keep the lids screwed on the jars.

52

Project 13: Caught in the Spotlight

Fill one of the jars that is over a flashlighthalf full of water. Next, fill one of the jarsthat does not have a flashlight underneathhalf full of water.

Using black construction paper andadhesive tape, wrap each cylinder and jarwith the paper, so light from the jars thathave a flashlight underneath them will onlyshine out of the top.

When it’s dark, turn on the flashlightsand remove the lids from the jars. The size ofthe jar openings, the location, the time ofnight, and the period of time the collectorsare exposed are the constants in theexperiment. The variables are light and water.

After one hour, screw the lids back on thejars, and then turn off the flashlights. With amarker, label the lids of each jar as “Dry, noflashlight,” “Dry, with flashlight,” “Wet, noflashlight,” and “Wet, with flashlight.” Then,take the jars inside.

Which device collected the greatestquantity of insects? Was your hypothesiscorrect?

Using a book on insects, identify theinsects collected. Research more about eachinsect and create a fact sheet on each,including information on whether or not theyare harmful to pets or humans, and, if so,why they are harmful.

Results


Conclusion


53


Piece of blackconstruction paper

Wide mouth jar

Water

2-liter plasticbottle with topand bottomcut off

Flashlight

54


Something More

1. Did the unlit dry collector attractdifferent insects than the lit wetcollector?

2. Construct several of the insect-collecting devices that were the mostsuccessful at attracting insects. Giveone to each of several friends who livein different locations in yourcommunity. Have them all exposetheir collectors for the same period oftime during the same evening.Examine both the quantity and type ofinsects collected. Does one locationhave a higher insect population thananother? Why? Are the same types ofinsects found at all locations?

3. Are different types of insects active atdifferent times of the night? Collectinsects just after dusk and just beforedawn (when it is still dark).

55



• Chemistry



• Zoology

Purpose or Problem

If an organism is attracted to a food sourcethat is not nutritional and changes its dietfrom eating the type of food it needs to afood that is not nutritional, its health may beput at risk. For example, people sometimesthrow stale pieces of white bread out in theiryard for birds to eat. But, white bread doesnot have the nutrition birds need, and theymay fill their bellies with a less-than-“good”food.

Sweet TreatThe behavior of ants toward natural and artificial sugars

Project 14


Overview

Almost everyone enjoys eating sweet foods.Although sugar is the most commonly usedsweetener, it has been associated with healthproblems, including tooth decay, obesity, andhyperactivity in children. People with healthproblems related to sugar could be diabetic orthey might be trying to lose weight, andthey’re looking for sugar substitutes to use intheir foods.

Today, two popular artificial sweetenersare sold in grocery stores, namely saccharinand aspartame. Neither of these sweetenershas any nutritional value, whereas naturalsugar is a carbohydrate that provides energyfor your body. Artificial sweeteners are notused by the body and pass throughunchanged.

The natural sugar found on your kitchentable is called sucrose, and its chemicalsymbol is C12H12O11.

Aspartame is 200 times sweeter thansugar, and saccharin is 500 times sweeter.Will ants be attracted to these useless foodsources because they are sweeter? Or, willnature prevail and their instinct be able todetect that the false sugars are nutritionallyempty?

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that the instinct in ants isintelligent enough that when offered naturalsugar (which has nutritional value) andartificial sweeteners (which have nonutritional value), the ants will take the

natural sugar, even though the artificialsweeteners taste hundreds of times sweeter.

Materials’ List

• Table sugar

• Brown sugar

• Saccharin artificial sweetener

• Aspartame artificial sweetener

• One-fourth teaspoon measuring spoon

• Magnetic compass

• Anthill with active ants

• Wooden ice-pop sticks or tonguedepressors

• Ruler

• Pen or felt tip marker

• Three days of time

• Stiff piece of cardboard

• Scissors

Procedure

Locate an active anthill in an area where youcan safely make observations from a distanceof several feet. The terrain around the anthillshould be fairly consistent. Do not use ananthill that is bordered on one side by grassand on the other side by a sidewalk. Be suregrass or soil surrounds the hill out to severalfeet.

Observe the anthill for one day to learnwhen the ants are most active: early morning,late morning, afternoon, early evening, andso forth.

56

Project 14: Sweet Treat

Once you discover an active time for theants, set up four piles of sugar and sugarsubstitutes as explained in the following, justprior to that time on the next day.

Using a magnetic compass, locate North,East, West, and South directions, with theanthill at the center. With a pen or felt tipmarker, write NORTH, EAST, WEST, andSOUTH on each of four wooden ice-popsticks or tongue depressors. With a ruler andzero at the center of the anthill (be carefulnot to touch or disturb the anthill), place thestick marked NORTH six inches from thecenter and to the north of the anthill. Push thestick into the ground, so it stands vertically asa marker.

Similarly, measure and push into theground direction-identifying sticks six inchesto the east, south, and west of the mound.

Cut four small squares (about 2 or 3inches square) out of a piece of stiffcardboard or oak tag. Lay one square in frontof each of the ice-pop sticks.

On the piece of cardboard in front of theNorth stick, use a level 1⁄4 teaspoon of sugarto make a small pile of table sugar.

In front of the East stick, make a pile ofbrown sugar on the cardboard, again using alevel 1⁄4 teaspoon of brown sugar.

Similarly, place saccharin and aspartamepiles at the South and West markers.

The piles are placed on pieces ofcardboard, so at the end of the day, they canbe removed.

Observe the ants as closely as possible,but do not get so close as to affect theirbehavior.

Are the ants attracted to any of the piles?If so, which ones?

On the third day, place the pieces ofcardboard with the piles by the marker sticks,but this time rotate them, so the sugar is eastof the anthill, the brown sugar is located tothe south, and so on. Observe the ants’behavior. Are they still attracted to the samepiles, even though the piles are in a differentplace?

If they are, then we can be assured thatthe location of the piles was not a factor indetermining which pile the ants wereattracted to, thus eliminating the variables ofterrain (uphill, downhill, easier path tonavigate, and so forth), the position of theSun, and the location from the hill (north,east, and so forth).

Results


57


NO

RT

H

Conclusion


58


Something More

1. Move the piles of sugars five or sixfeet from the anthill opening. Doesthis project then yield a differentresult?

2. How do ants behave when offeredother natural sweet substances? Honeyand maple syrup, for example, areoften used as a substitute for sugar inbaking and other food preparations.

3. If the ants eat the nonnutritioussweeteners, how does it affect otherorganisms that eat the ants?

4. Large marking pens have a verystrong smell. Will the marker odorcause a change in behavior of theants?

59


• Chemistry


Purpose or Problem

We must have vitamin C to live, but ourbodies do not produce it. Therefore, we mustget it from what we eat. The problem is this:even if we eat a food that we know containsvitamin C, our preparation to eat it (boiling

the food, for example) may cause vitamin Cto leave a food.

Overview

Vitamin C (its chemical name is ascorbicacid) is one of the most important vitaminsour bodies need, not only to stay alive, butalso to keep in optimum health. Vitamin C isnecessary in the formation of collagen, whichis used to maintain skin, bones, andsupportive tissue. Vitamin C strengthens theimmune system and aids in healing wounds.

The process of cooking may causevitamin C to be lost in foods, so that when

C, a Fantastic VitaminThe effect of boiling on the vitamin C

content of carrots

Project 15


we eat them, we are not getting this much-needed nutrient.

Is it healthier to eat a carrot raw or boiledregarding vitamin C? In this project, we willboil carrots in water and test the water forvitamin C content before and after the carrotshave been boiled in it. If no vitamin C ispresent in the water before boiling, but ispresent afterwards, then the cooking processhas removed vitamin C from the carrots,thereby making them less nutritious to eat.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that when carrots are boiled inwater, vitamin C will be lost in the carrots.This will be evidenced by an increase in thevitamin C content of the water in which thecarrots were boiled.

Materials’ List

• One carrot

• Two large test tubes

• Teaspoon measure

• Distilled water

• Corn starch

• Vitamin C tablet (250 milligram)

• Measuring cup

• Funnel

• Cooking pot

• Use of a stove burner

• Iodine

• Eyedropper

• Spoon

• Vegetable peeler


Procedure

When working around a hot stove, usecaution. Also, do not put iodine in yourmouth or bring it in contact with anythingedible, because iodine is poisonous.

Pour one cup of distilled water in acooking pot. Add 1⁄2 teaspoon of cornstarch.Heat on a stove burner. Stir until dissolved,and then set aside to cool.

Pour one teaspoon of this solution intoone cup of distilled water. Add four drops ofiodine and stir. The solution will turn darkblue. This is our vitamin C test solution.When vitamin C is added to this solution, thedark blue coloring will vanish.

Prove this solution will work in detectingvitamin C by dropping a 250 milligram tabletof vitamin C into the test solution. As thetablet dissolves, the water will instantlybecome clear.

Now that you have proven the testsolution will detect the presence of vitaminC, make another batch of the test solution bypouring one teaspoon of the cornstarchsolution into one cup of distilled water andadding four drops of iodine.

Place two large test tubes in holders side-by-side. Pour distilled water into one testtube until it is 3⁄4 full. A funnel is helpful.Using an eye dropper, add drops of thevitamin C test solution until you begin to seethe water turning slightly blue. It may take 50

60

Project 15: C, a Fantastic Vitamin

or 60 drops before a color change can bedetected. Write down the number of dropsadded when you first see the blue color.

Cut a carrot into small pieces or use apeeler to slice it into long, thin slivers. Placethe pieces in a cooking pot with one cup ofdistilled water. Bring to a boil for severalminutes, and then remove the pot from theheat and let it cool.

Position the funnel in the mouth of thesecond test tube and pour in the water fromthe carrot pot until the test tube is 3⁄4 full.

With an eyedropper, add drops of thevitamin C test solution to the carrot water. Ifvitamin C is present in the water, the waterwill not show any signs of turning blue whenthe same number of drops are added thatwere added to the water before carrots werecooked in it. Can you fill the rest of the testtube and still not see any shades of blue? Ifso, a significant amount of vitamin C ispresent. The carrot lost some of its nutritionalvalue to the water.

Results


Conclusion


61

Project 15: C, a Fantastic Vitamin

Something More

1. Can any more vitamin C be extractedfrom the carrot pieces? Place thecarrot pieces in a fresh cup of distilledwater, reheat, and then retest for thepresence of vitamin C in the water. Ifmore vitamin C came out, then somevitamin C was still in the carrot, eventhough some was lost initially tocooking.

2. Does steaming vegetables retain morevitamin C in the vegetable thanboiling them? If so, people who liketheir vegetables cooked, but who areconcerned about maintaining a highlevel of vitamin C, could steam theirvegetables rather than boil them.

3. Can you make a tasty drink from theboiled carrot water? If so, it would benutritious, because the boiled watercontains vitamin C from the carrots.

63


• Earth & Space


Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to determine if the Sun’shighest altitude in the sky during the day is atthe time exactly halfway between sunrise andsunset.

Overview

The Sun illuminates half of the Earth all thetime. But the length of daylight is not half ofa day (12 hours) every day. In fact, the lengthof daylight changes daily and varies atdifferent locations on the Earth.

From about December 22nd to June 21st,the length of daylight increases daily in theNorthern Hemisphere, and it decreases fromJune 21st to December 22nd. This is becausethe Earth does not spin on its axis in thesame plane as it orbits the Sun. The Earth istilted toward the orbiting plane at a 231⁄2degree angle.

Zenith Is Not a RadioComparing the Sun’s daily zenith to

the time between sunrise and sunset

Project 16


This tilt not only accounts for why thelength of daylight varies, it also gives us achanging of seasons from spring, summer,fall, and winter.

The Sun rises in the east and sets in thewest, but the path it travels across the skychanges as the seasons change. The altitude(its height above the horizon) of the Sunreaches a higher angle during the day in thesummer than in the winter.

Does the Sun reach its highest point inthe sky (its zenith) during the day at the timethat is halfway between sunrise and sunsetfor that day?

Knowing the position of the Sun at alltimes during the day throughout the year at aparticular location is important to architectswho design buildings. They need to knowhow much sunlight will enter throughwindows because this will affect their designsfor lighting, heating, and air conditioning.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that the Sun reaches its zenithduring the day at the time that is equallybetween sunrise and sunset.

Materials’ List

• 1�1 square piece of plywood

• Large protractor

• Pencil

• Carpenter’s level

• Modeling clay

• Sunny day

• Time of sunrise and sunset for that day(available from a daily newspaper, theFarmers’ Almanac, your local radiostation, or a National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration (NOAA)weather radio)


Procedure

First, be sure you never look directly at thesun! Next, find the time of sunrise and sunsetfor the day you do this project. These timescan often be found in a local dailynewspaper, from an almanac, from the newson a local radio station, or from a NOAAweather radio.

Then, calculate the total number ofminutes between sunrise and sunset. Dividethat number by two. Convert the answer tohours and minutes. Add that to the time ofsunrise to arrive at a time that is midpointbetween sunrise and sunset.

Now, mount a protractor on a small pieceof plywood, so it stands perpendicular to theboard. Modeling clay can be used to securethe protractor.

64

Project 16: Zenith Is Not a Radio

Next, set the protractor device outside inan area that receives unobstructed sunlight allday. Lay a carpenter’s level lengthwise, andthen widthwise, to level the board. Pile alittle sand or small stones under the board tolevel it.

The reference point of zero on theprotractor will be held constant (the plywoodand protractor will be kept level horizontallywith the ground). The movement of the Earthis the variable in this project.

About two hours before midday, beginmeasuring the angle of the Sun’s altitude byplacing the point of a pencil by the base atthe middle of the protractor, and raising thepencil up or down until no shadow of thepencil is cast. Remember, do not lookdirectly at the sun during this project. Checkthe angle of the pencil by reading theincrements on the protractor.

Make these measurements at ten-minuteintervals. Write down the angle of the Sun’sheight.

Continue making measurements until onehour after the Sun’s angle begins to decrease.

Did the Sun’s peak height occur at aboutthe time you calculated the midpoint betweensunrise and sunset?

Results


Conclusion


65


North Pole

South Pole

Plane ofEarth’s orbitaround thesun

Equator

66


Something More

1. Is the Sun always at zenith at 12 o’clock noon?

2. Determine the azimuth (the anglebetween sunrise in the east and sunsetin the west) of the Sun. Thumbtack apiece of white paper onto a piece ofplywood, and slightly hammer a nailin the center through the paper andinto the plywood, just deep enoughfor the nail to hold. At sunrise, draw aline tracing the shadow cast by thenail. Just before sunset, when theshadow cast by the nail is about todisappear, draw a line tracing theshadow. Measure the angle. Repeatthis once a week for a month. Doesthe angle change? Is the angleincreasing or decreasing in size?Which season are you headed toward?Does the peak height of the Sun in itspath across the sky change from weekto week?

67


• Biochemistry

• Environmental

• Microbiology

Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to identify severalenvironmental factors in the home that affectthe rate at which mold grows on food, spoilingit. By controlling how food is stored, we canextend its edible life.

Overview

Have you ever been hungry for a sandwich,only to discover that the last two slices ofbread in the house have green mold on them?Yuck! Finding mold on your bread in thebread box, mold on your cheese in therefrigerator, or mold on your peaches in thefruit basket can be unpleasant and irritating.

Mold, and another member of the fungikingdom, mildew, can even attack books. Youmay have picked up a book that has beenstored in a damp basement and found itcovered with a powder-like substance.

Bold MoldEnvironment affects the rate at which food spoils

Project 17


Molds grow from spores that can travelthrough the air. Unlike green plants, whichcan make their own food by using chlorophylland energy from sunlight, mold must get itsnutrients from the food it grows on. Moldbreaks down the food it is growing on,causing the food to rot. While finding moldon your sandwich may be unpleasant, rottingis a natural and necessary process of nature.

To keep the foods we buy edible for aslong as possible, there are certain things wecan do at home to preserve freshness. Willkeeping foods from being overly moist or at acool temperature prolong their viability?

In many instances, food producers addchemicals to their products to preservefreshness. Food additives called moldinhibitors destroy microorganisms. The U.S.government allows low levels of certain foodadditives to be placed in our foods. Thesechemicals include monosodium glutamate,ethyl formate, sodium benzoate, sodium andcalcium propionate, sodium nitrite andnitrate, sorbic acid, and sulfur dioxide.

Natural preservatives include salt andsugar, which bind with the water in foods,preventing the water from being available formicroorganisms to feed on. Another methodis subjecting food to smoke. You may haveread that in early times, meats and fish weresmoked to preserve them. Today, foods areusually smoked to give them a distinct flavor,not because it helps preserve them.

Determine what factors you can control athome that help prevent mold growth oncommon foods. Light, temperature, andhumidity are factors we will test.

Hypothesis

Form a hypothesis as to which factors (light,temperature, humidity) or combination offactors play a part in affecting the rate ofmold growth.

