33339614 proposal writing

Proposal Writing i

HU-202 | Technical Business Writing

Semester Project

PROPOSAL WRITI�G

Prepared for

Mr. Khalid Mehmood

International Islamic University, Islamabad

Prepared by

Osama Hasan, Muhammad Ahmed, Zainab Mazhar,

Ammar Hussain, Khwaja Ameer Hamza Waqar

ChE-01-A

School of Chemical and Materials Engineering (SCME)

National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST)

H-12 Campus, Islamabad

June 20, 2010

Proposal Writing ii

1 Transmittal Letter

Student Affairs Office School of Chemical and Materials Engineering

(SCME)

National University of Sciences and Technology

(NUST)

H-12, Islamabad

Phone: 051-9085 5107 Case: HU-202 Transmittal Letter/01

June 2010

Mr. Khalid Mehmood

International Islamic University

Sector H-10, Islamabad

Dear Mr. Khalid:

The semester project for HU-202 “Technical/Business Writing” Course offered to

Undergraduate Batch-01 in Spring ’10 at School of Chemical and Materials Engineering, NUST

has successfully been completed by the following students, within the assigned time:

1. Osama Hasan 2008-NUST-BE-CHEM-27 ChE-01-A

2. Muhammad Ahmed 2008-NUST-BE-CHEM-37 ChE-01-A

3. Zainab Mazhar 2008-NUST-BE-CHEM- 164 ChE-01-A

4. Ammar Hussain 2008-NUST-BE-CHEM-07 ChE-01-A

5. Khwaja Ameer Hamza Waqar 2008-NUST-BE-CHEM-22 ChE-01-A

The topic of their semester project is “Proposal Writing”, submitted in long report format.

Students have made a good effort and have successfully reflected classroom learning in their

group work.

Regards

Proposal Writing iii

2 Declaration

June 20, 2010

Mr. Khalid Mehmood

International Islamic University

Sector H-12, Islamabad

Dear Sir:

Submitted for your review is our semester project for Technical/Business Writing Course entitled

“Proposal Writing”, duly completed within the deadline.

We hereby declare that the report is submitted in long report format, as per the guidelines and is

based on peer reviewed information available on internet and literature. All references are cited

and sources are mentioned.

Regards

Osama Hasan, Muhammad Ahmed, Zainab Mazhar,

Ammar Hussain, Khwaja Ameer Hamza Waqar

ChE-01-A

School of Chemical and Materials Engineering (SCME)

National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST)

H-12 Campus, Islamabad

Enclosure: Proposal

Proposal Writing iv

3 Acknowledgements

We are thankful to Almighty Allah for His unlimited blessings and bounties;

for keeping us sane, sound and successful,

Our parents for all their support and trust in us,

Our Instructor Mr. Khalid Mehmood, for all his guidance and help,

and our teachers, friends and colleagues

for their help in completion of this report

Proposal Writing v

4 Table of Contents

1 Transmittal Letter .................................................................................................................... ii

2 Declaration .............................................................................................................................. iii

3 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ iv

4 Table of Contents..................................................................................................................... v

5 Table of Figures ...................................................................................................................... vi

6 Abstract .................................................................................................................................. vii

7 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1

8 Literature Review .................................................................................................................... 2

8.1 Business Proposal ............................................................................................................. 2

8.2 Research Proposal ............................................................................................................ 4

8.3 Purpose of a Proposal ....................................................................................................... 6

8.3.1 Types of Purpose....................................................................................................... 6

8.3.2 Purpose and Strategies .............................................................................................. 7

8.3.3 How Audience Affects Purpose ................................................................................ 9

8.4 The Elements Of A Proposal .......................................................................................... 10

8.4.1 Introduction and Theoretical Framework ............................................................... 10

8.4.2 Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................ 11

8.4.3 Purpose of Study ..................................................................................................... 12

8.4.4 Review of the Literature ......................................................................................... 12

8.4.5 Questions and/or Hypotheses .................................................................................. 13

8.4.6 Methodology ........................................................................................................... 14

8.4.7 Limitations and Delimitations ................................................................................. 16

8.4.8 Significance of the Study ........................................................................................ 17

9 Proposal Writing .................................................................................................................... 18

9.1 The Writing Process ....................................................................................................... 18

9.1.1 Prewriting ................................................................................................................ 18

9.1.2 Writing .................................................................................................................... 19

9.1.3 REWRITING .......................................................................................................... 21

Proposal Writing vi

9.2 The Writing Format ........................................................................................................ 24

9.2.1 TITLE PAGE .......................................................................................................... 24

9.2.2 COVER LETTER ................................................................................................... 25

9.2.3 TABLE OF CONENTS .......................................................................................... 26

9.2.4 ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................ 27

9.2.5 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 29

9.2.6 DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................... 31

9.2.7 Conclusion/Recommendations ............................................................................... 32

9.2.8 GLOSSARY ........................................................................................................... 33

9.2.9 References ............................................................................................................... 33

9.2.10 Appendix ................................................................................................................. 34

