39051714 rapid prototyping 3d printing

8/11/2019 39051714 Rapid Prototyping 3d Printing

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1.Introduction

3Dimensions printing is a method of converting a virtual 3D model into a physical object.

3D printing is a category of rapid prototyping technology. 3D printers typically work by printing

successive layers on top of the previous to build up a three dimensional object.

The past decade has witnessed the emergence of new manufacturing technologies that

build parts on a layer-by-layer basis. Using these technologies, manufacturing time for parts of

virtually any compleity is reduced considerably. !n other words, it is rapid. "apid #rototyping

Technologies and "apid $anufacturing offer great potential for producing models and uni%ue

parts for manufacturing industry.

& few years ago, to get some prototyping work done for a product or design you are

working on, you are re%uired to spend a lot of man-hours just to come up with the model. Those

hours will be spent creating miniature parts of your design using wood and then gluing all those

parts together painstakingly. #rototyping is, at the very least, time-consuming and etremely

tedious.

These days, however, you can take the tediousness and the time investment out of yourprototyping tasks through rapid prototyping or 3d printing. 3D printing is a revolutionary method

for creating 3D models with the use of inkjet technology. $any engineers have even dubbed 3D

printing as the process of creating something out of nothing. Thus, the reliability of products can

be increased' investment of time and money is less risky. (ot everything that is thinkable today

is already workable or available at a reasonable price, but this technology is fast evolving and the

better the challenges, the better for this developing process.

The term "apid prototyping )"#* refers to a class of technologies that can automatically

construct physical models from +omputer-&ided Design )+&D* data.

!t is a free form fabrication techni%ue by which a total object of prescribed shape, dimension and

finish can be directly generated from the +&D based geometrical model stored in a computer,


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with little human intervention. "apid prototyping is an additive process, combining layers of

paper, wa, or plastic to create a solid object. !n contrast, most machining processes )milling,

drilling, grinding, etc.* are subtractive processes that remove material from a solid block. "#s

additive nature allows it to create objects with complicated internal features that cannot be

manufactured by other means.

!n addition to prototypes, "# techni%ues can also be used to make tooling )referred to as rapid

tooling* and even production-%uality parts )rapid manufacturing*. or small production runs and

complicated objects, rapid prototyping is often the best manufacturing process available. /f

course, rapid is a relative term. $ost prototypes re%uire from three to seventy-two hours to

build, depending on the si0e and compleity of the object. This may seem slow, but it is much

faster than the weeks or months re%uired to make a prototype by traditional means such as

machining. These dramatic time savings allow manufacturers to bring products to market faster

and more cheaply.

3D PRINTING: MAKING THE DIGITAL REAL

!magine a future in which a device connected to a computer can print a solid object. & future in

which we can have tangible goods as well as intangible services delivered to our desktops or

highstreet shops over the !nternet. &nd a future in which the everyday atomi0ation of virtual

objects into hard reality has turned the mass pre-production and stock-holding of a wide range of

goods and spare parts into no more than an historical legacy.

1uch a future may sound like it is being plucked from the worlds of 1tar Trek. 2owever, whilst

transporter devices that can instantaneously deliver us to remote locations may remain a fantasy,

3D printers capable of outputting physical objects have been in development for over two

decades. hat4s more, several 3D printers are already on the market. &vailable from companiesincluding ortus, 3D 1ystems,1olid 1cape, 5+orp, and Desktop actory,these ama0ing devices

produce solid, 3D objects from computer data in roughly the same way that 6D printers take our

digital images and output hardcopy photos.
http://www.startrek.com/http://www.fortus.com/http://www.3dsystems.com/http://www.solid-scape.com/http://www.zcorp.com/http://www.desktopfactory.com/http://www.startrek.com/http://www.fortus.com/http://www.3dsystems.com/http://www.solid-scape.com/http://www.zcorp.com/http://www.desktopfactory.com/


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The Desktop actorycurrently sells a 3D printer for 7899:. This can print models up to a five-

inch cube in si0e with consumables costing around 7; per cubic inch. 2owever, prices for most

3D printers tend to start in the ten-to-twenty thousand pound bracket and spiral upwards.