Materials’ List

• Six leaves of lettuce

• Six slices of homemade or bakery freshbread (but not bread from thesupermarket)

• Six small pieces of meat

• Six small pieces of a block of cheese (forexample, sharp cheese or Monterey Jack)

• Six peaches

• Spray bottle filled with water

• Box of sealable plastic food storage orsandwich bags

• Use of a refrigerator

• Masking tape

• Felt-tipped marker

Procedure

Gather the foods in the materials’ list. Eachfood will be placed in a different environment.Six pieces of each type of food are needed totest the environmental conditions.

Place each of the foods in a separatesealable plastic food-storage bag: lettuce,bread, cheese, meat, and peaches. Beforesealing the bags, spray a light water mist into

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Project 17: Bold Mold

one of the two bags for each food, to giveextra moisture. Stick a piece of masking tapeon each bag that moisture has been added to,and write “moisture added” on the tape witha felt-tipped marker.

Put two bags of each food in a refrigerator.Place two bags of each in a well-lit, out-of-the-way location where the temperatureconstantly stays between 68 and 72 degreesFahrenheit. Place two bags of each in acompletely dark location (a dresser drawer,closet, or another dark location) that stays atroom temperature.

The environments, then, are

• Exposed to light with only the moisturepresent in the food

• Exposed to light with additional moisturepresent

• Kept in the dark with only the moisturepresent in the food

• Kept in the dark with additional moisturepresent

• Kept in the dark at a lower temperaturewith only the moisture present in the food

• Kept in the dark at a lower temperaturewith additional moisture present

Once a day, inspect each food. Writedown your observations.

After several weeks, thoroughly inspectall the foods one final time. Do not open anyof the sealed bags. When the project iscompleted, discard the bags in the trashwithout ever opening them. Breathing moldspores may irritate some people.

Did any of the foods develop mold? If so,which one(s) did the most mold grow on?Which environment was the best atpreventing mold? Which encouraged moldgrowth the most?

If no mold grew on any of the foods, itcould be because no spores were present onthe foods, or that the foods had beenchemically treated with mold inhibitors.Generally, anything homemade would notcontain food additives. Try baking a cakefrom scratch and using it as the test food.

If you were unsuccessful at finding moldon any of the foods, try setting foods out inthe open for several days before sealing themin the bags and placing them in their testenvironments. You may even want to waituntil mold begins to form before placingthem in the test environments, and thenmonitor the growth rate of the molds to seethe effect of each environment. If left out inthe open, spray the samples you are givingextra moisture once or twice a day becausethe moisture will evaporate.

69


SANDWICH BAGS

Results


Conclusion


70


Something More

1. What color is the mold on differentfoods (bread, cheese, peaches, and soforth)? Do different molds havedifferent textures?

2. Will direct sunlight affect the growthof mold? If so, what is it aboutsunlight that stunts (or promotes) thegrowth (visible light, ultraviolet light,infrared, and so forth)?

71



Overview

A lot of investigating can be done withseveral bags of M&M’s candies! And whenyou finish your investigations, you can eatthem! (But, do not eat them if you areallergic to chocolate or can’t tolerate sugar!)

Just think of all the questions you canpose:

• How many blue candies are in a bag ofM&M’s?

• What percentage of each color is in abag?

• Are the same number of each coloredcandy found in each bag, or are theirquantities random?

• Can you predict how many of each colorwill be in a bag before it is opened? (Youcan if the colors are not random.)

• Some people believe there are alwaysmore brown candies than any other color.Is this true?

• Does each bag contain exactly the samenumber of candies?

M&M’s Ring Around the WorldDetermining the validity of sample size

Project 18


• Does each candy weigh the same, or aresome bigger than others?

Maybe you should eat a few candiesbefore exploring the answers to thesequestions, just to be sure you have plenty ofenergy!

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that four bags constitute a large-enough sample size to know whether or notyou can predict how many of each colorcandy will be in a bag before it is opened.

Materials’ List

• Four bags of M&M’s candies


• Coat hanger

• Three paper clips

• Piece of string

• Use of a door jam

Procedure

Purchase four bags of M&M’s candies (orsimilar bags of multicolored candies). With apencil and paper, draw a table with columnheadings for BAG #1, BAG #2, and BAG #3.The number of each colored candy will berecorded under each bag. If you know how touse a spreadsheet program on a computer, setup the table on the spreadsheet.

Open a bag of M&M’s candies. Count thenumber of each colored candy, and write thenumber down on the table under the columnlabeled BAG #1.

In the same way, open a second bag,count and write down the number of eachcolor under the BAG #2 heading. Finally, dothe same with the third bag. Add eachcolumn and write down the total number ofcandies in each bag.

Looking at your table of data, you cannow answer all the questions we posed.

• Percent—Percentage is a measure of apart of something to the whole thing. It isexpressed in hundredths. Percent comesfrom the Latin words per meaning by,and centum meaning one hundred. Thesymbol for percent is %. To find thepercent, divide the part by the whole, andthen multiply by 100.

Part——–— � 100 = PercentWhole

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Project 18: M&M’s Ring Around the World

Blue

Quantity %

COLOR BAG #1 BAG #2 BAG #3Quantity % Quantity %

Brown

Yellow

Orange

Green

Red

TOTAL

For example, suppose 13 greencandies are in a bag, and the total numberof candies in that bag is 58.

13—— = .224 � 100 = 22.4%

58

Find the percentage of each coloredcandy to the total number of candies inthe bag. Do this for each of the threesample bags, and write this figure on yourtable.

• Sample Size—Scientists often use theconcept of sample size to learn what alarge group might be like based on datagathered from a small group. The size ofthe sample group should be big enough togive a true picture of the larger group.

Is the data you gathered by onlyevaluating three bags accurate enough soyou can make statements that are true ofevery bag of M&M’s candy?

If you found that the number of eachcolored candy is very different in each ofthe three bags, would you then predictthat when you open a fourth bag, thenumber of colored candies will also berandom in that bag?

What was the total number of candiesin each bag? Was it always the same? Isthere a range? For example, if one baghad 55, one 58, and one 57, then therange of candies is from 55 to 58. Byyour examination of three bags of candy,would you predict that every bag youopen in the future will not contain exactlythe same number of candies?

• Weight Comparison—On the label of thecandy bag is the weight of its contents. Inthe case of an M&M’s bag, 47.9 grams.But, did you find each bag had a differentnumber of candies? What can this mean?Either the weight shown on the label isonly an approximate or minimum weight,or each candy does not weigh exactly thesame!

Set several candies next to each other.Do they all look the same size or aresome bigger than others?

If you have access to a very accurategram weight scale at school, weigh twobags and compare their weight.

You can also build a simple balance beamto compare the weight of two bags. Use acoat hanger suspended from a door jam witha candy bag hanging from each end to see ifthey are in balance (the hanger will tilt if onebag is heavier than the other).

73


StringMolding overa door jam

Coat hanger

Bags of candy

Paper clipsbent open toform an “S”shaped-hook

M&

Ms

M&

Ms

M&

Ms

M&

Ms

M&

Ms

M&

Ms

Results

Write down the results of your experiment.Document the data collected.

Conclusion


74


Something More

Determine unit cost. If a bag of candycosts 60 cents and it contains 55 candies,how much does each individual candycost? This is called unit cost. Divide thetotal cost (60 cents) by the total numberof candies (55):

.60—— = 0.0109 or 1.09 cents each55

How much does each candy cost in a bagthat contains 58 candies? Did you getmore candies for your money?

75



Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to determine which is thestronger trait for selecting objects: thelocation of the object closest to the handfavored (right-handed or left-handed) or theassociation of color, specifically, gender-associated colors (pink and blue).

Overview

“Pink is for girls and blue is for boys” is theage-old saying. If two cupcakes are offered toa male, both being identical except that onehas pink stripes across the icing and one hasblue, will he chose the blue one or will hechose the one that is closest to the hand hefavors?

In this behavioral experiment, we try todetermine which is the stronger trait amongmales, handedness or color. Determine ifmost males will choose a cupcake that iseasier to take because of handedness (right

ChoicesBehavior: The position of an item

will determine the selection by handedness (left hand/right hand) over color

Project 19


handed/left handed) or more inconvenient totake, but is colored blue rather than pink.

If a male is told that two cupcakes areidentical except for the color of the icingstripes, do you think the color will influencethe decision as to which one he will choose?Because most of us have heard the saying“Pink is for girls and blue is for boys,” doyou think a boy would unconsciously select ablue-striped cupcake over a pink one? Doyou think he would choose a blue one out offear that someone watching might ridiculehim for taking a pink one because he thinkspink is for girls?

Or, do you think convenience has astronger influence in his selection? When twocupcakes are placed in front of a person, aright-handed person may tend to take thecupcake on the right, because it is closer andeasier to take, while a left-handed personmay go for the one on the left.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that more males will select ablue-striped cupcake over a pink-stripedcupcake, even though the pink-stripedcupcake will be closer to the hand he favors(right handed/left handed).

Materials’ List

• Two dozen vanilla cupcakes with whiteicing

• Food coloring

• Two small dishes (cereal bowls) to mixfood coloring

• Spoon

• Eyedropper

• Between 10 and 20 male friends

• Small serving tray


• Camcorder or camera and video taperecorder (optional)


Procedure

Bake or purchase a batch of vanilla cupcakeswith white icing. The size and shape must beheld constant.

Using food coloring, pour a small dish ofblue (a standard food color) and mix a dishof pink (stirring several colors together).

With an eyedropper, draw blue parallellines on half the cupcakes. Draw pink parallellines on the rest of the cupcakes. You maywant to mix a batch of icing and mold it intostrips, coloring some blue and some pink.Then, lay the strips in parallel across the topof the cupcakes.

The variable in this experiment is thecolor of the stripes on the cupcakes. Theblue-colored cupcakes will constantly be

76

Project 19: Choices

positioned on a serving tray, so they are onthe opposite side of the person’s handedness.

The object of the stripes is to give enoughcolor to the top of each cupcake to establish adefinite color difference between them. Wedo not want to make all the icing solid blueor solid pink, because people tend toassociate color with taste. It is important thatthe test subjects do not make a choice ofcupcakes based on how they think a cupcakewill taste. Simply being told that all thecupcakes are identical except for the colorstripes on the icing may not be enough tounconsciously convince them.

Next, gather a dozen or more male testsubjects. We must know if each subject isleft-handed or right-handed, so we will askthem. But, we do not want to tip them offthat this experiment has something to do withtheir handedness. So, disguise the questionby asking five or six nonrelated questions,surrounding the handedness questions byother questions. When polling each person,write down all their answers, so they do notsuspect you are only interested in the dataabout their handedness. You may choose touse a computer to type the questions andprint copies for the subjects to fill inthemselves.

Suggested questions:

1. What is your favorite music group?

2. Are you right- or left-handed?

3. Is your bedroom on a first or secondfloor?

4. Name a TV show you try to never miss.

5. What time do you usually go to bed atnight?

Obviously, question two, which is buriedwithin the group of questions, is the only onewe care about, but it is camouflaged withother questions.

Once you know if a person is right- orleft-handed, place a blue cupcake on a traythat will be on the opposite side of herhandedness and position a pink cupcake onthe other side. For example, if a person isright-handed, place a pink cupcake on theside of the serving tray that will be nearesther right hand when the tray is presented toher and place the blue cupcake on the leftside. She will have to extend her arm furtherto reach the blue cupcake than the pink one.

This experiment lends itself well to videotape recording for later evaluation and toenhance a presentation in a science fair.

Did more boys pick blue cupcakes or didthey pick the handier pink cupcakes?

Be sure none of your test subjects hasan allergy or food-related problem withcupcakes before they eat one.

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Project 19: Choices

Results


Conclusion


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Project 19: Choices

Something More

1. Repeat the experiment testing girlsinstead of boys. Place the pinkcupcakes further out of reach and theblue ones closest to their handedness.

2. Are there shape preferences bygender? Use cookies and cookie-cuttermolds to make stars, triangles, hearts,and circles. Do males tend to selectdifferent kinds of shapes than femalesdo?

79


• Botany

Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to determine if the intensity oflight on a plant’s leaves affects the plant’soxygen output.

Overview

Chlorophyll (a chemical found in the greenleaves of plants) and light collected by theleaves of plants combine with water andcarbon dioxide to start a process that causesthe leaves to release oxygen.

How critical is light to this process? Ifless light reduces the amount of oxygenproduced, you might conclude that plantsliving underneath a thick canopy layer in aforest do not produce as much oxygen asthose in direct sunlight.

Plants ExhaleA plant produces more oxygen

when light intensity is increased

Project 20


Hypothesis

Hypothesize that elodea, a commonaquarium plant, will produce more oxygenwhen subjected to a higher intensity of light.

Materials’ List

• Two small aquarium tanks

• Two test tubes

• Two elodea aquarium plants (available atpet shops)

• Two table lamps

• One 15-watt light bulb

• One 100-watt light bulb

• Two dark areas (for example, closets)


Procedure

Fill two small aquariums (or very large, tall,clear glass jars) with water. Place an elodeaplant in each one. Elodea is a commonunderwater plant that many people who havepet fish use in their aquariums.

Fill a small test tube with water. Placeyour finger tightly over the top to prevent thewater from escaping and air from entering.Turn the test tube upside down and lower itinto the water, capturing as much foliagefrom the elodea plant inside the tube aspossible. All the plant’s leaves do not have tofit inside the tube. Also, it is not necessaryfor the test tube to remain completely

vertical. It can tilt a little if it needs to restagainst the side of the tank for support.

Similarly, place a water-filled test tubeover elodea foliage in the second aquarium.The elodea, aquariums, and size of the testtubes are constant. The variable in thisproject is the amount of light each plantreceives.

Place each aquarium in a dark area ofyour house, for example, a closet or anunused room with the drapes closed.

Find two table lamps, and remove thelamp shades. Position one lamp next to eachaquarium. In one lamp, place a 15-watt lightbulb; use a 100-watt bulb in the second lamp.

Be sure the electric cord is not pluggedinto the wall when you are changing lightbulbs. Also, make certain the lamps arenot touching any curtains, drapes, or anypaper or cloth material that could pose afire hazard. Keep the lamps alongside the

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Project 20: Plants Exhale

100 Watt bulb

15 Watt bulb

aquariums. Do not attempt to put them onthe top, where they could come in contactwith the water and create an electricalhazard.

Make daily observations to see if anyoxygen is accumulating in the test tubes.

After observing for many days, is thequantity of oxygen different in the test tubes?Which one has accumulated the most?

Results


Conclusion


81

Project 20: Plants Exhale

Something More

1. Is there an intensity of light beyondwhich there is no advantageincreasing it?

2. In school science labs, a burningsplint is often used to detect thepresence of oxygen in a small testtube. A “pop” or tiny explosion occursif oxygen is present. Use the burningsplint technique to confirm that thegas collected from the elodea isoxygen. Do this under thesupervision of a school scienceinstructor with proper safetyprecautions in place.

83



• Physics

Purpose or Problem

Mountain material is lost to erosion everyspring as snow and ice on mountain peaksmelt. We will attempt to determine if the rateat which the ice melts (due to temperature)has an effect on the amount of material lostto erosion.

Overview

Alluvial deposits are the materials (soil, rock,debris, and so forth) that have accumulatedfrom being transported by moving water.Alluvial formations are created at the deltasof rivers, as material is deposited by thecurrents of water.

Every spring, snow and ice on mountainsbegin to melt. As gravity and the steepness ofmountain sides accelerate the flow of water,materials from the mountain are carried alongwith the water. If spring temperatures arewarmer than normal, will this cause morematerial to be carried off the mountain than if

Melting MountainsAlluvial runoff from melting mountain ice

Project 21


temperatures were more moderate? If so,mountain erosion caused by melting snowand ice would be in direct relationship totemperature.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that more alluvial material willbe deposited by melting ice when thetemperature increases.

Materials’ List

• Two plastic gallon milk jugs

• Two Styrofoam trays

• Two 6-inch-long pieces of 2�4 lumber

• Water

• Two cups of very fine sand

• Scissors

• Use of a freezer



• Heat lamp

• Ruler

Procedure

Two model mountains with melting ice willbe set up, with one melting at a much morerapid rate. Held constant in the experimentwill be the quantity of sand, ice, and theslope of the runoff. The variable will be thetemperature.

Find two small Styrofoam trays.Styrofoam trays are often found in grocerystores with ground beef, veal patties, andother meats packed in them. With scissors,cut the lip off one end of each tray.

Weigh one of the Styrofoam trays on agram weight scale, and then fill a kitchenmeasuring cup with very fine sand. Pour thesand onto the Styrofoam tray, positioning it atthe center of the tray. Weigh the tray withsand. Subtract the weight of the tray (the tareweight) to find the weight of the sand.

The second tray must be filled withexactly the same quantity of sand as the firsttray. Weigh the second Styrofoam tray. Poura measuring cup of fine sand onto the centerof the tray, and then place it on a scale.Subtract the weight of the tray. Add or takeaway sand from the tray until the secondsand pile weighs the same as on the first tray.

Manipulate the sand on both trays untilboth piles of sand are about equal in size andshape. Use a ruler to measure the height ofeach pile.