10 Critical Analysis................................................................................................................. 35

11 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 36

12 References .......................................................................................................................... 37

13 Appendix ............................................................................................................................ 39

5 Table of Figures

Figure 1Title Page (Associates A. B., 20110) .............................................................................. 25

Figure 2 Cover Letter (America, 2010) ........................................................................................ 26

Figure 3 Table of Contents (Associates C. B., 2008) ................................................................... 27

Figure 4 Abstract (Curriculum Designers, 2007) ......................................................................... 28

Figure 5 Introduction (Bail, 1995) ................................................................................................ 30

Figure 6 Glossary (Inc, 2001) ....................................................................................................... 33

Figure 7 References (M.A., 2008) ............................................................................................... 34

Proposal Writing vii

6 Abstract

The project produces a peer based review and learning outcome on Report Writing skills for an

engineer / entrepreneur. Proposal writing is a key step in technical/business/official/managerial

communication in careers and is highly important for new horizons of development.

There are two types of proposals, for business and for research. Both have sub categories of

solicited (written in response) and unsolicited (written for marketing) proposals. Proposals are

always written while keeping in mind the audience because the objective is to propose the topic

and get consent on it from stake holders. Facts of interest to audience are much highlighted to

gain wide acceptance and achieve the set targets.

The report discuses the writing process and method for proposal drafting, as standardized

through use by huge market holders.

Proposal Writing 1

7 Introduction

Proposal is a formal description of the creation, modification or termination of a contract. A

proposal may serve as the blueprint for a future agreement and may be accepted or rejected by

the entity or entities that receive it. (WebFinance, 2010)

A proposal primary objective is to persuade your target audience to take specific action. Whether

you work for an organization or you are self employed, proposal writing often presents a key

opportunity for you to stand out from the crowd. A poorly written proposal can quickly kick out

your chances; a good one can influence. That is why proposal has to be as good as it can be. Not

only should it be clear and concise, but it must be persuasive and tailored for the potential user.

Proposal writing is widely adopted in organizations varying from NGOs to Government

Bureaucracy, Academic councils to Loan sanctioning, Business Initiatives and relationships to

research funding.

Every business man, entrepreneur, employee, scientific researcher, organizer, manager,

departmental Head, Chair and officer has to submit a proposal one way or the other at least once

or at most infinity times in his career.

The project discusses the writing guidelines of proposal writing and its particulars. Literature

review has been referenced and used for improved perception and achieving perfection.

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8 Literature Review

A proposal is a description of the work you will complete on a project. The details included in a

proposal depend on the project's scope and who will read the document. Typically, organizations

advertise a need for proposals and consulting engineers respond to the need. However, as an

engineer, you may determine that a problem exists, and therefore, propose solutions to an

organization. In this case, you must first convince the agency that the problem exists before

proposing your solutions. (Writing@CSU, 1993)

The two types of proposals are:

1. Business Proposal

2. Research Proposal

8.1 Business Proposal

A business proposal is a written offer from a seller to a prospective buyer. Business proposals are

often a key step in the complex sales process--i.e., whenever a buyer considers more than price

in a purchase. (Newman, 2006)

There are three distinct categories of business proposals: - formally solicited - informally

solicited - unsolicited.

Solicited proposals are written in response to published requirements, contained in a Request for

Proposal (RFP), Request for Quotation (RFQ), or an Invitation For Bid (IFB). RFPs provide

detailed specifications of what the customers wants to buy and sometimes include directions for

preparing the proposal, as well as evaluation criteria the customer will use to evaluate offers.

Customers issue RFPs when their needs cannot be met with generally available products or

services. Proposals in response to RFPs are seldom less than 10 pages and sometimes reach

1,000's of pages, without cost data. (Newman, 2006)

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Customers issue RFQs when they want to buy large amounts of a commodity and price is not the

only issue--for example, when availability or delivering or service are considerations. RFQs can

be very detailed, so proposals written to RFQs can be lengthy but generally much shorter than an

RFP-proposal. (Newman, 2006) RFQ proposals consist primarily of cost data, with small

narratives addressing customer issues, such as quality control.

Customers issue IFBs when they are buying some service, such as construction. The

requirements are detailed, but the primary consideration is price. For example, a customer

provides architectural blueprints for contractors to bid on. These proposals can be lengthy but

most of the length comes from cost-estimating data and detailed schedules. (Newman, 2006)

Sometimes before a customer issues an RFP or RFQ or IFB, the customer will issue a Request

for Information (RFI). The purpose of the RFI is to gain "marketing intelligence" about what

products, services, and vendors are available. RFIs are used to shape final RFPs, RFQs, and

IFBs, so potential vendors take great care in responding to these requests, hoping to shape the

eventual formal solicitation toward their products or services. (Newman, 2006)

Informally solicited proposals are typically the result of conversations held between a vendor and

a prospective customer. The customer is interested enough in a product or service to ask for a

proposal. Typically, the customer does not ask for competing proposals from other vendors. This

type of proposal is known as a sole-source proposal. There are no formal requirements to

respond to, just the information gleaned from customer meetings. These proposals are typically

less than 25-pages, with many less than 5 pages. (Newman, 2006)

Unsolicited proposals are marketing brochures. They are always generic, with no direct

connection between customer needs or specified requirements. Vendors use them to introduce a

product or service to a prospective customer. They are often used as "leave-behinds" at the end

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of initial meetings with customers or "give-aways" at trade shows or other public meetings. They

are not designed to close a sale, just introduce the possibility of a sale.