&lthough some desktop models are on the market, most 3D printers are usually fairly bulky and

often floor-standing.
http://www.desktopfactory.com/http://www.desktopfactory.com/


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2. Rapid Prototyping Tc!ni"u#

"apid prototyping is the fabrication of parts from +&D data sources. 1everal rapid

prototyping methods have been created to produce objects of comple geometries in a relatively

short amount of time. These systems are beneficial to engineers by allowing them to better

understand the products that they are designing and by providing them with a way to create a

visual aid to communicate with others. "apid prototyping allows design challenges to be

determined earlier in the design process, saving time and money. The technology of rapid

prototyping is easy to access and simple to understand.

2.1 $tro %it!ograp!y

#atented in ;9 laser traces out the first layer, solidifying the models cross section while

leaving ecess areas li%uid. (et, an elevator incrementally lowers the platform into the li%uid

polymer. & sweeper re-coats the solidified layer with li%uid, and the laser traces the second layer

atop the first. This process is repeated until the prototype is complete. &fterwards, the solid part

is removed from the vat and rinsed clean of ecess li%uid. 1upports are broken off and the model

is then placed in an ultraviolet oven for complete curing. ?ecause it was the first techni%ue,

stereolithography is regarded as a benchmark by which other technologies are judged. @arly

stereolithography prototypes were fairly brittle and prone to curing-induced warpage and

distortion, but recent modifications have largely corrected these problems.


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ig 6.;A1tereo lithography

2.2 La&inatd '()ct Manu*acturing

!n this techni%ue, developed by 2elisys of Torrance, +&, layers of adhesive-coated sheet

material are bonded together to form a prototype.. &s shown in the figure below.

ig6.6A 1chematic diagram of laminated object manufacturing.

& feederBcollector mechanism advances the sheet over the build platform, where a base

has been constructed from paper and double-sided foam tape. (et, a heated roller applies

pressure to bond the paper to the base. & focused laser cuts the outline of the first layer into the


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paper and then cross-hatches the ecess area )the negative space in the prototype*. +ross-

hatching breaks up the etra material, making it easier to remove during post-processing. During

the build, the ecess material provides ecellent support for overhangs and thin-walled sections.

&fter the first layer is cut, the platform lowers out of the way and fresh material is advanced. The

platform rises to slightly below the previous height, the roller bonds the second layer to the first,

and the laser cuts the second layer. This process is repeated as needed to build the part, which

will have a wood-like teture. ?ecause the models are made of paper, they must be sealed and

finished with paint or varnish to prevent moisture damage.

2elisys developed several new sheet materials, including plastic, water-repellent paper,

and ceramic and metal powder tapes. The powder tapes produce a green part that must be

sintered for maimum strength. &s of 6CC;, 2elisys is no longer in business.

2.3 $%cti+ La#r $intring

Developed by +arl Deckard for his masters thesis at the University of Teas, selective laser

sintering was patented in ;9


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ig 6.3A 1chematic diagram of selective laser sintering.

2., -u#d Dpo#ition Mod%ing

!n this techni%ue, filaments of heated thermoplastic are etruded from a tip that moves in

the -y plane. ike a baker decorating a cake, the controlled etrusion head deposits very thin

beads of material onto the build platform to form the first layer.


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ig6.8A schematic diagram of fused deposition modeling.

The platform is maintained at a lower temperature, so that the thermoplastic %uickly

hardens. &fter the platform lowers, the etrusion head deposits a second layer upon the first.

1upports are built along the way, fastened to the part either with a second, weaker material or

with a perforated junction.