Carefully, using scissors, cut off thebottom part of two plastic gallon milk orwater jugs. Cut about 11⁄2 inches up from thebottom, leaving small plastic bowl-likecontainers. Fill each jug bottom with water toa depth of 1 inch. Place in a freezer.

When completely frozen, remove the two1-inch slab ice cubes from the plastic jugbowls.

Use a piece of 2�4 wood (or severalbooks stacked on top of each other) to tilt thetray with sand. Position the cut-away end ofthe tray at the bottom of the slope, and rest itin one of the plastic jug bowls. This will

84

Project 21: Melting Mountains

capture any runoff water and sand that iscarried down. Carefully set an ice slab on topof each sand pile. This will create a model ofmelting ice on top of a mountain.

Place the whole device in a cool locationsomewhere in your home.

Make a second device with the other tray,sand, ice, 2�4, and bowl. Set this one in aplace where a heat lamp can be safelypositioned over the top of the ice. You canuse an infrared bulb, available at pharmaciesor possibly from your school science teacher,as a heat lamp.

When the ice on both trays meltscompletely, remove the two plastic jug bowls.Let the water collected in them evaporate.Then, using a gram weight scale, weigh theremaining particles of sand in each bowl.Was more sand deposited from the heat lampmountain?

Results


Conclusion


85

Project 21: Melting Mountains

Something More

1. Repeat the previous experiment, butthis time, use coarse particles of sand.Hypothesize that not as much materialwill be deposited because of thebigger size of the particles.

2. How does pitch (the slope of therunoff) affect erosion?

87



• Zoology

Purpose or Problem

Find the relative temperature (warmer orcooler) that pet goldfish prefer.

Overview

Pet goldfish can withstand a rather widerange of temperatures. Are they morecomfortable in water that is above or belowroom temperature? Finding out whichtemperature they prefer, and then giving themthat temperature, may make for healthier,longer-living pets.

Sounds FishyDetermining if goldfish have

water temperature preferences

Project 22


Hypothesis

Hypothesize that water temperatures aboveroom temperature (within reason) are moredesirable to goldfish than water temperaturesbelow room temperature, as evidenced bytheir spending more time in the area of anaquarium they prefer. (Or, you may choose tohypothesize the opposite.)

Materials’ List

• Piece of Plexiglas

• Nontoxic bonding glue for plastic andglass

• Aquarium

• Several goldfish

• Two thermometers

• Fish tank heater

• Several ice cubes

Procedure

Position a board or a piece of Plexiglas in anaquarium tank. It should extend from the topto the bottom of the aquarium, and whenplaced in the center of the tank, a 1-inch gap should be around one of the sides toallow the fish to freely swim from one side of the tank to the other. Secure with glue andlet dry.

Get two thermometers. Lay them side-by-side on a table and allow them to sit for about15 minutes to stabilize at room temperature.Both thermometers should read the same

temperature. If one reads differently, mark itwith a marker and note the difference intemperature. You will need to account for thisdifference when you make temperaturereadings in the water.

Fill the aquarium with water. Let thewater stand for several hours until it reachesroom temperature.

Place a fish-tank heater in one side of theaquarium. Place several ice cubes in the otherside. Position two thermometers in the tank,one in each side.

Introduce the goldfish into the water andobserve them for several hours. Do the fishspend more time in one section than theother? What is the temperature differencebetween the two sides?

Results


Conclusion


88

Project 22: Sounds Fishy

89

Project 22: Sounds Fishy

Something More

1. Can you entice the fish to go into theside of the aquarium that has a less-desirable water temperature by alwaysfeeding them on that side?

2. Can goldfish be trained? Make atapping sound on the side of theaquarium every time you feed them.After several weeks, will they come tothe feeding area when they hear thetapping, even if no food is present?

3. Do goldfish prefer light or dark, or dothey have no preference for either?Make one partition of the aquariumwell lit and the other darker bycovering the sides with darkconstruction paper.

4. Are there other factors that might beat play, such as light? Will the resultbe the same if you turn the tank 180degrees?

91


• Engineering

• Physics

Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to find the best placement ofbraces to strengthen a square wooden frame.

Overview

The science discipline of engineering hasmany branches: chemical, electrical,aeronautical, biochemical, nuclear, andmechanical.

Mechanical engineering requiresknowledge of the behavior of materials andtheir physical properties to design buildings,machines, aircraft, bridges, skyscrapers,overpasses, dams, and other structures.Mathematics, physics, experimentation, andtesting are important aspects of mechanicalengineering.

Parallelogram PreventionSimple bracing can greatly increase a structure’s

capability to maintain its shape under stress

Project 23


Physical structures that undergo stress areoften given extra support by using braces atkey positions on the structure. Amazingly,braces sometimes don’t need to be verystrong to be effective. Their placement in thestructure is more critical than their strength.Yet, they can give tremendous strength to thestructure they are bracing.

This project requires wood to be cut tospecific lengths and holes to be drilled in thewood. If power tools are to be used, makesure you have adult supervision. Observeall safety precautions using power tools.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize which of three different bracingforms can best help to keep a square woodenstructure true to form when an unbalancedforce is applied.

Materials’ List

• One 5-foot piece of rope

• Pulley

• Two 2-inch-long bolts with nuts

• Several plastic gallon milk/water jugs

• Four large screw hooks

• Lumber: five 8-foot-long pieces of 1⁄2-inchpine of any width (1 to 4 inches)

• Lumber: several 3-foot-long shims

• Lumber: 2-foot piece of 2�4

• Several dozen nails about 11⁄2 inches long

• Several buckets of sand

• Towel

• Scale

• Wood saw

• Wood drill

• Hammer

• Use of a table

• Adult supervision, if using power tools

Procedure

Make four 2-foot-square wooden framesusing 1⁄2-inch pine boards. The boards can beof any width, from 1 inch to 3 or 4 inches.Use only one nail at each corner.

92

Project 23: Parallelogram Prevention

Base fixed

Structure deforms

Forceapplied

Basic structure Exterior “X” braces

Horizontal brace Interior corner braces

Stand the frames vertically, as shown.Drill two holes in the bottom of each frame.The holes must be placed 12 inches apart.

Put one screw hook into the end of eachframe at the top of one side, as shown above.

Take one of the frames and add exterior Xbraces from corner-to-corner on both sides.These braces need not be made out of strongwood. Thin wood, such as shims or woodused for making latticework, will suffice.

Take another frame and cut a horizontalbrace out of the pine wood. Use one nailthrough each side to mount it horizontallyacross the interior center.

Using the pine wood, cut four 4-inchpieces and nail them into the inside cornersas shown.

This completes the four structures to betested. Next, construct a jig, so each structurecan be tested.

Cut a 3-foot-square piece of 1⁄2 or thickerplywood. At one edge, securely mount a 2-foot vertical piece of 2�4 wood. You mayneed to strengthen it by using a large metalelbow angle brace behind it. Mount a pulleyat the top of the board.

Near the middle of the plywood, drill twoholes spaced 12 inches apart. The holes mustbe in line behind the 2�4 piece, as shown.Push a 2- or 3-inch bolt up through eachhole. This completes our test jig.

Position the basic wooden structure onthe test jig, so the bolts come up through theholes in the structure. The hook should be onthe side facing the pulley. Screw the nutsdown onto the bolts and tighten. Thestructure is now secured to the jig.

Set the jig on a table. Place a towel orsomething soft underneath the jig to be surethe heads of the bolts do not scratch thesurface of the table.

Tie a piece of rope onto the hook. Drapeit over the pulley and let it hang down. Tiethe other end onto several empty plasticgallon milk or water jugs, so the jugs hangsuspended and do not touch the floor.

Begin adding sand to the jugs until thesquare wooden structure begins to show signsof skewing. If the test jig begins to tip, placesome heavy weights on the plywood base orhave a friend sit on it! Weigh the jugs ofsand.

Repeat the procedure for each of the threestructures that have braces added. Record theweights.

Were all the brace structures able tosustain more lateral force? Which bracemethod worked best? Which was the leastbeneficial?

93


Pulley

Fill withsand

Nuts onbolts

Results


Conclusion


94


Something More

Compare the strength of a simple woodensquare structure where the top and bottomlengths of wood are equal, and the twoshorter side pieces are equal, to astructure where all sides are equal, witheach corner overlapping the next, asshown in this illustration.

95


• Botany

• Chemistry

Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to determine if pH could be afactor in giving an onion an acrid taste.

Overview

Some vegetables have a strong, sharp, “acrid”taste, sometimes even stinging your tongueand nose. A good example is an onion. Yet,even among the onion family, there aredifferences in the strongness of their taste.Does the pH (the measure of alkalinity oracidity) differ in different types of onions(American onion, Spanish onion, and soforth)? If one type of onion has stronger tastethan another, do you think the pH of thestronger onion is more acidic?

A Taste of Plant AcidDetermining if a vegetable has a

more acrid taste if it has a higher pH

Project 24


One characteristic of chemical substancesis the amount of acid or base they contain.Foods that contain weak acids taste sour, forexample, lemon or lime juice, and pickles.Strong acids may be hazardous, as they candamage your skin and other parts of yourbody. The opposite of an acid is a base, alsocalled an alkali. Bases have a slippery feel tothe touch. They taste bitter. Examples ofsubstances that are bases include ammoniaand other cleaning products, milk ofmagnesia, baking soda, and soap. Productsthat unclog household drains contain strongbases, and they can be hazardous to touch.

In the same way as a ruler is used tomeasure the length of an object, and athermometer is used to show how hotsomething is, chemists have created a scale tomeasure how much acid or base a substancecontains. This measurement tool is called thepH scale. Technically, the term “pH” means“the potential of electricity for positive

hydrogen ions,” because chemists can useelectricity to do the measurement.

The pH scale goes from 0 to 14, 0 as thestrongest acid, 7 s neutral (in the middle),and 14 as the strongest base. Pure water has apH of 7. If you have a swimming pool, youmay have used a pH water-test kit, where asample of water is collected, and a few dropsof a special chemical are added and mixedwith the water. The resulting color of thewater is matched against a color comparatorchart to find the exact pH.

One way to measure pH is by usinglitmus paper. Litmus paper comes in differentcolors to measure different ranges of pH. Redlitmus paper turns blue in a base solution.Blue litmus paper turns red in an acidsolution. A color chart is used to compare thecolor litmus paper turns to a pH number.

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Project 24: A Taste of Plant Acid

ACIDS NEUTRAL BASES

The pH Scale

StomachAcid

Stronger StrongerWeaker Weaker

Lemons

0

0

1

1

2

2

3

3

4

4

5

5

6

6

7

7

8

8

9

9

10

10

11

11

12

12

13

13

14

14

Bakingsoda

Milk ofMagnesiaVinegar Tomato Water Ammonia

Apples Bananas Milk Eggs Soap Lye

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that among several types ofonions, the ones with the stronger (moreacrid) taste have lower pH values (will bemore acidic) than the others.

Materials’ List

• As many different types of onions as youcan find

• pH test kit with color comparator

Procedure

Gather as many different types of onions asyou can. Squeeze juice from each type anduse a pH test kit to determine the pH of thejuice. Taste a small amount of the juice ofevery onion, and then compare the strongnessof each. Compare the tastes to the pH of eachonion. Do the onions with a stronger tastehave a lower pH?

Note: If the pH is more acidic instronger-tasting onions, this poses aninteresting correlation. However, it does notprove that pH is the only factor involved inmaking the onions taste more acrid.Additional research would have to be done.

Results


Conclusion


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Project 24: A Taste of Plant Acid

Something More

Compare the pH of various othervegetables. Is there an association withsharp taste to pH? Does a red bell pepperhave a different pH than a green bellpepper? Compare the pH of various citrusfruits to their taste.

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Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to determine if a specificstrategy for buying or selling stock in thestock market might be profitable over aperiod of time.

Overview

What’s the secret to making money in thestock market? It’s simple: buy low, sell high.That’s it! Everything else is just “noise.” Buya stock when its price is low and sell it at alater date when the price has appreciated. Ofcourse, the hard part is picking a stock whoseprice will appreciate.

Most successful investors buy stock in acompany they have thoroughly researchedand they believe the company has greatpotential for increasing its earnings in thefuture. When a company has increasing

Split and DipTesting a strategy for making money

in the stock market

Project 25


earnings, the price of its stock usuallyincreases. Buying stock in a good companyand holding onto it for many years is a greatway to build a nice nest egg.

But, some people try to get a muchquicker return on their money. They attemptto buy and sell stocks in a very short periodof time, perhaps over a period of severalweeks or months. Some even buy and sellwithin the same day; they are known as daytraders.

Short-term investing can be very risky,however, and, many times, an investor willlose money or miss out on really big gainsbecause a stock was sold prematurely.Patience usually gives investors an edge.

Nevertheless, the fearless investor is luredto a quick profit by short-term trading, just asa gambler is drawn to the chance for a bigwin with the pull of a slot-machine handle.

Stock market trading, however, is notquite the same gamble as pulling the handleon a slot machine. Naturally, some luck isinvolved and some uncontrollable factors areat play. But the odds are more in your favorin the stock market, where you can do yourhomework researching a company and itsproducts, and developing strategies based onthe past performance of a stock.

Stock market gurus are everywhere,selling newsletters and services, each onemaking recommendations as to which stockto buy, based on their “unique” strategies.How accurate are the predictions by thesegurus? Their theories must be tested overtime with a large sample of stocks.

Let’s propose a strategy of our own, andthen, over a period of two months, test our

theory with a large sample size. Our strategywill be a short-term play. We will attempt tobuy low and sell high within a few weeks ormonths to make a small profit.

Our strategy is to buy a stock if it takes aslight “dip” within the first three weeks ofdoing a stock split, and then selling the stockseveral weeks after that as the stock begins toclimb.

What is a stock split? A stock split iswhen a company divides its total number ofshares of stock to make more sharesavailable. For example, suppose a stock isselling for $100 a share and you own 20shares. If the company does a 2-for-1 split,you will get two shares of stock for every oneshare you have, but the price per share willbe cut in half. After the stock split, then, youwill own 40 shares of stock valued at $50 pershare. Think of a 2-for-1 stock split assomebody giving you two five-dollar billsand you giving them a ten-dollar bill. Youend up with two bills, but the total dollarvalue of the money you have has notchanged. You got two $5s for a $10.

Companies may chose other ratios forsplitting, for example, 3-for-1 or 3-for-2.

Why do companies split their stock?Splitting makes the price of their stockcheaper, so it is more affordable. They hopepeople will then buy more of it, which willcause the stock’s value to increase.

Why would a stock make a temporary dipin price following a split? Once a stock splitis announced, traders often start buyingshares, which drives the price up a few weeksbefore the stock is scheduled to split. Oncethe split takes place, traders begin to sell theirshares to lock in profits from the presplit

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Project 25: Split and Dip

price run-up. Historically, stock splits were anonevent. A split is nothing more than two$5s for a $10. But, in recent years, a split hasbeen perceived as a positive move, becausestocks that announce splits have usually beenvery good stocks. So, the stock often goes upwhen a split is announced because peoplebuy into what they think is a positive move.Once the stock splits, some traders sell theirstock to capture a small profit from the stockprice rising between the time of theannouncement and the actual split date. Thatselling may cause the stock price to take aslight drop. This often happens within thefirst three weeks following the split. After thedip hits a bottom, the stock price may beginto rise again. There is a tendency for thestock to regain lost ground and head uptoward its previous high (which may take ayear or two) if it is a good company, which iswhy the stock went up so high in the firstplace.

Buying a stock on the slight dip after asplit is an opportunity to buy low, and whenthe stock begins to climb shortly after that, tosell high.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that you will make a profit themajority of the time by buying stocks thattake a slight price dip within the first fewdays or weeks following the split, and thenselling the stock within a month or two as theprice moves upward. We will only buy stocksthat take a dip within the first three weeksfollowing a split. We will sell the stockwithin two months following the split. Stockswill be bought and sold on paper (not using

real money). After several months, our winsand losses will be tallied. Our hypothesis isthat we will make an overall profit, eventhough there will occasionally be some losingstock plays.

Materials’ List

• Computer with a modem and an Internetconnection

• Computer printer

• Financial daily newspaper

• Two to three months of time

• Calculator or computer spreadsheetprogram (optional)

Procedure

Research to compile a list of stocks that haveannounced they are going to split. Companiesthat announce stock splits are listed in dailyfinancial newspapers (The Wall Street Journal,Investors Business Daily, and so forth) andannounced on financial news programs on TVand on financial channels (CNBC). Manystock market sites on the Internet also listupcoming stock splits. Some sites include:

• http://biz.yahoo.com/c/s.html

• www.coveredcalls.com

You need not wait for splits to take place.You can find out when stocks have split inthe past by looking at their stock charts(which indicate when a stock split) or bychecking these Internet sites:

101


http://biz.yahoo.com/c/s.html

www.coveredcalls.com

• http://quote.yahoo.com

• www.briefing.com

• www.cboe.com

• www.freerealtime.com

• www.stocktools.com

• www.theonlineinvestor.com

This project requires viewing a lot ofstock charts to observe the price behaviorpatterns following stock splits. The Internethas hundreds of free financial sites whereyou can get stock charts. Some of the bestinclude:

• http://quote.yahoo.com

• www.bigcharts.com

Stock charts are displayed by entering acompany’s ticker symbol, the symbol used bythe stock exchanges to represent eachcompany. For example, Disney is DIS, Coca-Cola is KO, Ford Motor Company is F. If youdo not know a company’s ticker symbol, youcan usually obtain it from the Internet sitewhere you are getting your stock charts. Thedaily financial papers also list all companiesalphabetically, along with their ticker symbol.

The Internet is a fast-changing medium,and the sites we have just listed for researchand charting may or may not still offer thesefree services. If that happens, use an Internetsearch engine to search for stock marketquotes or stock splits.

Once you compile a list of stocks that aredue to split (at least a dozen stocks splitevery month), write down the name of eachcompany, the ticker symbols, and the date thestock is due to split. Once a day, check a

financial Internet site or a financialnewspaper and write down the price of yourstock. You may want to do this everymorning or evening.

After a stock splits, watch for a drop inprice. When you find a stock that is in adownward trend for several days, watch ituntil it appears to level off or head back up.At that time, do a paper trade, that is, pretendto buy 100 shares of the stock. Write downthe cost per share and how much money youspent. Timing the market is very difficult.You may think you are buying the stock atthe lowest part of the dip, only to laterdiscover that the stock dips even more.Nevertheless, hold on to your stock, even ifyou think you didn’t buy it at its lowest point.

Once you purchase a stock, continue towrite down its closing price each day. Watchit for one or two months. If the stock rises toa point where you feel you would make anice profit if you sold it, sell your shares. Toarrive at your profit, subtract your cost fromthe money you made selling your shares.Determine the percent return on your moneyby dividing the profit by the cost, and thenmultiplying the answer by 100 to showpercent. For example, suppose you bought100 shares of Kmart stock at $12 per share,for a cost of $1,200. You sold the stock at$131⁄2, or $1,350. The profit is $150. $150divided by $1,200 equals 0.125, times 100 toshow percent is 121⁄2 percent. That’s a verygood return over two months!

Our rule is to only buy stocks that show adip pattern within three weeks of a stocksplit. If a stock does not take a dip, do notuse it in the project.

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www.briefing.com

www.cboe.com

www.freerealtime.com

www.stocktools.com

www.theonlineinvestor.com


www.bigcharts.com

Another rule is to sell any stock you buyon dip that continues dropping more than 20percent. We will take the loss, but we willpreserve our money, so we don’t lose toomuch. Not all stocks do well after a stocksplit, as evidenced by Disney (DIS) in 1999.

After several months of tracking stocks,buying, and selling, declare a stop to yourproject. Total your wins and losses. Did youmake more money than you lost? Do youthink this is a strategy that could be profitableif real money were used to do the trades?

Results


Conclusion


103


Stock pricedips within 2weeks follow-ing a split, thenbegins to rise

Telabs (TLAB) in 1999

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec0

10

20

30

40

50

Disney (DIS) in 1999

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec0

10

20

30

40

50

PLITS

PLITS

Something More

1. Continue to follow the stocks for anadditional two months. Would moreprofit be made by holding the stockslonger?

2. Research news on any stock thatdrops after a split and continues todrop for a long time. Is there a reasonwhy the stock price is being beatendown?

105


• Microbiology

Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to reduce spoilage ofapplesauce from microorganisms (mold) byadding cinnamon to it. The cinnamon wouldthen serve a dual purpose, acting as both aflavor enhancer and a mold inhibitor.

Overview

For centuries, people have used spices toseason their foods. Many kinds of commonlyused spices exist, including allspice,cinnamon, cloves, ginger, mustard, nutmeg,and pepper. These spices come from a groupof plants.

Early cultures also realized some spiceshad properties that helped preserve foods.The storage of food was very important toearly civilizations. They did not have thesophisticated techniques we have today toprolong the freshness of foods, which include

Johnny ApplesauceCinnamon: A mold inhibitor

Project 26


chemical additives, refrigeration, and vacuumpacking.

Microorganism growth can quicklyshorten the time in which a food must beconsumed. Because many people like tosprinkle cinnamon on their applesauce, theywould not mind the addition of a natural,complementary spice like cinnamon beingused on their applesauce as a preservative. Ifyour project reveals that cinnamon is a goodmold inhibitor, then would it be a good ideato add a little cinnamon to an opened jar ofapplesauce that is placed in the refrigerator toeat later in the week?

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that cinnamon is an effectivemold inhibitor for applesauce.

Materials’ List

• Four plastic 6- or 8-ounce clear plasticdrinking cups

• Small jar of applesauce

• Cinnamon

• Tablespoon measure

• 1⁄4 teaspoon measure

• Felt tip marker

• Use of a closet or another dark area atroom temperature

• One week of time

Procedure

Place five level teaspoons of applesauce ineach of the four small clear plastic cups. Witha felt tip marker, sequentially number eachcup: 1, 2, 3, and 4.

Cup 1 will be the control cup. Nothingwill be added to it.

In cup 2, lightly and evenly sprinkle 1⁄4 teaspoon of cinnamon on top of theapplesauce, completely covering its surface.

In cup 3, add 1⁄4 teaspoon of cinnamon tothe applesauce and mix thoroughly. This isour “lightly added” mixture.

In cup 4, add 1⁄2 teaspoon of cinnamon tothe applesauce and mix thoroughly. This isour “more heavily added” mixture.

Set the cups in a dark area at a normalroom temperature. Make sure the cups areout of the way, where they will not bedisturbed.

After one week, examine each of thecups. Has mold formed in any of the cups?Are the lightly covered or lightly mixedapplesauce cups free of mold?

When your project is completed, disposeof the cups in the garbage. Do not to eat theapplesauce from any of the cups.

106

Project 26: Johnny Applesauce

APPLE SAUCE

CINNAMON

Results


Conclusion


107

Project 26: Johnny Applesauce

Something More

1. What is the smallest amount ofcinnamon that can be added to theapplesauce to make an observabledifference in mold growth? We do notwant to have to add so muchcinnamon that no one would everwant to eat it.

2. If mold did not grow on the coveredapplesauce, did it not grow because ofthe cinnamon or simply because itwas covered and kept from exposureto the air? Try covering it with othersubstances, such as flour, and see ifmold forms.

3. Determine if other popular spices,such as nutmeg, demonstrate moldinhibitor properties.

109


• Microbiology

Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to determine if there is anyeffect in the behavior (the movement) ofcommon one-celled organisms when in thepresence of a static electromagnetic field.

Overview

There has been a great debate over the yearsas to whether or not magnetism has an effecton living cells. People on one side of thedebate believe that living under high-powerelectric lines causes harmful electromagneticradiation that damages farmers’ crops and isunhealthy for their bodies. The magnetic fieldcreated by alternating current travelingthrough electric power lines is a movingfield; the field expands and collapses manytimes each second. On the other side of thedebate are those people who believe thatstatic fields of magnetism (unlike those

Backfield in MotionThe effect of an electromagnetic field

on single-celled organisms

Project 27


generated by high-power electric lines) maybe beneficial to health. They place magnetson parts of their body to aid in healingvarious ailments and injuries.

No doubt, you have at some time placed amagnet underneath a piece of paper orcardboard, sprinkled iron filings on top, andtapped it to see a pattern as the filings formlines, showing the otherwise invisiblemagnetic lines of force.

Magnetism is a phenomenon that isintimately related to electricity. Earlyscientists realized this when they placed acompass next to a wire through whichelectricity was flowing. The compass needlewas deflected when electricity was flowing inthe wire.

When direct current (DC), which is thetype of current flow that comes from abattery, travels through a wire, a magneticfield extends out from the wire. Do common

single-celled organisms respond to this fieldby moving toward or away from the wire?

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that several common one-celledorganisms will not show any response (tomove away from or to move toward thesource) to a static electromagnetic field.

Materials’ List

• Model train DC transformer

• Small 12-volt light bulb and socket

• Hook-up wire

• Wire cutters

• Small slotted screwdriver

• 40x or 50x microscope

• Microscope slide

• Petroleum jelly

• Adhesive or masking tape

• Live single-celled organisms (euglena,paramecium, flagellum, amoeba, and soforth)

Procedure

Using hook-up wire, connect a model trainDC transformer to a 12-volt light bulb tomake a complete circuit. Any variable powersupply or DC power transformer isappropriate, including one designed formodel HO racing car sets. One piece of wireshould be very long, so it can be draped

110

Project 27: Backfield in Motion

Iron filingsarrange them-selves to the linesof magnetic force

Bar magnetplaced undercardboard

Magneticfield

Electric current flows through a wire causing amagnetic field to surround the wire

Current flow

across a slide on a microscope. The trainpower supply has a variable control on it, sothe amount of electricity that flows in thecircuit can be changed from zero to its fullpotential.

Position a microscope slide under themicroscope and lay the wire across the slide.Use adhesive or masking tape to secure thewire in place. Be sure the wire is flat againstthe slide.

In the middle of the slide, squeeze a tubeof petroleum jelly to form a “donut-shaped”circle. This will act as a wall to contain a tinyliquid pool of microorganisms. If yourpetroleum jelly is in a jar, use an ice-popstick or a toothpick to form the petroleumdam.

From a science supply house or your highschool biology teacher, obtain live single-celled microorganisms. They must be activeorganisms that are able to move on their own.These include euglena, paramecium,flagellum, and amoeba. Place a few smalldrops of the liquid medium containing theorganisms in the “petroleum pool.” Thepetroleum will not harm the organisms.

Set the microscope with a large-enoughfield of view so the wire and organismsaround it can be seen.

Observe the organisms to be sure they arealive and moving around. Turn on the powersupply and watch to see if any responseoccurs by the organisms to the wire that nowhas an electromagnetic field surrounding it.Try varying the amount of electricitysupplied through the wire. The light bulb willgive a visual indication that current isflowing, and its dimness or brightness is alsoa relative gauge indicating the amount ofcurrent.

Results


Conclusion


111


Microscope slide Lay wire throughthe liquid

“Donut ring” dam ofpetroleum jelly

Liquid medium containingone-celled organisms

DCPOWERPACK

112


Something More

1. Electromagnetic fields are also presentin a wire carrying alternating current(AC). With AC, the electromagneticfield builds and collapses many timeseach second. Repeat the experimentusing AC rather than DC. An ACpower supply can be obtained fromyour local electronics store. An ACdoorbell transformer, available at yourlocal hardware store, will also work.

2. Increase the magnetic field byexposing single-celled organisms tothe strong alternating magnetic fieldfrom a bulk tape eraser (available atelectronic stores) used to erase audioand video tapes. Observe theorganisms.

113


• Botany


Purpose or Problem

The purpose of this project is to determine ifchlorophyll is present in a leaf that isnormally green, but has turned brown.

Overview

In the fall, deciduous trees lose their leaves.This is a brilliant display of gold, red, yellow,and orange put on by Mother Nature. Duringthe spring and summer, these leaves aregreen.

We know that plants use a process calledphotosynthesis to make food. They usechlorophyll, water, minerals, carbon dioxide,and, most importantly, sunlight in thephotosynthesis process. From experience, youhave no doubt observed that photosynthesisstops when sunlight is cut off from a plant.

Green No MoreConcepts in chlorophyll

Project 28


Looking under a board that was thrown on apatch of grass reveals the grass has lost itsgreen color.

When a leaf falls from a tree and turnsbrown, is chlorophyll still present?

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that even though photosynthesishas ceased, some chlorophyll still remains ina brown leaf.

Materials’ List

• Alcohol

• Two test tubes

• Two test-tube holders

• One house plant

• Use of a stove burner

• Small cooking pot

• Water

• Scissors

• String

• Adult supervision

Procedure

Chlorophyll can be extracted from a leaf byplacing it in a boiling bath of alcohol. Ifchlorophyll is present, the alcohol will beginto turn green. As a comparator, the moregreen the color of the alcohol, the greater thequantity of chlorophyll.

Alcohol is highly flammable, and must behandled with care around heat. Becausealcohol boils at a lower temperature thanwater, we can use a double-boiler system thatwill make it safer to handle for this project.

On a house plant, locate two leaves thatare as close as possible to being the samesize. Using scissors, cut one leaf off theplant. Let it sit for several days until no greencoloring is left in the leaf. To identify theother leaf of the plant, loosely tie a piece ofstring around its stem.

Gather two test tubes. Fill each one half-full of alcohol. In one test tube, place thebrown leaf. Clip the leaf from the live plant(which you previously identified with astring) and place it into the other test tube.

Bring a small cooking pot filled withwater to a rapid boil on a stove burner. Turnoff the burner.

Using test-tube holders, lower both testtubes into boiling water. Position the holdersand tubes, so the test tubes rest upright in thepot, or at least at a steep enough angle so nowater gets into the tubes. An oven mitt mayoffer additional safety and comfort whenyou work around the pot. Let the test tubesremain in the water for 10 to 15 minutes.

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Project 28: Green No More

Remove the test tubes and observe thecolor of the alcohol. Is green present in bothtest tubes? If so, does one test tube containmore green than the other?

Results


Conclusion


115

Project 28: Green No More

Something More

1. Is any chlorophyll present in grassthat has turned white because ofsunlight deprivation?

2. Are vegetables that are green (peas,string beans, lima beans, lettuce,spinach, kale, mint, and so forth) that color because they containchlorophyll? Check for the presenceof chlorophyll in green vegetables.Spinach and mint are leaves. Are yourresults different for these than for peasand beans?

117



• Chemistry

Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to determine if the addition oflemon to cleaning products aids in actualcleaning or if the only reason it is aningredient is to increase sales (because mostpeople associate the scent of lemon withcleanliness).

Overview

Lemons and lemon juice have long been usedin cooking, drinks, and candies. But, walkdown the aisles of a supermarket today andyou’ll see many cleaning products that boastof containing lemon (or at least a lemonscent). Look at the advertising on the labelsof general-purpose liquid cleaners, showerand tub cleaners, dishwashing soap, glasscleaners, and shampoo. And, you’ll seemarketing phrases highlighting lemon, suchas “Lemon Fresh!” and “New Lemon Scent!”

The scent of lemon is a smell mostpeople psychologically associate with

Not Just LemonadeDetermining if the addition of lemon to cleaning

products is strictly for marketing purposes

Project 29


cleanliness and freshness. Manufacturershave capitalized on this fact, as is evidencedby their promotion of a lemon ingredient intheir advertising.

Is lemon added to household cleanersonly for marketing purposes or does lemonjuice actually have cleaning properties?

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that lemon juice is included asan ingredient in many cleaning products, notonly for its psychological association withcleanliness and freshness, but also because ithas true cleaning properties. (Or, you couldhypothesize the opposite, that the addition oflemon is solely for marketing purposes.)

Materials’ List

• Several fresh lemons

• Tarnished penny

• Tarnished piece of silverware (fork,spoon, bowl, and so forth)

• Use of a glass window (car or house)

• Use of a kitchen countertop

• Copper bottom pot

• Chrome surface

• Plastic item

• Dirty dinner dish

• Greasy pan bacon was fried in

• Kitchen strainer or small piece of screen

• Cup

• Old rag or washcloth

Procedure

Squeeze the juice from several lemonsthrough a small piece of screen or a kitchenstrainer into a cup. The strainer will keeppulp to a minimum.

Evaluate the effect of pure lemon juice asa cleaning agent on various surfaces byrubbing them with an old rag or washcloth.Surfaces to evaluate include a copper pennyor a copper bottom pot; a tarnished piece ofsilverware; a chrome surface, such as abathroom faucet; a kitchen countertop; a dirtydinner dish; a glass window in your home ora car windshield; and something made ofplastic (a child’s toy or a telephone). Try toclean as many different surfaces as you can.Do not, however, try to clean any valuable

118

Project 29: Not Just Lemonade

object, such as a wooden dining room tableor the upholstery of a living room couch. Youdo not want to run the risk of staining ordamaging any valued object. Lemon juice isacidic. Instead, use an old piece of fabric oran old discarded piece of furniture on whichto experiment. Also, when you take a shower,try lemon juice as a shampoo and a soap.Just be careful not to get it into your eyes.

Results

Write down the results of your experiment.Document the effect of lemon juice on eachsurface. Did it make the surface cleaner? Didit leave the surface sticky? Did it leave a filmon glass? Was it effective at dissolvinggrease?

Conclusion


119

Project 29: Not Just Lemonade

Something More

How many products (other than food-related products) can you find that havelemon or lemon scent as an additive?Soap? Laundry detergent? Car airfresheners? Spray starch for ironing?

121


• Chemistry

• Earth Science


Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to determine if rainwaterbecomes more acidic as it evaporates andconcentrates the contents that are left. Doesless water make more acidity?

Overview

One environmental concern today centers onthe damaging effects of acid rain. Acid rain isa term used to describe precipitation (rain,snow, hail, sleet, and fog) that has a low pH.The amount of alkalinity or acidity in a liquidis measured on a scale called the pH scale.The scale goes from zero to 14, with zerobeing the strongest acids, 7 neutral, and 14the most alkaline.