2. E%ctron (a& &%ting)E/M*

!t is a type of additive manufacturing for metal parts. !t is often classified as a rapid

manufacturingmethod. The technology manufactures parts by melting metal powder layer per

layer with an electron beam in a high vacuum. Unlike some metal sinteringtechni%ues, the parts

are fully dense, void-free, and etremely strong.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_manufacturinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_manufacturinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_manufacturinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinteringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_manufacturinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_manufacturinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_manufacturinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sintering


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This solid freeform fabricationmethod produces fully dense metal parts directly from

metal powder with characteristics of the target material. The @?$ machine reads data from a 3D

+&D model and lays down successive layers of powdered material. These layers are melted

together utili0ing a computer controlled electron beam. !n this way it builds up the parts. The

process takes place under vacuum, which makes it suited to manufacture parts in reactive

materials with a high affinity for oygen.

ig6.8A @lectron beam melting

The melted material is from a pure alloy in powder form of the final material to be

fabricated )no filler*. or that reason the electron beam technology doesn4t re%uire additional

thermal treatment to obtain the full mechanical properties of the parts. That aspect allows

classification of @?$ with 1$where competing technologies like 11 and D$1 re%uire

thermal treatment after fabrication. +omparatively to 11 and D$1, @?$ has a generally

superior build rate because of its higher energy density and scanning method. $inimum layer

thicknessA C.C: mm. Tolerance capabilityA FB- C.8 mm.

2.0 3D Printing

!nk-Get #rinting refers to an entire class of machines that employ ink-jet technology. The

first was 3D #rinting )3D#*, developed at $!T and licensed to 1oligen +orporation, @trude
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_freeform_fabricationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_beamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_beamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LSMhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_laser_sinteringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_Metal_Laser_Sinteringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_freeform_fabricationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_beamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LSMhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_laser_sinteringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_Metal_Laser_Sintering


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2one, and others. The 5+orp 3D printer, produced by 5 +orporation of ?urlington, $& is an

eample of this technology. &s shown in igure =a, parts are built upon a platform situated in a

bin full of powder material. &n ink-jet printing head selectively deposits or prints a binder fluid

to fuse the powder together in the desired areas. Unbound powder remains to support the part.

The platform is lowered, more powder added and leveled, and the process repeated. hen

finished, the part is then removed from the unbound powder, and ecess unbound powder is

blown off. inished parts can be infiltrated with wa, +& glue, or other sealants to improve

durability and surface finish. Typical layer thicknesses are on the order of C.; mm. This process

is very fast, and produces parts with a slightly grainy surface. 5+orp uses two different materials,

a starch based powder )not as strong, but can be burned out, for investment casting applications*

and a ceramic powder. $achines with 8 color printing capability are available.

3D 1ystems version of the ink-jet based system is called the Thermo-Get or $ulti-Get

#rinter. !t uses a linear array of print heads to rapidly produce thermoplastic models )igure =d*.

!f the part is narrow enough, the print head can deposit an entire layer in one pass. /therwise, the

head makes several passes.

ig 6.=A 3D #rinting

3. T! /a#ic Proc## o* 3D Printing


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&lthough several rapid prototyping techni%ues eist, all employ the same basic five-step process.

The steps areA

;. +reate a +&D model of the design

6. +onvert the +&D model to 1T format

3. 1lice the 1T file into thin cross-sectional layers

8. +onstruct the model one layer atop another

:. +lean and finish the model

AD Mod% ration:

irst, the object to be built is modeled using a +omputer-&ided Design )+&D* software package.

1olid modelers, such as #roB@(H!(@@", tend to represent 3-D objects more accurately than

wire-frame modelers such as &uto+&D, and will therefore yield better results. The designer can

use a pre-eisting +&D file or may wish to create one epressly for prototyping purposes. This

process is identical for all of the "# build techni%ues.

on+r#ion to $TL -or&at:

The various +&D packages use a number of different algorithms to represent solid objects. To

establish consistency, the 1T )stereolithography, the first "# techni%ue* format has been

adopted as the standard of the rapid prototyping industry. The second step, therefore, is to

convert the +&D file into 1T format. This format represents a three-dimensional surface as an

assembly of planar triangles, like the facets of a cut jewel. =The file contains the coordinates of

the vertices and the direction of the outward normal of each triangle. ?ecause 1T files useplanar elements, they cannot represent curved surfaces eactly. !ncreasing the number of

triangles improves the approimation, but at the cost of bigger file si0e. arge, complicated files

re%uire more time to pre-process and build, so the designer must balance accuracy with

manageability to produce a useful 1T file. 1ince the 1T format is universal, this process is

identical for all of the "# build techni%ues.


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$%ic t! $TL -i%:

!n the third step, a pre-processing program prepares the 1T file to be built. 1everal programs

are available, and most allow the user to adjust the si0e, location and orientation of the model.

?uild orientation is important for several reasons. irst, properties of rapid prototypes vary from

one coordinate direction to another. or eample, prototypes are usually weaker and less accurate

in the 0 )vertical* direction than in the -y plane. !n addition, part orientation partially determines

the amount of time re%uired to build the model. #lacing the shortest dimension in the 0 direction

reduces the number of layers, thereby shortening build time. The pre-processing software slices

the 1T model into a number of layers from C.C; mm to C.I mm thick, depending on the build

techni%ue. The program may also generate an auiliary structure to support the model during the

build. 1upports are useful for delicate features such as overhangs, internal cavities, and thin-walled sections. @ach "# machine manufacturer supplies their own proprietary pre-processing

software.

ig 3.;A- 1lice the 1T ile


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Layr (y Layr on#truction:

The fourth step is the actual construction of the part. Using one of several techni%ues )described

in the net section* "# machines build one layer at a time from polymers, paper, or powdered

metal. $ost machines are fairly autonomous, needing little human intervention.

ig 3.6 ayer by ayer +onstruction

%an and -ini#!:

The final step is post-processing. This involves removing the prototype from the machine and

detaching any supports. 1ome photosensitive materials need to be fully cured before use.

#rototypes may also re%uire minor cleaning and surface treatment. 1anding, sealing, andBor

painting the model will improve its appearance and durability.


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3D printing >s con+ntiona% tc!no%ogi#

3D# does notJand will notJreplace completely conventional technologies such (+ and

high-speed milling, or even hand-made parts. "ather, one should regard 3D# as one more option

in the toolkit for manufacturing parts. igure depicts a rough comparison between 3D# and

milling regarding the costs and time of manufacturing one part as a function of part

compleity;C. !t is assumed, evidently, that the part can be manufactured by either technology

such that the material and tolerance re%uirements are met.

ig:.;A 3D# vs. conventional machining


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2. Action -igur#

?lood @lves and band mates can both be brought to life using 3D printers. These two

were created using 5corp. machines which apply glue ink and powder in fine layers slowly

creating a replicaof one of your characters. igure #rintsallows you to create characters from

arcraft, "ock bandand 1poreprinting services are coming soon. &numberof othersitesallow

you to pull data from 1econd ife and your own 3D programs.

3. %ry

Gewelry makers were some of the first to use 3D printing in their manufacturing process,

however they do not use metal printers, but rather ones that use wa. !n a process called

Kinvestment castingL a piece of jewelry is sculpted or printed out of wa. #laster is then poured

on either side. $olten metal is poured onto the wa which melts out leaving a metal version of

your wa sculpt in its place in the plaster. This piece is then finished and polished by a jeweler.

$any independent jewelers have been using high tech printers in their businesses and an

innovative company called #aragon ake has combined this process with web based design tools

to offer an infinite inventory to the masses of jewelry stores.

,. Prototyp#
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_printinghttp://zcorp.com/http://www.boston.com/business/articles/2008/09/07/figure_friendly/http://www.figureprints.com/Default.aspxhttp://www.gamingshogun.com/ImageRepo/N/figureprints11.jpghttp://www.zcorp.com/documents/260_Rockband_PR.wvxhttp://www.joystiq.com/2006/05/11/spore-figurines-at-e3/http://www.fabjectory.com/http://www.shapeways.com/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investment_castinghttp://www.ganoksin.com/borisat/nenam/950Palladium-ring.htmhttp://www.solid-scape.com/http://www.paragonlake.com/http://replicatorinc.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2008/10/a_3d_prototypes.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_printinghttp://zcorp.com/http://www.boston.com/business/articles/2008/09/07/figure_friendly/http://www.figureprints.com/Default.aspxhttp://www.gamingshogun.com/ImageRepo/N/figureprints11.jpghttp://www.zcorp.com/documents/260_Rockband_PR.wvxhttp://www.joystiq.com/2006/05/11/spore-figurines-at-e3/http://www.fabjectory.com/http://www.shapeways.com/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investment_castinghttp://www.ganoksin.com/borisat/nenam/950Palladium-ring.htmhttp://www.solid-scape.com/http://www.paragonlake.com/


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#rototypinginproduct developmentis currently the biggest use of 3D printing technology.These

machines allow designers and engineers to test out ideasfor dimensional products cheaply before

committing to epensive tooling and manufacturing processes.