Because the Earth’s environment hasnatural sources of sulfur and nitrogen, it isnormal for rainwater to be slightly on theacidic side, having a pH of 5. But when the

Less Is MoreDetermining if pH increases as standing rainwater evaporates

Project 30


pH drops to 4, scientists consider this acidrain.

Scientists theorize that acid rain is causedby chemicals in the atmosphere, includingsulfur dioxide (produced by industriesburning oil and coal) and nitrogen oxide(which comes from automobile exhaust).Winds can carry these airborne chemicalsthousands of miles. Acid rain has beendiscovered in many areas around the world.

Acid rain attacks metal and stonestructures, and over a period of time candamage them. Most importantly, it can fallinto ponds, lakes, and other bodies of water,where it can make the water too acidic forthe animal and plant life to survive.

Does the acid in rainwater become evenmore concentrated as the water evaporates,thus worsening the effects of acid rain?

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that as rainwater evaporates, theconcentration of acidity increases (the pH ofthe remaining water decreases). Or,hypothesize the opposite to be true.

Materials’ List

• 6- or 8-ounce jar

• Large funnel

• Rainy day

• Large, shallow dinner dish

• Sunny window

• Litmus paper pH test kit with colorcomparator chart

Procedure

Using a 6- or 8-ounce jar or a drinking glass,collect about 5 or 6 ounces of rainwater on arainy day. Place a large funnel in the top toincrease the area of rainwater collection. Donot go outside to collect rainwater whenlightning is present!

If it doesn’t rain enough to fill your jar,put a lid on the jar or cover it with a tight-sealing piece of plastic wrap to preventevaporation. Then, the next time it rains, setout your collection jar and funnel again.

Indoors, place a large, shallow dinnerdish in an undisturbed area that, during sunnydays, receives a lot of warm sunlight. Pour asmuch rainwater into the dish as it will hold.

Using a pH test kit, determine the level ofacidity on the pH scale. Once a day, test the

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Project 30: Less Is More

pH level, and then write down the date andthe pH number. Continue testing daily untilall the water has evaporated.

Has the water become measurably moreacidic as it evaporated?

You may want to enhance your project byalso testing the pH of small areas in yourneighborhood daily, where rainwater collects:mud puddles, birdbaths, swales, depressionsat the base of downspouts, and similar places.

Results


Conclusion


123

Project 30: Less Is More

Something More

Acid rain can destroy plant and animallife living in bodies of water. Start a logof daily pH measurements of nearby lakesand ponds. In your daily log, includeinformation on rainfall that occurs (thedate and the inches of rain).

125




• Zoology

Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to try to find natural substancesthat will act as a pesticide that can be safelyused around the home.

Overview

Insect pests are something everyone mustdeal with around their home. Sour fliesaround fruit and ants in the kitchen can be anuisance. Hardware stores and supermarketssell chemical pesticides, often in aerosolbottles, to spray in your home. But, somepesticide chemicals have the potential ofbeing hazardous to our health. We want to becareful about using chemicals around theeating areas of our home, in rooms wherechildren play, and in our yards when wellwater supplies our home.

Natural FencesFinding natural pesticide substances

Project 31


Are there more natural substances wecould use to keep away common householdpests, such as flies, sour flies, and ants?Natural substances (lemon juice or tea, forexample) would not only be safer, but theyalso might smell better than a commercialpesticide product.

Hypothesis

Several hypotheses can be developed:

• Hypothesize that lemon juice can (orcan’t) be used as a natural deterrent forfruit flies.

• Hypothesize that grapefruit juice can (orcan’t) be used as a natural deterrent forfruit flies.

• Hypothesize that concentrated tea can (orcan’t) be used as a natural deterrent forfruit flies. (Also develop similarhypotheses about ants.)

Materials’ List

• Several lemons

• Several grapefruits

• Tea bags

• Three shallow bowls or dishes

• Drinking glass

• Several bananas

• Tea cup (or mug)

• Boiling water

• Three spray bottles

• Two paper coffee filters

• Funnel

• Microwave oven (or a tea kettle and useof a stove)

• Anthill

• Glass jar with lid

Procedure

Line a funnel with a paper coffee filter andset it in a drinking glass. Squeeze the juicefrom several lemons into the funnel filter.Remove the funnel filter and pour the juiceinto a shallow, wide dish or bowl. Let thejuice stand for a day or two to evaporatesome of the water and make a moreconcentrated solution.

In a similar way, squeeze the juice of agrapefruit through a funnel filter into adrinking glass. Then, pour into a shallow dishor bowl and allow the juice to evaporate for aday or two to make a more concentratedsolution.

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Project 31: Natural Fences

Make a cup of boiling water as youwould when you make a cup of tea, usingeither a microwave oven or a tea kettle on astove. Steep several tea bags in the hot water.Let cool. Then, pour the tea into a shallowdish or bowl and let some of the waterevaporate for a day or two to make aconcentrated solution.

Pour each of your three naturalinsecticide liquids in three spray bottles.

• Testing effectiveness against fruit flies.Fruit flies can often be seen hoveringaround a bowl of fruit. As fruit ripens,especially bananas, fruit flies can’t resistthem. Would spraying bananas with anatural substance such as grapefruit juice,lemon juice, or tea deter fruit flies?

Place several bananas in a bowl andallow them to ripen and draw fruit flies.When fruit flies appear, cut one of theripened bananas lengthwise in half, andthen cut each half lengthwise in halfagain, making four pieces of banana. Laythem out, side by side, and observe thebehavior of fruit flies around the pieces.

Spray one piece of banana with yourlemon concentrate, another with thegrapefruit concentrate, and another withthe tea concentrate. Leave the fourthpiece alone as a control.

Lay the pieces out again, but leavefour or five inches between each one.Observe the behavior of the fruit flies. Doany of the sprayed banana pieces appearto repel the flies?

• Testing effectiveness against ants. Locatean active anthill and capture several antsin a jar. On a board or outside onpavement, set down the jar. Remove thesprayer from the lemon-filled spray bottleand pour a six-inch diameter circlearound the jar. Open the jar of ants. Dothe ants cross the ring of lemon?

Repeat using the grapefruit juice, andthen the tea concentrate. To ensure thatthe ants are not simply responding to aliquid, lay a line of plain water in front ofthe ants to compare their behavior to yourinsecticides. Observe the behavior of theants.

Results


Conclusion


127


128


Something More

Try your natural insecticides(concentrated lemon juice, grapefruitjuice, and tea) with worms. Lay a line ofyour insecticide in front of a worm andobserve its behavior. Does it cross theline? To ensure that the worm is notsimply responding to a liquid, lay a lineof plain water in front of the worm tocompare its behavior to your insecticides.Are spiders affected by insecticides?

129



Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to determine if theaccumulation of life experiences by adultsenables them to be better able to identifysmells than young people.

Overview

Your nose receives a variety of smells eachday, and many different smells throughoutyour lifetime. Your mind often associates aspecific smell with a visual scene. The smellof seaweed may remind you of the sea, if youlive by or have visited a seashore. The smellof pine may make you think of the Christmasholiday, when a live tree was decorated inyour home. The aroma of baking cookiesmay remind you of being with yourgrandmother in her kitchen. The smell of ageranium may remind you of a plant in aneighbor’s window sill.

The Nose KnowsOlfactory identification differences by age

Project 32


These smells and their associations areimbedded in our minds as we go through lifeand enjoy many different experiences.Certain smells may not be identifiable toyoung people who have never experiencedthem. For example, the strong smell ofmothballs is easily identifiable by manyadults, but because much of our clothingtoday is made from synthetic materials, mothballs are not as popular as they once were.The smell of household lubricating oil maymake an older adult male think of playingwith an Erector construction toy set as achild. Burning leaves may remind an adult ofdiving into tall piles of raked leaves in thefall when they were little.

Smells play a very important part of ourlife experiences.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that when presented with agroup of common smells, a larger percentageof adults will be able to correctly identify thesmells than will those of a younger age.

Materials’ List

• Household oil

• Mothballs

• Leather product (such as a wallet)

• Cinnamon

• Clove

• Geranium plant

• Piece of cedar wood

• Pine tree branch

• Fresh-baked cookies

• Vanilla extract

• Ten adults to survey

• Ten young teenagers to survey

• Ten small jars with screw-on lids (such asbaby food jars)

• Black construction paper

• Adhesive tape

Procedure

Find ten small jars with lids. Cover the sidesof the jars with black construction paper,using adhesive tape, to prevent anyone fromseeing inside the jars.

Gather ten items that have distinctivesmells. Suggested items are given above inthe Materials’ List (mothballs, cinnamon, andso forth). Place a sample of each item in itsown jar and screw on the lid.

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Project 32: The Nose Knows

Expose ten adults and ten young teenagestudents to each of the smells. Have eachsubject close their eyes when they smell thesamples. Set up a log and keep a record ofthe number of items (and which items) eachsurveyed subject correctly identifies. Youmay want to later tabulate your results usinga computer spreadsheet program withgraphing capabilities.

Did a larger percentage of adults thanstudents correctly identify the sample items?

Results


Conclusion


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Project 32: The Nose Knows

Something More

1. Analyze the number of correctidentifications of each item by adults,and then by students. Did most adultscorrectly guess particular items, whilefew students could? This may be areflection on our changing society.Mothballs, as mentioned earlier, maynot be familiar to many students,because moth balls are not as commonas they once were in most households.

2. Compare your results by male andfemale subjects. Are certain itemsmore easily identified by specificgenders? For example, because moremales probably play the sport ofbaseball than females, hypothesizethat the smell of a new baseball glovemay be more familiar to males thanfemales.

3. Smells may cause memory recollectionbetter than images.

4. The nose continues to grow throughoutlife and beyond!

133


• Biochemistry

• Microbiology


Purpose or Problem

The purpose of this project is to determine ifbacteria exists on many commonly touchedpublic surfaces. If so, then it is important thatpeople are aware of the potential for bringing

infectious bacteria into their homes aftervisiting a public place.

Overview

Think about the many surfaces your handstouch each day, at home, school, work, thelibrary, and shopping malls. How many otherpeople have touched those same surfaces?Money, shopping-cart handles, door knobs,telephones, ATM keypads, escalatorhandrails, gym equipment, and hundreds ofother surfaces are touched by many differentpeople throughout each day. A research studydone by the University of Arizona examined

Germ JungleChecking for the presence

of bacteria on public surfaces

Project 33


more than 800 public surfaces in three states,and found the potential risk of bringingharmful bacteria into the home is alarminglyhigh.

Bringing bacteria into your home cancreate a health risk for you and your family.Federal health officials estimate that 80,000people die each year of infectious bacteria,making it the third leading cause of death inthe United States (after cancer and heart-related problems).

Once bacteria enter your home, it can bespread around quickly. A person cancontaminate and recontaminate frequentlytouched surfaces, such as refrigerator doorhandles, TV remote controls, and door knobs.That’s why it is extremely important to washyour hands when you return home from apublic place.

The results of this experiment should helpmake you, your family, and your friendsmore aware of the importance of washingyour hands after visiting a public place, and

encourage you to use household disinfectant-cleaning products around kitchens andbathrooms.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that the presence of bacteria willbe found on many publicly touched surfaces,posing a potential health hazard to those whocome in contact with those surfaces.

Materials’ List

• Box of cotton swabs

• Eleven petri dishes

• Agar

• Masking tape

• Visit to a public shopping center or mall

• Pen and paper


Procedure

Collect 11 petri dishes and line the inside ofthem with agar. Your high-school scienceteacher may be able to supply you with theseitems. A petri dish is a shallow, round,transparent dish with an overlapping cover.Agar is a gelatin substance that is a food, or“culture,” in which bacteria can be grown.Place a small piece of masking tape on thecover of each petri dish; the tape will be usedas a label on which to write and identify thecontents.

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Project 33: Germ Jungle

Shopping carthandles

ATM keypads

Money

Telephonemouthpieces

Door knobs

Open a new, sealed package of cottonswabs. As a control, wipe the swab in a petridish with agar. On the masking tape on thecover, write, “cotton swap straight from thebox.” If no bacteria grows in this dish, wecan safely assume the swabs are clean, andthey are not introducing any bacteria into theother petri dishes.

Visit a busy shopping center. Identify tenhighly touched surfaces, including themouthpiece of a public telephone, doorhandles, ATM keypads, and other surfacesthat you observe are being touched frequently.

For each item, use a cotton swab to wipethe surface. Then, wipe the swab into theagar. Dispose of the swab. Wrap a piece ofmasking tape around the petri dish, securingthe lid to the bottom. On the dish’s masking-tape label, write the name of the surface fromwhich the sample was taken (ATM keypad,door handle, and so on).

When you arrive home, place all 11 petridishes in a location that is out of the way, butthat will remain at room temperature. Thepetri dish and agar make optimum growingconditions for bacteria. The agar givesbacteria food and proper moisture, andnothing will disturb or interfere with thebacteria’s growth.

Make daily observations and keep a logfor all the samples. Bacteria are too small tosee, even with a standard microscope. But, ifbacteria are present, you will eventuallyobserve a large colony of growth on the agar.

It is important to realize that you aregrowing bacteria, which may pose a healthhazard. Therefore, when this project iscompleted, keep the petri dishes sealed and

dispose of them in the trash. Never openthe petri dishes once they are sealed!

Results

Write down the results of your experiment.Document all observations and data collected.

Conclusion


135

Project 33: Germ Jungle

Something More

1. Check the effectiveness of thehousehold disinfectant cleaners. Usingcotton swabs, wipe different surfacesin your kitchen and bathroom areas,and then transfer the swabs to agar inpetri dishes. Then, use a commonhousehold disinfectant cleaner to wipethe same surfaces. Again, use cottonswabs to wipe the surfaces, andtransfer them to petri dishes. Comparethe growth in the petri dishes.

2. If you live near a university, you maybe able to make contact with someonewho would allow you to use theirelectron microscope to identify thebacteria you have collected fromvarious public surfaces. Unfortunately,bacteria are too small to be identifiedusing an ordinary microscope.

137



Purpose or Problem

The purpose of this project is to determine ifa behavioral difference exists between high-school male and female students regardingtheir attitude toward following instructions.

Overview

The Christmas holiday (or your birthday) isapproaching, and a wrapped present withyour name on it is sitting on the kitchentable. Can you resist shaking it and trying todetermine its contents? Would you try tounwrap it just enough to peek inside, andthen tape it back up again? Or, do you havethe willpower and strong character to resistthe temptation?

If a box labeled “Do Not Open” is placedin your school’s cafeteria or another high-traffic area, do you think some students willopen it? Do you think more males than

Not ’til ChristmasDetermining adherence to instructions by gender

Project 34


females will open it? What do you thinkwould motivate those students to open it:Curiosity? A lack of willpower? A tendencynot to heed advice or to be defiant?

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that a larger percentage of high-school male students will attempt to open abox labeled “Do Not Open” than females (orhypothesize just the opposite).

Materials’ List

• Plywood

• Framing pieces of 1�2 lumber

• Small wood screws

• Two small hinges

• Cabinet handle


• Marker pens

• Adhesive tape (or glue)

• Camcorder (or video tape recorder withcamera)

• Use of a saw (have adult supervision ifa power saw is used)

• Permission to set up your project in theschool cafeteria during lunch

• Possible adult supervision, if needed

Procedure

Using plywood for the sides and 1�2 orsimilar framing pieces of lumber, construct abox about one-foot square in size. The topside of the box must be hinged with a handle,so it can be opened. We want the box to looklike it is very easy to open by simply lifting ahandle.

With a large marking pen and paper (oruse a computer and printer), print “Do NotOpen” in big letters on the paper, and tape(or glue) it to the top of the box.

On another piece of paper, write “Pleasedo not tell anyone what you saw inside thisbox” and place that paper inside the box atthe bottom.

Get permission to set the box in aprominent place in the school cafeteriaduring lunch. The location should be wherenearly everyone must pass by the box.

At a safe distance away, set up acamcorder or a camera with a video taperecorder, so you can record students withouttheir knowledge as they are standing at thebox. Turn the recorder on and let it runthroughout the lunch period.

138

Project 34: Not ’til Christmas

DO NOT OPEN

Later, use the video tape to total thenumber of males who approached the boxand read the sign, and the number of femaleswho approached and read the box. Also, logthe number of males who opened the lid andthe number of females who opened the lid.

Calculate the percentage of males whoopened the lid. Divide the number of malestudents who lifted the lid by the totalnumber of males who approached and readthe sign. Then, multiply this answer by 100(to arrive at the percent). Similarly, computethe percent for female students.

Results


Conclusion


139

Project 34: Not ’til Christmas

Something More

1. Survey the students who opened thebox and ask if they can explain whythey disobeyed the sign.

2. Hypothesize that adult teachers andstaff will show greater regard forinstructions and won’t open the box,and they will have a lower percentageof “openers.”

141


• Botany

• Earth & Space


• Physics

Purpose or Problem

The purpose of this project is to determine ifroots and stems that grow out fromgerminating seeds are affected by an

additional force perpendicular to the Earth’sgravity.