. Mod%#

1ales folks lives get much easier when you can have models like thisof your product printed up

for show and tell.

0. Mdicin

3D orld of arcraft characters are cool, but these tools have the power to help save lives.

1urgeons are using 3d printers to print body parts for reference before complicated surgeries.

/ther 3D printersare used to createbone graftsfor patients who have suffered traumatic injuries.

ooking further in the future scientist are working on #"!(T!(Hreplacement organs. #ersonal

abrication indeedM
http://www.objet.com/Misc/Groups_of_Pages/CaseStudies/Logitech/tabid/375/Default.aspxhttp://zcorp.com/Solutions/Rapid-Prototypes---CAD/Concept-Models/spage.aspxhttp://www.objet.com/Misc/Pages/CaseStudies/DesignworksWindsor/tabid/513/Default.aspxhttp://www.time-compression.com/x/guideArchiveCategoryArticlesList.html?bid=4&browse=phttp://www.capinc.com/pages/products/dimension3dprinter.cfmhttp://www.thinglab.co.uk/http://www.aecbytes.com/newsletter/2008/issue_34-images/fig7small.jpghttp://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/oct2008/tc2008103_077223.htmhttp://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112671997/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0http://www.pinktentacle.com/2007/08/artificial-bones-made-with-3d-inkjet-printers/http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=1603783&page=1http://www.technologyreview.com/biotech/17913/http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1679115,00.htmlhttp://replicatorinc.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2008/10/a_3d_med.jpghttp://replicatorinc.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2008/10/a_3d_models.jpghttp://www.objet.com/Misc/Groups_of_Pages/CaseStudies/Logitech/tabid/375/Default.aspxhttp://zcorp.com/Solutions/Rapid-Prototypes---CAD/Concept-Models/spage.aspxhttp://www.objet.com/Misc/Pages/CaseStudies/DesignworksWindsor/tabid/513/Default.aspxhttp://www.time-compression.com/x/guideArchiveCategoryArticlesList.html?bid=4&browse=phttp://www.capinc.com/pages/products/dimension3dprinter.cfmhttp://www.thinglab.co.uk/http://www.aecbytes.com/newsletter/2008/issue_34-images/fig7small.jpghttp://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/oct2008/tc2008103_077223.htmhttp://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112671997/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0http://www.pinktentacle.com/2007/08/artificial-bones-made-with-3d-inkjet-printers/http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=1603783&page=1http://www.technologyreview.com/biotech/17913/http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1679115,00.html


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4. ri& $cn Rcon#truction

3D printing can save lives, bring /rcs to life, and solve crimes. 3D printingBscanningis used in

forensics in real life and as a prop for dramatic effect in this clip from +1!.

Ad+antag# o* 3D Printing

The most successful companies have adopted 3D printing as a critical part of the iterative design

process toA

1. Incra# Inno+ation

#rint prototypes in hours, obtain feedback, refine designs and repeat the cycle until

designs are perfect.

2. I&pro+ o&&unication

2old a full color, realistic 3D model in your hands to impart infinitely more information

than a computer image.

+reate physical 3D models %uickly, easily and affordably for a wide variety of

applications.

3. $pd Ti& to Mar5t

+ompress design cycles by 3D printing multiple prototypes on demand, right in your

office.

,. Rduc D+%op&nt o#t#

+ut traditional prototyping and tooling costs.

!dentify design errors earlier.