Overview

Scientists are working on ways to grow foodin space, as this will be very important ifpeople are eventually to live on space stationsfor extended periods of time. One type ofstudy that has been going on for years ishydroponics, which is growing plants withwater, air, and nutrients, but no soil.

We have seen Hollywood science-fictionmovies and TV shows depicting huge spacestations that are rotating to make an artificial

Space FarmThe effect of artificial gravity on radish-seed germination

Project 35


gravity inside. This is similar to the force thatholds water in a pail when it is upside downas you swing it around with your arm or on arope.

Normally, when a seed germinates, astem grows skyward and a root extends downinto the ground. Why? Is the root seekingwater? Is gravity the factor that determinesthe direction of the sprouts? This may beimportant to know in the future as our questfor living in space becomes closer to reality.

Obviously, we will not be able to removethe effect of the Earth’s gravity. Ourexperiment will determine if the spinningturntable exerts enough force in a differentdirection to act as an artificial gravity.Geotropism is the response of a plant togravity.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that seeds planted while beingspun on a record player turntable at 33 RPMswill germinate, and their roots and stems willgrow parallel with the Earth, rather thanperpendicular as they normally would.

Materials’ List

• Record player turntable

• One package of radish seeds

• Five small plastic drinking cups (about 5 ounces)

• Sheet of stiff cardboard or poster board

• Paper glue

• Potting soil

• Water

• Eyedropper

• Scissors

• 15 days of time

Procedure

LP (long-playing) record albums are 12inches in diameter. Cut a 12-inch diametercircle from a piece of stiff cardboard or asheet of poster board. With a pencil point orscissors, poke a hole in the exact center ofthe board, so it will slide down over aturntable’s spindle.

Pour potting soil into five small plasticdrinking cups, to a depth of one inch.Moisten the soil with water, but do not flood it.

Push one radish seed into the soil in eachof four plastic cups. In the fifth cup, pushthree or four seeds. The fifth cup is ourcontrol cup, which will prove that the seedsin the pack and the growing environment areviable. Set this fifth cup aside in an out-of-the-way area in the room where your projectwill be placed.

Push the cardboard disc over the spindleand down onto the platter of a record playerturntable. Be sure the disc moves when theturntable is spinning, and that the disc’s holeis not too tight around the spindle.

At four opposite “sides” of the cardboardcircle, place a few drops of glue (at 12, 3, 6,and 9 o’clock positions). Set a cup on eachspot of glue. Let dry several hours.

142

Project 35: Space Farm

Power up the turntable, setting it at aspeed of 33 RPMs (revolutions per minute).Daily, add water equally to all five cups tokeep the soil slightly moist. You may want touse an eyedropper to ensure an equal quantityof water is added to all cups. The turntablemust run continually, except when you’readding water or making observations.

Make observations daily for 15 days, andwrite down your observations. Did the seedsgerminate? If so, which direction (relative tothe Earth’s surface) did the roots grow?Which direction did the stems grow?

Results


Conclusion


143

Project 35: Space Farm

Something More

1. If the seeds germinated, did the stemsgrow toward the turntable’s spindleand the roots away from it?

2. Set the turntable to 45 RPMs andrepeat the experiment. The higherturntable speed will exert more forceon the seeds. Compare the results ofseed germination at 33 RPMs and 45 RPMs.

145


• Engineering

• Physics


Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to determine if the temperatureof an object can be cooled more byevaporating alcohol surrounding it than bywater or air.

Overview

The process of evaporation produces acooling effect. Pour a few drops of wateronto the back of your hand. Next, swing yourarm back and forth. Do you feel your skingetting cooler?

Now pour a few drops of alcohol onto theback of your hand and swing your arm again.Does your skin feel even cooler?

Alcohol evaporates faster than water and,thus, creates a cooler temperature. Whenchildren run dangerously high fevers, doctorssometimes give them a bath in alcohol to

Cooled OffComparison study between the cooling effect

of evaporating water and alcohol

Project 36


reduce their external temperature, which, inturn, reduces their internal temperature.

How much change in temperature occursbetween alcohol and water evaporation?

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that a greater percent change intemperature will take place when alcohol isevaporated rapidly than when water isevaporated.

Materials’ List

• Two-foot-square piece of plywood

• Several pieces of 1�2 lumber

• Wood screws

• Saw

• Screwdriver

• Three thermometers

• Duct tape or adhesive tape

• Six thumbtacks

• Old T-shirt or flannel shirt

• Alcohol

• Water

• Electric fan

Procedure

Mount three thermometers side-by-side ontoa piece of two-foot-square plywood, usingadhesive tape or duct tape. Do not covereither the thermometer’s bulb or the area onthe scale around the 70°F mark. The boardneeds to stand vertically, so using a fewpieces of small 1�1 or 1�2 lumber andwood screws, construct support struts ontothe plywood to enable it to stand upright.

Cut three identical four-inch squares in apiece of an old T-shirt or flannel shirt. Foldeach in half, and then fold in half again. Slipa piece of cloth over the bulb of eachthermometer. Use thumbtacks to hold thecloths in place, pushing one thumbtack oneither side of each bulb through the cloth andinto the board.

Set the thermometers on a table. Place anelectric fan in front of the thermometers,positioning the fan so a high volume ofmoving air hits the bulbs.

146

Project 36: Cooled Off

Thermometers Duct tape

Cloth Thumbtacks

Let the thermometers sit for ten minutesto stabilize at room temperature. Label eachthermometer A, B, and C. Write down thetemperature reading on each thermometer. Itdoes not matter if they are not preciselycalibrated, and they do not all need to haveexactly the same temperature.

Soak the cloth around thermometer A’sbulb with rubbing alcohol. Soak the clotharound thermometer B’s bulb with water.Leave C dry.

Turn on the fan. Monitor the threetemperatures for several minutes. Record thelowest temperature reading on eachthermometer.

Calculate the percent change intemperature of each thermometer. Percentchange is calculated by subtracting the lowesttemperature reading from the room-temperature reading, dividing that answer bythe original room temperature reading, andthen multiplying by 100 (to put the answer inpercent). For example, if a thermometer reads72°F at room temperature, and then drops to68°F during the experiment:

72°F � 68°F � 4°F

(4/72) � 100 � 5.56%

Did the alcohol-soaked bulb drop thelowest? Why doesn’t it matter whether all thethermometers were calibrated to read exactlythe same at room temperature?

Results


Conclusion


147

Project 36: Cooled OffSomething More

1. Does the velocity of the moving airaffect the temperature of evaporation?Repeat the experiment, once with thefan on its lowest setting, and thenonce on its highest setting. Graphyour results, drawing them on graphpaper or using a computer spreadsheetprogram that prints graphs fromentered data.

2. In an environment where humidity ishigh, will the evaporation of alcoholand water still result in a coolingeffect? Repeat the experiment in asteamy environment.

3. How does the fact that evaporationcauses a cooling effect relate to wind-chill factor?

4. How do air conditioners work?

149



• Microbiology

• Health & Medicine

Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to study the capability ofcommon bread mold to be transferredthrough the air and contaminate other foods.

Overview

Have you ever opened the refrigerator to findan old, leftover food that had mold growingon it? Have you ever opened a loaf of breadthat has been in the bread box for a long timeand seen green mold spreading over it?

Mold growth is quite common, but manypeople are very allergic to mold. It mayaggravate allergies or respiratory problems.

Can bread mold become airborne and,therefore, become a health hazard?

Pass the MoldA study on the capability of common bread mold

to be transferred from one food to another

Project 37


Hypothesis

Hypothesize that common bread mold can betransferred by air to contaminate other foods.(You may also choose to hypothesize thatmold does not become airborne.)

Materials’ List

• Fresh bakery bread

• Orange

• Banana

• Sealable plastic food bags

• Eyedropper

• Water

Procedure

Grow bread mold on three slices of bread.You will need bread that does not contain“mold inhibitors,” which are ingredients inmost store-bought bread. Try bread from alocal bakery and ask if it contains moldinhibitors, or try a piece of rye bread, whichmolds more easily.

Using an eyedropper, place 15 drops ofwater on each slice of bread. Place the breadin sealable plastic-food wrap bags.

Let the bags sit for several days until alarge amount of mold grows on them. Once alarge amount of mold has grown on the threeslices of bread, proceed. If you are sensitiveto mold or have allergies, wear a maskwhen you do the next step. Paper filter

masks are available at the hardware store oryour local pharmacy.

Take two other slices of fresh bread. Add15 drops of water to each slice. Place one ina sealable plastic bag. This will be the controlslice.

Remove one of the slices of moldy breadfrom its bag. Hold it over the other slice offresh bread and shake it vigorously. Place thefresh bread in a sealable plastic bag as acontrol. Put the mold-covered bread back intothe bag, seal it, and discard it in the trash.

Cut an orange in half. Place one-half in asealable plastic bag as a control. Shake apiece of moldy bread over the other half ofthe orange. Place the moldy bread back in itsbag and discard it in the trash. Place theorange half in a plastic bag.

Peel a banana, and cut it in halflengthwise. Place one half in a sealableplastic bag as a control. Shake a piece ofmoldy bread over the other half. Place themoldy bread back in its bag and discard it inthe trash.

150

Project 37: Pass the Mold

Monitor the slices of bread, orange, andbanana for several days. Does mold form onthem? If so, does it form faster or in moreabundance on the food over which the moldyslices of bread were shaken?

Results


Conclusion


151

Project 37: Pass the Mold

Something More

Try shaking a piece of moldy bread overother food substances, such as flour andcorn starch. Add moisture and place insealable containers. Does mold grow?

153


• Botany


• Microbiology

Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to discover whether bracketfungi are parasites or saprophytes.

Overview

“Bracket” or “shelf” fungi can be found inwooded areas growing on the sides of trees,fashioning themselves as little shelves, perhapsfor elves! Fungi do not photosynthesize, as do other plants. They get their nourishmentfrom a host they live on. If a plant gets itsnourishment from a host organism that is deadand decaying, it is called a saprophyte. If thehost is a living organism, the feeding plant iscalled a parasite.

Hardwood CaféDetermining if bracket fungi

are parasites or saprophytes

Project 38


Are bracket fungi saprophytes, parasites,or both?

Trees have tiny tubes that transport water,nutrients, and waste throughout their system.These tubes are called xylem (which transportwastes) and phloem (which transport food).Trees grow from the outer layer just beneaththe bark. The bark is not living. Our projectis to locate bracket fungi and carefully chipaway at the bark of the host tree and see ifany “roots” or threadlike structures penetratethrough the bark and into the live layer of thetree. If this is the case, then bracket fungi ismost likely a parasite. If not, it is most likelya saprophyte.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that bracket fungi aresaprophytes (or hypothesize that they areparasites, or that they are found on both liveand dead trees).

Materials’ List

• Wooded area

• Chisel

Procedure

In a forest or wooded area, locate trees onwhich bracket fungi are growing. Using achisel, carefully pry pieces of bark off thetree around the bracket fungi. Try todetermine if any part of the fungi extendsthrough the bark and into the soft, live layerof the tree. To avoid injuring the tree, do notremove too much bark.

Results


Conclusion


154

Project 38: Hardwood Café

155

Project 38: Hardwood Café

Something More

Carefully search through a large area inthe forest, noting any presence of bracketfungi. Are the trees where you find thefungi dead or alive, or do you find themon both dead and live trees?

157



• Engineering (Software/CommunicationsEngineering)


Purpose or Problem

The problem is finding specific informationamong the vast data available on the Internet.

Overview

The invention of the Internet has become oneof the most life-changing and society-changing tools of our lifetime. Anyone whoneeds to do research or who requiresinformation on a particular subject has accessto a wealth of data and up-to-the-minutenews and published research on that subject.

The problem is this: Since the Internet isso vast, how do you search through all theinformation to uncover the data that is ofinterest to you?

An Internet search engine is a softwareprogram used to look constantly through the

Web CrawlersDetermining the effectiveness of various

Internet search engines

Project 39


entire World Wide Web (the Web) and itindexes all the sites found there. The engineutilizes indexing software, sometimesreferred to as robots, bots, or spiders. Thesespiders and bots “crawl” around the Weblooking for new or updated pages. Theytravel from address to address, known asUniform Resource Locators (URLs), untilthey have visited every site on the Web.

This is a monumental task, though, evenfor computer software working atfantastically high speeds. Because of thehuge number of sites, it may take a long timefor spiders and bots to get to every site.Therefore, it is possible for one search engineto give you different results than another.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that when searching for aparticular subject on the Internet, differentsearch engines will yield different results.Therefore, to thoroughly scan the Internetdatabase for specific information, you shouldalways use more than one search engine.

Materials’ List

• Computer connected to the Internet

Procedure

Make a list of a dozen specific subjects(perhaps a certain type of bacteria or a typeof unusual plant). With a computer connectedto the Internet, use various search engines tosearch for that topic. Write down how manyreferences each engine found. Then, look ateach site that is referenced, and count howmany are relevant and how many do notapply to your topic.

For example, a popular term for one stockmarket strategy is “rolling stock.” Rollingstock identifies a stock whose price isfluctuating up and down in a narrow range,enabling a stock market trader to buy thestock when it is at the low part of its range,and then sell it when it rolls up to aresistance price. However, if you use searchengines to look for rolling stock, the resultswill also include links to the railroadindustry, because that term is used to meantransporting cattle by rail.

Popular search engines include Google,Ask Jeeves, Excite, Infoseek, Lycos, AltaVista, Webcrawler, and Yahoo!.

158

Project 39: Web Crawlers

Did different search engines give differentresults? Which search engine produced themost consistently relevant results?

Results


Conclusion


159

Project 39: Web Crawlers

Something More

Technically, some of the software we useto search the Web is not truly a searchengine, but rather a “directory.” A truesearch engine only needs the address of aweb site. Then, an indexing agent (like aspider) does the rest. A directory requiresthe owner of a web site to provide thedirectory with a list of categories underwhich the site should be catalogued.Excite, Infoseek, Lycos, Alta Vista, andWebcrawler are example of searchengines. Yahoo! is an example of adirectory, just as The Yellow Pages inyour telephone book is an example of adirectory. Compare the results ofsearching for a subject using a searchengine and a directory.

161


• Botany


Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to see if a plant’s naturalbiological rhythms are upset (as evidenced byan observable change in the plant) whennormal daylight and dark nighttime periodsare reversed.

Overview

Are you tired at 3 A.M., and wide awake withlots of energy at 3 P.M.? Our bodies have anatural pattern of sleep and waking times.Have you ever tried to switch your sleep/waketime, so you are awake in the night and sleepin the day? Certain jobs, such as factory orpolice swing-shift workers, have alternatingday/night work schedules. People who travelto foreign countries often suffer jet lag, astheir bodies’ “circadian rhythms” are upset bythe different times of sunlight and eatingmeals. Jet lag can cause many problems,including fatigue, cloudy thinking, andirritability.

Night WatchCircadian rhythms: Training a house plant

to be awake at night

Project 40


Plants, animals, and people have dailybiological rhythms. As far back as the fourthcentury BC, the scribe of Alexander theGreat, Androsthenes, observed that the leavesof certain trees opened during the day andclosed at night. Leaves of the heliotrope planthave a similar action, as do day lilies. Beesvisit flowers at specific times of the day.Rhythms in other animals are also now wellknown.

Just as people need a period of rest atsome time during a day/night cycle, so doplants. If we change the time of day a plant isexposed to light, will that result in anoticeable effect on its growth or health?

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that changing the time of lightand dark during a 24-hour period will causean observable effect on a plant within aneight-week period. Observable effects includegrowth, color, size, turgor, and generalhealthy appearance. (You may want tohypothesize that no noticeable effects willoccur.)

Materials’ List

• Nine equally healthy house plants

• Two dark closets

• Two plant grow light bulbs


• Eight weeks of time

Procedure

Obtain nine equally healthy, identical typesof house plants. Obtain two equal wattageplant grow lights, available at your localnursery or garden center. These indoor lightssupply the proper wavelengths of light togrow plants without sunlight. Locate twoclosets that are on the same floor in yourhome. They must have doors on them, sowhen the doors are closed, the closets arecompletely dark.

Place three plants in each closet. Place aplant grow light in each closet. Set the threeother plants in an out-of-the-way area in aliving room or dining room, where they willreceive ample light, but not be in directsunlight from a window. The plants in theliving room will receive normal light duringdaylight hours and normal darkness in theroom at night.

162

Project 40: Night Watch

For the plants in one closet, turn the plantlight on from 8 A.M. to 8 P.M. daily, leavingthem in the dark during the evening.

In the other closet, turn the plant light onfrom 8 P.M. to 8 A.M., so the plants are in thedark during the day, but receive light duringthe night.

Monitor the plants for eight weeks. Whenyou water the plants, use a kitchen measuringcup, so you give an equal amount of water toeach of the nine plants. Keep the soil moist,but not drenched. Another constant—temperature—is assumed to be about equal inthe closets and living room.

Results


Conclusion


163

Project 40: Night Watch

Something More

1. Deprive a plant of a rest period.Compare a plant that gets a normalamount of light during the day anddark at night to a plant that receivesconstant light and is never allowed arest cycle. Observe the appearances ofthe plants after eight weeks underthese conditions. Use at least fourplants, two under each condition.