"educe travel to production facilities.
http://www.thinglab.co.uk/scanning_product.php?URL_=product_digiscan_3rdtech_deltasphere_3000&SubCatID_=30http://management.cadalyst.com/cadman/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=143074http://www.thinglab.co.uk/scanning_product.php?URL_=product_digiscan_3rdtech_deltasphere_3000&SubCatID_=30http://management.cadalyst.com/cadman/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=143074


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Di#ad+antag# o* 3D Printing

&lthough three-dimensional printing has many advantages, it also has a few disadvantages that

come with itA

+urrent 3D printing materials for investment casting tend to yield sporadically rough

surfaces.

1ometimes encourages informal design methods which may cause more problems to fi.

!t may not be suitable for large si0ed applications.

The user may have very high epectations about theprototypes performance and it mightfail in the eact replication of the real product or systems.

3-D printers are still epensive.

&lthough 3-D printers have the potential of creating many jobs and opportunities, they

might also put certain jobs at risk )for eample, you can make your toys at home so toy

stores and toy makers might go out of business*.

3D# parts have a ribbed and little rough appearance due to layering beads of plastic.

ould be a slow process for large build volume parts.
http://3-d-printing.blogspot.com/2008/12/although-three-dimensional-printing-has.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototypehttp://3-d-printing.blogspot.com/2008/12/although-three-dimensional-printing-has.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototype


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T! -utur o* 3D Printing

irstly lets clarify what is meant by 3D printing, well in a nut shell it is a way of fabricating

objects designed on computer

, for eample if you designed a mug using computer aided design

, within a few hours you could have the real thing sitting in front of you.

!t is possible to watch your very creations come to life in true 1tar Trek fashion, before your

very eyes. To go into more detail, currently printers are fairly slow, limited and not tremendously

precise. & home 3D printer will typically set up back about ten thousand pounds, but this is

cheap considering the first commercially available printers cost at least ten times that amount.

3D printers presently are capable of fabricating objects using silicon and certain types of metal,

other substances that have been tested are plaster, play-doh and even chocolateM

& home 3D printer is about the si0e of a $icrowave and connects directly to a desktop

computer running softwarethat controls its operation. !t then creates objects layer-by-layer by

s%uee0ing material from a mechanically-controlled syringe. Unfortunately printers are somewhat

limited in the sense they still produce a fairly rough end product and the time scale it takes to

print an object is considerable.

Despite all the technical implications, there are huge possibilities for the future of 3D printing.

&ll ground breaking technologystarts somewhere, for eample in the case of the#+,mainframeshad eisted for years, but personal computing only took off in the late seventies. & cheap self-

assembly computer called the &ltair


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There are a number of different 3D printers available on the market today, all with slightly

different advantages, disadvantages, %uirks and features. 1ome interesting projects include an

open source 3D printer which has successfully been used to fabricate better parts to replace

eisting parts on the printer itself. The ultimate goal of 3d printers is to perfectly replicate

themselves, allowing much more cost effective manufacturing.

The future for 3D printing seems very promising, it is the fastest growing part of the rapid-

prototyping industry with revenues this year epected to be approimately a billion U1 dollars.

$any industries are showing huge amounts of interest and are seem great potential in different

applications where they could utili0e three dimensional printing. The U1 army have

eperimented using rapid prototyping to create parts for broken tanks, guns and other hardware

in combat situations. ?usinesses believe a rapid prototyping machine could prove invaluable in

showing factories how to assemble parts remotely, for eample in +hina. @ven (&1& has

re%uested a high resolution machine to manufacture crucial parts in space.

!n conclusion what is stopping you being part of a truly revolutionary technology, which could

become one of the major breakthroughs of the twenty first centuryN 3D printing has merely been

science fiction until recently, where it is now most certainly science fact. hat can we epect to

see in the not so far away futureN ell one ultimate goal is printable organic parts, for eample

replacement organs, identical skin grafts and even limbs, to combat victims of illness, disease

and war.
http://www.articlesbase.com/gadgets-and-gizmos-articles/the-future-of-3d-printing-419503.htmlhttp://www.articlesbase.com/gadgets-and-gizmos-articles/the-future-of-3d-printing-419503.html

39051714 rapid prototyping 3d printing

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