2. Experiment with plants thatdemonstrate a very visible biologicalrhythm (for example, day lilies andmorning glories).

165



• Environmental

• Zoology

Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to see if temperature affectsthe chirping activity of crickets.

Overview

On warm nights in the spring or summer, inquiet wooded areas, the sound of chirpingcrickets fills the air. Do the number of chirpsincrease as the temperature increases? Doyou recall ever hearing crickets on coldevenings? Is there a cool temperature belowwhich crickets will not chirp? If so, you canget an idea of the outdoor temperature bylistening to the sound (or the absence ofsound) of chirping crickets.

Time for the ConcertA study of the effect of temperature

on the chirping of crickets

Project 41


Hypothesis

Hypothesize that temperature has an effect onthe chirping sound made by crickets.

Materials’ List

• Several common house crickets

• Pet “critter cage,” empty aquarium tank,or similar container

• Pet heat rock

• Thermometer

• Ice cubes

• Sealable plastic food bags

• Tape recorder


Procedure

Obtain several common household crickets.They can usually be purchased at local petshops, because they are used as feeders (foodfor larger pets). Place the crickets in acontainer with solid, clear sides. “Crittercages,” used for snails, or empty aquariumtanks have the kind of sides you want. Youmay want to make your crickets morecomfortable by introducing food and a waterdish into the container. Check with your petshop personnel for assistance.

Place a thermometer in the container withthe crickets. Record the current temperatureand make note as to whether or not thecrickets are chirping.

Raise the temperature by placing a heatrock in the container. Heat rocks are availableat pet shops, and they are used for manyreptiles, such as lizards and iguanas. Recordthe temperature as it increases. Use a taperecorder to record the chirping sounds. Talkinto the microphone, announcing thetemperature as each degree changes.

Next, lower the temperature in thecontainer by removing the heat rock andplacing sealable plastic food bags filled withice cubes into the container. Continue tomonitor the temperature and record thesounds.

If your crickets do not chirp, could it bethey are nocturnal? Are the crickets waitingfor evening or for the sky to get dark?

Is there a temperature below which thecrickets are silent? Do crickets chirp louderor with an increased number of chirps as thetemperature increases? Use the tape recorderto compare sounds made at differenttemperatures.

166

Project 41: Time for the Concert

Results


Conclusion


167

Project 41: Time for the Concert

Something More

Grasshoppers are said to chirp loudest at95°F and are unable to chirp when thetemperature falls below 62°F, unable tofly below 45°F, and unable to jump below36°F. Conduct an experiment to see ifthese statements can be supported by yourexperimental data.

169



• Zoology

Purpose or Problem

The problem is that people who enjoyoutdoor picnics are often plagued by insectpests, including flying insects, as well as antsand other crawling creatures. The purpose ofthis project is to do a study on popular brands

of soft drinks regarding their attractiveness topicnic pests.

Overview

Along with the great outdoors comes a greatabundance of picnic pests, that is, insects andbugs, that can take some of the enjoymentout of a day by the pool or a backyard picnic.

We noticed that when we throw emptysoda (soft drink) cans in our recycle trash can(which does not have a lid), bee-like flyinginsects appear, flying around the cans. Theyare not present when other types of jars andcans are discarded. Is something in soda that

Flying, Walking, CrawlingNatural bait to keep pests at bay during picnics

Project 42


is attractive to these insects? Could soda alsobe attractive to other types of pests? If so,soda could be poured out in pie pans andplaced at various points around the perimeterof a backyard, hopefully, to act as bait andkeep pests away from people in the yard.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that one or more brands of sodawill be attractive to flying-insect pests. Youmay also hypothesize that whatever brand ofsoda is attractive to one type of insect willalso be attractive to other types of insects.

Materials’ List

• Warm day

• Seven different types of soda

• Seven pie pans

• Use of a backyard

• Picnic table

Procedure

On a warm day, when mosquitoes or otherflying insects are present in a backyard, setseven pie pans on a picnic table. Disposablealuminum pie pans can be used, but if theyhave holes in the bottom, line them withtinfoil to make them watertight.

Purchase a selection of seven differenttypes of soda. Include a mixture of darkcolored, clear, diet, and different flavors

(cola, root beer, orange). Pour one type ofsoda into each pie pan.

Monitor the pans for several hours.Observe any insects that appear to be“hanging around” the pans. Make notes onwhich pans are visited the most. See if anyinsects are floating in the soda.

If few insects visit your pans, repeat theexperiment in the early evening before theSun sets. The cooler temperature of eveningmay bring more insects out of hiding.

Did any of the soda pans attract visitors?Did one type attract more than another? If so,what do you think caused the attraction(color, flavor, type of sugar—diet/regular—and so forth)?

Pick up a field guide on local insects at abook shop or the library, and try to identifyany insects you see.

170

Project 42: Flying, Walking, Crawling

Results


Conclusion


171

Project 42: Flying, Walking, Crawling

Something More

1. If the soda-filled pie pans are placedon the ground, will they also act asbait to deter crawling pests (ants,crickets, and so forth) from a picnicblanket you place on the ground?

2. Repeat the project in the late evening,when nocturnal pests are active. Aremore pests found around the sodapans at night than during the day? Arethey different types of insects?

173




Purpose or Problem

New technology is invading our lives at anever-increasing rate. While many people findnew technology exciting and can’t wait to getinvolved in it, some people may feel intimidatedby it, or feel that it only complicates their livesand puts more stress on them.

Overview

The technological advances we have seen,especially in the last few decades, havechanged the way we do many things. TheInternet as a source for news, entertainment,research, buying goods, and stock markettrading has revolutionized the homecomputer. The computer itself has changedthe way many of us work and play. VCRs,cellular phones, ATM bank machines, e-mail,and a host of other new inventions have madeour work and pleasure time easier and moreenjoyable.

High-Tech TimesA study of the willingness of people in different

age groups to adapt to new technology

Project 43


But, maybe not everyone believes theseinventions are so wonderful. Do you thinkolder people may be more resistant totechnology, wanting to do things the waythey have always done them? Perhaps theylike doing things the way they arecomfortable with, or perhaps they areconfused by new technology.

Many inventions have taken place in thelast few years that we take for granted. Forexample, if you watch reruns of the originalStar Trek episodes on TV, you are familiarwith the automatic opening of doors aspeople approached them. Today, we don’tgive a second thought to doors opening bythemselves as we walk into a departmentstore or a supermarket!

This project will conduct a survey ofdifferent age groups and ask them about theiruse of new technology. This study will giveinsight into how people of different ages arecoping with these changes in society.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that when people of differentage groups are surveyed about their use ofnew technology, a greater percentage ofyounger people will answer “Yes” to theiruse of it than will older people.

Materials’ List


• 20 people between the ages of 16 and 30

• 20 people between the ages of 31 and 49

• 20 people over age 50

Procedure

Create a short list of questions to ask in asurvey about the use of new technology. Thesurvey should be similar to the followingexample.

Answer Yes or No to these questions:

1. Do you own a personal computer?

2. Do you use e-mail regularly?

3. Do you bank online?

4. Do you know how to program and set thetime on your VCR?

5. Do you have a cellular phone?

6. Do you use a bank ATM machine?

174

Project 43: High-Tech Times

If you can’t get 20 people in each groupto participate in the survey, get as many asyou can. Calculate the percentage of peoplewho answered Yes to each question in eachgroup. For example, suppose 15 out of 20people surveyed in the first group answeredYes. Divide the number of Yes answers bythe total number of people, and then multiplyby 100 to get the percent:

(15/20) � 100 = 75%

Results


Conclusion


175

Project 43: High-Tech Times

Something More

Were there any questions in which agreater number of older people had ahigher percentage of Yes answers?

177


• Behaviorial & Social


Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to determine if there is moreadvertising content per hour during the daythan during an hour of evening prime-timeviewing (8 P.M. to 11 P.M.).

Overview

Advertising is important. Commercialsinform us of sales and new products that maybe of help or enjoyment to us. Ads can alsolet us know how to save money. Nevertheless,sometimes TV advertising seems to take up alarge portion of the hour compared toprogram content time. On average, is thepercentage of commercial-to-program contenthigher during the day than compared to thenight? And is that average consistent amongthe various channels?

Commercial TVA comparison of programming to advertising content

Project 44


Hypothesis

Hypothesize that more TV commercials arerun per hour in the daytime than in theevening.

Materials’ List

• Stop watch or a watch with a secondhand

• VCR with blank video tape

• TV with cable-channel accessibility

Procedure

Collect data on the amount of commercial(advertising) time during a typical hour ofdaytime programming (2 P.M. to 3 P.M., forexample) and a typical hour of prime time (8 P.M. to 9 P.M., for example). Collect thisdata over a five-day period, Monday throughFriday. Add the data and divide by five tofind a daily average.

If you are not home during the day, use aVCR with a timer set to record from 2 P.M. to3 P.M. Then, when you get home in theevening, you can watch the program andcollect your data.

Because some channels are only seenover cable, and some channels are alsobroadcast over the airways, data must becollected on both and averaged together.Collect data (day and night) for a cablechannel (Discovery Channel, the LearningChannel, CNN Headline News, and so forth),and one for an over-the-air station (ABC,NBC, CBS). Average the results together.

Graph your results for presentation, usinga computer program.

Results


Conclusion


178

Project 44: Commercial TV

179

Project 44: Commercial TV

Something More

1. What is the average length of time ofa commercial spot (15, 30, or 60seconds)? Compare the ad-timelengths during the day, the evening,and between cable channels and thebig over-the-air networks (ABC,NBC, and CBS).

2. Can you think of ways to use the timeduring commercial breaks, other thangoing to the kitchen for a snack? Agallon water jug could be filled (orpartially filled to weigh less) to beused during commercials as adumbbell for getting mild exerciseduring commercials.

3. The data you collected is baselinedata, which someone could use five orten years from now in a comparison.Can you find out if someone gatheredthis data ten years ago? If so, compareit to your data.

181


• Earth & Space

• Physics

Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to prove that temperature isnot a factor in determining if a location isacceptable for solar-energy applications.

Overview

Making use of energy from the Sun has manyimportant benefits. Solar energy is a clean,renewable, and free source of fuel. It can beused to generate electricity and make hotwater for our homes. Solar panels can bemounted on the roof of a home to assist insupplying hot water for the family, thusreducing the home’s hot water utility bill.

Do solar panels only work for homeslocated in warm or hot climates? No.Temperature is not a factor, as this projectwill prove. If you live in a part of the countrywhere it is cold in the winter, think about

Sold on SolarThe temperature in a climate as it relates to the

amount of possible usable sunlight

Project 45


sitting at a table next to a bright, sunnywindow. You can feel heat on your body.Think about getting into a car on a sunny,cool day. The car’s interior is warmer thanthe weather outside. Think about how cold itis in the Arctic, yet it is a very sunny region.

Hypothesis

Hypothesize that temperature is not a factorin the amount of usable sunlight that can begathered in an area needed for solar-energyapplications.

Materials’ List

• Photovoltaic cell

• DC voltmeters with a millivolt scale

• Thermometer

• A day when the temperature is muchcolder outdoors than inside

• Daily newspaper or almanac with thetimes of sunrise and sunset

• Pencil

Procedure

Connect a DC (direct current) voltmeter witha millivolt scale across the leads (wires)extending from a solar cell. Small solar cellsare available at local hobby shops andelectronic parts chains. Be aware that theoutput of the solar cell has a polarity; it has

a plus (+) and a minus (–) terminal. Be sureto wrap the bare end of the plus lead of thesolar cell to the plus test probe on thevoltmeter.

On a cold day, set the solar cell andvoltmeter outside in an unobstructed areathat is exposed to direct sunlight. Set athermometer next to it. Wait several minutesfor the thermometer to adjust to thetemperature. Record the voltage indicated onthe voltmeter and the temperature on thethermometer.

Move the solar cell, voltmeter, andthermometer indoors, and place them in asunny window. Wait a few minutes to allowthe thermometer to adjust to the indoortemperature. Record the voltage andthermometer readings. What is the differencein temperature? While there was a bigdifference in temperature, was there asignificant difference in voltage?

Another factor in determining if alocation is favorable for the installation ofsolar panels is the amount of possible dailysunshine. Use the formula:

182

Project 45: Sold on Solar

VOLTMETER

The “total minutes of actual daylight” canbe found in your daily newspaper by findingthe time of sunrise and sunset, and thencalculating the time difference between themand converting that time to all minutes. The“minutes of the day the Sun could cast ashadow” can be determined by taking apencil or another object outside just aftersunrise and holding it a few inches above theground. When a clear and discernible shadowcan be seen, record the time. Similarly, assunset approaches, record the time when ashadow is no longer discernible. Subtract thetwo times to find the minutes of strongsunshine. Then, compute the percent ofpossible sunshine by dividing shadow timeby total daylight time.

Results


Conclusion


183

Project 45: Sold on Solar

minutes of the day the Sun could cast a shadowpercent of possible sunshine = ————————————————————

total minutes of actual daylight

Something More

1. If you have a relative who lives a fardistance (in another state) from you,ask them if they would do the sameexperiment as you just did. Comparetheir results to yours.

2. Does the glass in a window blocksome frequencies in the spectrum oflight? Does it block or pass ultravioletlight? Does it block or pass infraredlight?

3. Is the area you live in suitable(economical) for hot-water solarcollectors or photovoltaic solar-cellapplications? What percentage of daysper year does your location experienceovercast skies? Gather data fromweather sources using the Internet,National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration (NOAA), or localweather authorities. How would youconstruct a device that would monitorthe amount of cloudiness that occursduring a day?

185


• Botany

Purpose or Problem

The purpose is to discover if low-moisturelevels will cause the roots of radish seedlingsto grow more abundantly than those grown insoil with high-moisture levels. A secondarypurpose is to discover the optimum amountof water for radish seedlings.

Overview

Plants gather water and nutrients from soilthrough their root systems. Roots extenddownward and outward to gather water. Whatif water is scarce? Will a plant’s roots growlonger and will there be more of them, asthey search for water?

Getting to the Root of the ProblemA study of the effect of low water on radish seedling root systems

Project 46


Hypothesis

Hypothesize that the root system of radishseedlings will grow more abundantly (moremass and/or longer in length) in soil wheremoisture is low compared to soil wheremoisture is high. Also hypothesize that apoint exists beyond which any furtherreduction in moisture will not cause moreroot growth but, instead, will cause healthdamage to the plant.

Materials’ List

• Paper towels

• Radish seeds (50 of them)

• Ten 8-ounce plastic drinking cups

• Potting soil

• Kitchen teaspoon measure

• Marker or pen and masking tape

• Water

• Several weeks of time

Procedure

Germinate 50 radish seeds by covering thembetween layers of paper towel and keepingthem warm and moist for several days.

Once the seeds have germinated andbegin to sprout roots and stems, select 30 ofthe best seedlings and discard the rest.

Fill ten 8-ounce plastic drinking cups 3⁄4full of potting soil. Plant three seedlings ineach cup.

Using a marker or a pen with maskingtape, label each cup with a letter of thealphabet: Cup A, Cup B, Cup C, and so onthrough Cup J.

Group the cups: Cups A, B, and C makeup Group #1. Cups D, E, and F make upGroup #2. Cups G, H, and I make up Group#3. Cup J will stand alone.

Group #1 will receive water daily. Cup Awill receive one teaspoon of water. Cup Bwill get two teaspoons. Cup C will get threeteaspoons.

Group #2 will receive water every otherday. Cup D will receive one teaspoon ofwater. Cup E, two teaspoons. Cup F, threeteaspoons.

Group #3 will only receive water everythird day. Cup G, one teaspoon. Cup H, twoteaspoons. Cup I, three teaspoons.

The seedlings in Cup J will be keptsoaked with water daily, adding enough waterto keep the soil thoroughly wet.

We are using three seedlings per cup toincrease our sample size, thus giving morecredence to our results.

Set the cups in an area of equal lightingand equal temperature (room temperature).

186

Project 46: Getting to the Root of the Problem

A

J

B C D E F G H I

RadishRadishVEGETABLE

After many weeks, remove the seedlingsfrom their cups and rinse the soil off theirroots. Compare the root systems of all theplants.

Was your hypothesis correct? Was there apoint beyond which any less amount of waterresulted in poor growth or healthy appearanceof the plants? How was the health of theseedlings in Cup J? Is it possible to overwatera plant?

Results


Conclusion


187

Project 46: Getting to the Root of the Problem

Something More

If a house plant is consistently givenwater only down one side of the flowerpot, will the roots eventually grow towardthat side (hydrotropism)?

AC (alternating current), 112acid rain, 121–123acidity, 95, 121–123advertising, TV, 177–179agar, 134–135air. See also wind

effect on evaporation, 146, 147friction with, 14mold transferred via, 149–151resistance, 13–15

air flow, 10–11alcohol

cooling effect of, 145–147evaporation of, 145–147extracting chlorophyll with, 114–115

alkali, 96alkalinity, 95, 121alluvial deposits, 83alluvial formations, 83alluvial runoff, 83–85alternating current (AC), 112altitude, 64, 65animals

acid rain and, 122, 123bay salt content and, 25–26biological rhythms, 161–163birds (nests), 5–7dogs, 21–23fish temperature preferences, 87–89guinea pigs, 23response to sounds, 21–23

ants. See also insectsattraction to natural vs. artificial sugars, 55–58natural bait for, 169–171natural pesticides for, 125–128

applesauce, mold inhibitor for, 105–107artificial sweeteners, 55–58ascorbic acid. See vitamin Caspartame, 56, 57audio. See soundazimuth, 66

back bay salt content, 25–28back bay water, 25–28Backfield in Motion project, 109–112bacteria

detecting on public surfaces, 133–135health risks of, 134identifying, 135researching on Internet, 158

bait, soft drinks as, 169–171

balance beam, 73bananas

as fruit fly attractant, 127mold on, 150–151

bases, 96beef, ground, 47–49Behavioral & Social category

Choices project, 75–78Commercial TV project, 177–179In the Ear of the Beholder project, 29–32Flying, Walking, Crawling project, 169–171High-Tech Times project, 173–175Melody Camouflage project, 17–19The Nose Knows project, 129–131Not Just Lemonade project, 117–119Not till Christmas project, 137–139Sounds Fishy project, 87–89Sweet Treat project, 55–58Time for the Concert project, 165–167Vlip! project, 21–23Web Crawlers project, 157–159

A Better Burger project, 47–49bifilar pendulums, 16Biochemistry category

Bold Mold project, 67–70Germ Jungle project, 133–135Water, Water, Everywhere project, 1–4

biological rhythms, 162, 163bird nests, other creatures living in, 5–7Bold Mold project, 67–70Botany category

Getting to the Root of the Problem project, 185–187Green No More project, 113–115Hardwood Café project, 153–155Night Watch project, 161–163Plants Exhale project, 79–81Space Farm project, 141–143A Taste of Plant Acid project, 95–97Water, Water, Everywhere project, 1–4

bots, 158braces, 91–94bracket fungi, 153–155bread mold, 149–151bugs. See insectsbusinesses

publicly traded, 41stock market investing, 41–45stock splits, 100–103

C, a Fantastic Vitamin project, 59–61Call options, 45

Index

189Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

carrots, vitamin C content of, 59–61Caught in the Spotlight project, 51–54CD (compact disc) technology, 18Chemistry category

A Better Burger project, 47–49C, a Fantastic Vitamin project, 59–61Got Salt project, 25–28Less Is More project, 121–123Not Just Lemonade project, 117–119Sweet Treat project, 55–58A Taste of Plant Acid project, 95–97Water, Water, Everywhere project, 1–4

chlorophyll, 68, 79, 113–115Choices project, 75–78cinnamon, as mold inhibitor, 105–107circadian rhythms, 161–163cleaning products

disinfectant, 134, 135lemon in, 117–119

coastal salt water flooding, 1–4collagen, 59color

gender preference for, 75–78M&M experiment, 71–74object selection and, 75–78in plants, 113–115, 162

Commercial TV project, 177–179commercials, TV, 177–179compact disc (CD) technology, 18companies

publicly traded, 41stock market investing, 41–45stock splits, 100–103

Computers category. See Math & Computers category

Cooled Off project, 145–147crickets, temperature and, 165–167cupcake experiment, 75–78

day traders, 100DC (direct current), 110deciduous trees, 113direct current (DC), 110directories, 159diseases

bacteria and, 133–135mold and, 149transmitted by insects, 51–54

disinfectant cleaners, 134, 135diversity, 43dividends, 41dogs, response to sounds, 21–23dolphins, 23

Earthillumination of Sun on, 63–66rotation of, 16tilt of, 63–64

Earth & Space categorySold on Solar project, 181–183Space Farm project, 141–143Zenith Is Not a Radio project, 63–66

Earth Science categoryFlying in the Wind project, 33–35Go with the Flow project, 9–12Got Salt project, 25–28Less Is More project, 121–123Water, Water, Everywhere project, 1–4

earthquakes, 16electricity

alternating current (AC), 112direct current (DC), 110generated by solar energy, 181generated by wind, 33magnetism and, 110pH scale and, 96positive, 96

electromagnetic fields, 109–112elodea, 80, 81engineering, types of, 91Engineering category

Cooled Off project, 145–147Go with the Flow project, 9–12Lighter Struts project, 37–40Parallelogram Prevention project, 91–94Web Crawlers project, 157–159

entomology, 52Environmental Science category

Bold Mold project, 67–70Flying in the Wind project, 33–35Germ Jungle project, 133–135Go with the Flow project, 9–12Got Salt project, 25–28Green No More project, 113–115Hardwood Café project, 153–155Less Is More project, 121–123Melting Mountains project, 83–85Natural Fences project, 125–128Night Watch project, 161–163Pass the Mold project, 149–151Space Farm project, 141–143Sweet Treat project, 55–58Time for the Concert project, 165–167Water, Water, Everywhere project, 1–4Who’s Home project, 5–7

erosion, 83–85evaporation

alcohol, 145–147moving air and, 146, 147salt content and, 27water, 121–123, 145–147

fat content, ground beef, 47–49fats, described, 47–48feeders, 166financial investments, 41–45

190

Index

financial resources, 101–102fish, water temperature preferences, 87–89flooding, salt water, 1–4Flying, Walking, Crawling project, 169–171Flying in the Wind project, 33–35food. See also fruit; vegetables

mold on, 67–70, 149–150spoilage of, 67–70, 105–107storage of, 67–70transferring mold between, 149–151

food, growing in space, 141–143Foucault, Jean, 14, 16fruit

bananas as fruit fly attractant, 127grapefruits as natural pesticide, 126, 127lemons as natural pesticide, 126–127, 128lemons in cleaning products, 117–119mold on bananas, 150–151mold on oranges, 150–151pH balance, 96

fruit flies, 125–128. See also insectsfungi, bracket, 153–155

Galileo, 14gender

adherence to instructions and, 137–139color preferences, 75–78erroneously perceived sound and, 19olfactory identification and, 131

geotropism, 142Germ Jungle project, 133–135germination, seed, 141–143Getting to the Root of the Problem project, 185–187Go with the Flow project, 9–12goldfish, water temperature preferences, 87–89Got Salt project, 25–28grapefruit juice, 126, 127grass

germinating, 2killing with salt, 4loss of color, 114, 115sunlight deprivation, 115

grasshoppers, temperature and, 167gravity

effect on radish-seed germination, 141–143flow of water and, 83pendulum experiment, 13–14, 16tide cycles and, 25

Green No More project, 113–115ground beef, fat content in, 47–49guinea pigs, 23

handedness, 75–78Hardwood Café project, 153–155Health category. See Medicine & Health categoryhigh-power electric lines, 109–110High-Tech Times project, 173–175house plants, 161–163. See also plants

household disinfectant cleaners, 134, 135hydroponics, 141

ice, on mountains, 83–85illness

bacteria and, 133–135mold and, 149transmitted by insects, 51–54

In the Ear of the Beholder project, 29–32indexing software (robots), 158insects. See also ants

attracting with light, 51–54attraction to natural vs. artificial sugars, 55–58collecting, 51–54effect of temperature on, 165–167evaluating for health hazards, 51, 53fruit fly attractants, 125–128living in bird nests, 5–7natural bait for, 169–171natural pesticides, 125–128soft drink preferences, 169–171

Internetfinancial resources on, 101–102finding information on, 157–159investments and, 42, 43–44monitoring stock prices, 101–102search engines, 157–159web crawlers, 157–159

inverse-square law, 16investments. See stock market

jet lag, 161Johnny Applesauce project, 105–107

Kelvin, Lord, 14, 16kinetic energy, 13Kinetic Pendulum project, 13–16

language, animals and, 21–23lawns, effect of salt water flooding on, 1–4lemon juice, 126–127, 128lemons

in cleaning products, 117–119as pesticide, 126–127, 128

Less Is More project, 121–123light. See also sunlight

attracting insects with, 51–54plant exposure to, 161–163plant-generated oxygen and, 79–81

Lighter Struts project, 37–40lighthouses, 9–12litmus paper, 96

magnetic field, 109–110, 112magnetism, 109–110materials

determining sample sizes, 71–74weight vs. strength, 37–40

191

Index

Math & Computers categoryCommercial TV project, 177–179In the Ear of the Beholder project, 29–32High-Tech Times project, 173–175Kinetic Pendulum project, 13–16Lighter Struts project, 37–40M&M’s Ring Around the World project, 71–74Split and Dip project, 99–103Stock Up project, 41–45Web Crawlers project, 157–159Zenith Is Not a Radio project, 63–66

mechanical engineering, 91Medicine & Health category

C, a Fantastic Vitamin project, 59–61Caught in the Spotlight project, 51–54Cooled Off project, 145–147Natural Fences project, 125–128Pass the Mold project, 149–151Sweet Treat project, 55–58

Melody Camouflage project, 17–19Melting Mountains project, 83–85meteorology, 34Microbiology category

Backfield in Motion project, 109–112Bold Mold project, 67–70Germ Jungle project, 133–135Hardwood Café project, 153–155Johnny Applesauce project, 105–107Pass the Mold project, 149–151Who’s Home project, 5–7

mildew, 67M&M’s Ring Around the World project, 71–74mold

on bread, 149–151diseases and, 149effect of environment on, 67–70effect of sunlight on, 68, 70inhibitors, 68, 105–107, 150transferred via air, 149–151transferring between foods, 149–151

momentum, 13–14mountain erosion, 83–85music

masked by noise, 17–19memories and, 32tape hiss, 17–18vs. noise, 29–32

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA) weather station, 26

Natural Fences project, 125–128Night Watch project, 161–163nitrogen, 121nitrogen oxide, 122NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration) weather station, 26noise

described, 29

physics of, 29–32in reproduction of audio, 17–19social classification of, 29–32sound masked by, 17–19tape hiss, 18–19vs. music, 29–32white, 18–19

The Nose Knows project, 129–131Not Just Lemonade project, 117–119Not till Christmas project, 137–139

objectsselection of, 75–78shape of, 9–12wind and, 9–12

olfactory identification, 129–131oranges, mold on, 150–151organisms

effect of electromagnetic field on, 109–112living in bird nests, 5–7single-celled, 109–112

oscillation periods, 14oxygen

detecting presence of, 81produced by plants, 79–81

Parallelogram Prevention project, 91–94parasites, 153–155Pass the Mold project, 149–151pendular motion, 13–16pendulum, 13–16percentage, determining, 72–73pesticides, natural, 125–128pests, picnic, 169–171petri dish, 134–135pH levels

acidity in rain water, 121–123measuring, 95–97

pH scale, 96, 121, 122pH test kit, 96, 122–123phloem, 154photosynthesis, 113Physics category

Cooled Off project, 145–147In the Ear of the Beholder project, 29–32Go with the Flow project, 9–12Kinetic Pendulum project, 13–16Melting Mountains project, 83–85Parallelogram Prevention project, 91–94Sold on Solar project, 181–183Space Farm project, 141–143

picnic pests, 169–171pitch, 85plants. See also vegetables

acid rain and, 123changing exposure to light/dark, 161–163chlorophyll in, 68, 79, 113–115circadian rhythms, 161–163

192

Index

color in, 113–115, 162effect of low water on seedlings, 185–187fungi, 153–155loss of color in, 113–115oxygen produced by, 79–81parasites, 153–155radish-seed germination, 141–143rest cycles, 163root systems, 185–187saprophytes, 153–155

Plants Exhale project, 79–81plumb, 13plumb bob, 15plumb line, 15plumb point, 14polarity, 182potential energy, 13preservatives, 68, 106projects

Backfield in Motion, 109–112A Better Burger, 47–49Bold Mold, 67–70C, a Fantastic Vitamin, 59–61Caught in the Spotlight, 51–54Choices, 75–78Commercial TV, 177–179Cooled Off, 145–147In the Ear of the Beholder, 29–32Flying, Walking, Crawling, 169–171Flying in the Wind, 33–35Germ Jungle, 133–135Getting to the Root of the Problem, 185–187Go with the Flow, 9–12Got Salt, 25–28Green No More, 113–115Hardwood Café, 153–155High-Tech Times, 173–175Johnny Applesauce, 105–107Kinetic Pendulum, 13–16Less Is More, 121–123Lighter Struts, 37–40Melody Camouflage, 17–19Melting Mountains, 83–85M&M’s Ring Around the World, 71–74Natural Fences, 125–128Night Watch, 161–163The Nose Knows, 129–131Not Just Lemonade, 117–119Not till Christmas, 137–139Parallelogram Prevention, 91–94Pass the Mold, 149–151Plants Exhale, 79–81Sold on Solar, 181–183Sounds Fishy, 87–89Space Farm, 141–143Split and Dip, 99–103Stock Up, 41–45Sweet Treat, 55–58

A Taste of Plant Acid, 95–97Time for the Concert, 165–167Vitamin C, 59–61Vlip!, 21–23Water, Water, Everywhere, 1–4Web Crawlers, 157–159Who’s Home, 5–7Zenith Is Not a Radio, 63–66

psychoacoustical masking effect, 18publicly traded companies, 41Put options, 45

radish seedlings, effect of low water on, 185–187radish-seed germination, 141–143rain, acid, 121–123ribbon wind indicators, 34–35robots, 158rolling stock, 158root systems, effect of low water on, 185–187

saccharin, 56, 57safety stress range, 37–40salt

content in back bay water, 25–28killing grass/weeds with, 4as preservative, 68

salt water flooding, 1–4sample sizes, determining, 71–74saprophytes, 153–155search engines, 157–159seed germination, 141–143seedlings, effect of low water on, 185–187sex. See gendershelf fungi, 153–155short-term investing, 100–101single-celled organisms, effect of electromagnetic field

on, 109–112smells, identifying, 129–131snow, on mountains, 83–85Social. See Behavioral & Socialsoft drinks, insect preferences for, 169–171software/communications engineering, 157–159solar cells, 182solar energy, 181solar panels, 181–183solar-energy applications, 181–183Sold on Solar project, 181–183songs. See musicsound. See also music; noise

categorization of, 30–32dog response to, 21–23erroneously perceived, 17–19human response to, 29–32masked by noise, 17–19

Sounds Fishy project, 87–89Space. See Earth & SpaceSpace Farm project, 141–143spices, 105, 107

193

Index

spiders, 158, 159Split and Dip project, 99–103stock charts, 101–102stock market

investment concepts, 41–45rolling stock, 158testing strategies for, 99–103

stock splits, 100–103Stock Up project, 41–45stream table, 12structures, bracing, 91–94struts, aircraft, 37–40sucrose, 56sugars

as insect attractant, 170natural vs. artificial, 55–58as preservative, 68

sulfur, 121sulfur dioxide, 122Sun

altitude, 64, 65azimuth, 66daily zenith, 63–66

sunlightclimate temperature, 181–183deprivation (grass), 115effect on mold, 68, 70photosynthesis and, 113–115plant exposure to, 161–163plant-generated oxygen and, 79–81solar panels and, 181–183

Sweet Treat project, 55–58sweeteners

as insect attractant, 170natural vs. artificial, 55–58

swing period, 14

tape hiss, 17–18tare weight, 49, 84A Taste of Plant Acid project, 95–97tea, as insect deterrent, 126technical analysis, 44technology, adapting to, 173–175temperature

effect on goldfish, 87–89effect on insects, 165–167solar panels and, 181–183solar-energy applications and, 181–183

The Nose Knows project, 129–131ticker symbol, 102tidal changes, 25–28tide cycles, 25–28tide tables, 26Time for the Concert project, 165–167trees, fungi on, 153–155

TV advertising, 177–179

unit cost, 74

vegetables. See also plantschlorophyll in, 115effect of low water on seedlings, 185–187pH level of, 95–97radish-seed germination, 141–143

velocity, wind, 9–12vitamin C, 59–61Vitamin C project, 59–61Vlip! project, 21–23voltmeter, 182

wateracidity in, 121–123cooling effect of, 145–147effect of low water on seedlings, 185–187evaporation, 121–123, 145–147flow of, 12fresh, 1–4rain, 121–123salt, 1–4temperature (for goldfish), 87–89

Water, Water, Everywhere project, 1–4weather radios, 26Web Crawlers project, 157–159white noise, 18–19Who’s Home project, 5–7wind. See also air

above ground vs. ground level, 33–35defense against, 10effect on lighthouses, 9–12high-velocity, 9–12object shape and, 9–12resistance, 10speed, 34velocity, 33–35

wind-chill factor, 147wood, weight vs. strength, 37–40worms, natural pesticides for, 128

xylem, 154

zenith, Sun, 63–66Zenith Is Not a Radio project, 63–66Zoology category

Flying, Walking, Crawling project, 169–171Natural Fences project, 125–128Sounds Fishy project, 87–89Sweet Treat project, 55–58Time for the Concert project, 165–167Vlip! project, 21–23Who’s Home project, 5–7

194

Index

46 science fair projects for the evil genius - software...

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