A proposal puts the buyer's requirements in a context that favors the sellers’ products and

services, and educates the buyer about the capabilities of the seller in satisfying their needs. A

successful proposal results in a sale, where both parties get what they want, a win-win situation.

8.2 Research Proposal

A research proposal is a document written by a scientist that describes in details the program for

a proposed scientific investigation.

Research proposals are written for various reasons, such as budget request for the research they

describe, certification requirements for research (e.g. from an ethics committee if the experiment

is to be done on human beings or animals protected by animal rights laws), as a task in tertiary

education (e.g. before performing research for a dissertation), or as a condition for employment

at a research institution (which usually requires sponsor-approved research proposals).

The phrasing of research proposals has many similarities to that of scientific articles. Of course,

research proposals are written in future tense and have different points of emphasis. Like

scientific articles, research proposals have sections describing the research background,

significance, methods, and references. The method section of research proposals is far more

detailed than those of scientific articles, allowing profound understanding of the price and risks

of the study and the plans for reducing them. Instead of a section describing the results, research

proposals have a section describing the hypotheses or the expected results. A typical research

proposal includes an extensive but focused literature review. A research proposal may also

include preliminary results.

Proposal Writing 5

As opposed to scientific articles, research proposals usually contain the curriculum vitaes of the

researchers. The curriculum vitaes are required for proving that the personnel asking to conduct

the research are capable of doing so. For example, a research proposal for a study including

injections would be expected to name at least one researcher qualified to inject human beings.

Similarly, a research proposal in biology is not likely to receive funding when the entire staff

consists of mathematicians only. In some academic institutes, a detailed resume of the thesis

mentor is required on the research proposal in order to show that the mentor can help the student

with the subject of the thesis.

Research sponsors publish calls for research proposals, specifying the topics into which they

fund research and their detailed format requirements. Those sponsors may be governmental,

nonprofit or business research foundations. (Wikipedia, 2004)

A research proposal is similar in a number of ways to a project proposal; however, a research

proposal addresses a particular project: academic or scientific research. The forms and

procedures for such research are well defined by the field of study, so guidelines for research

proposals are generally more exacting than less formal project proposals. Research proposals

contain extensive literature reviews and must offer convincing support of need for the research

study being proposed. Doctoral dissertations begin with research proposal; the proposal must be

accepted by a panel of experts (usually professors) before the actual research can begin. In

addition to providing rationale for the proposed research, the proposal must describe a detailed

methodology for conducting the research--a methodology consistent with requirements of the

professional or academic field. (The Writing Center, 2004)

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8.3 Purpose of a Proposal

Purpose is the reason why you are writing. You may write a grocery list in order to remember

what you need to buy. You may write a laboratory report in order to carefully describe a

chemistry experiment. You may write an argumentative essay in order to persuade someone to

change the parking rules on campus. You may write a letter to a friend to express your

excitement about her new job.

Notice that selecting the form for your writing (list, report, essay, and letter) is one of your

choices that helps you achieve your purpose. You also have choices about style, organization;

kinds of evidence that help you achieve your purpose

Focusing on your purpose as you begin writing helps you know what form to choose, how to

focus and organize your writing, what kinds of evidence to cite, how formal or informal your

style should be, and how much you should write. (Writing@CSU, 1993)

8.3.1 Types of Purpose

When we communicate with other people, we are usually guided by some purpose, goal, or aim.

We may want to express our feelings. We may want simply to explore an idea or perhaps

entertain or amuse our listeners or readers. We may wish to inform people or explain an idea. We

may wish to argue for or against an idea in order to persuade others to believe or act in a certain

way. We make special kinds of arguments when we are evaluating or problem solving. Finally,

we may wish to mediate or negotiate a solution in a tense or difficult situation.

Remember, however, that often writers combine purposes in a single piece of writing. Thus, we

may, in a business report, begin by informing readers of the economic facts before we try to

persuade them to take a certain course of action. (Writing@CSU, 1993)

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8.3.2 Purpose and Strategies

A purpose is the aim or goal of the writer or the written product; a strategy is a means of

achieving that purpose. For example, our purpose may be to explain something, but we may use

definitions, examples, descriptions, and analysis in order to make our explanation clearer. A

variety of strategies are available for writers to help them find ways to achieve their purpose(s).

(Writing@CSU, 1993)

8.3.2.1 Process Analysis

Process analysis is analyzing the chronological steps in any operation. A recipe contains process

analysis. First, sift the flour. Next, mix the eggs, milk, and oil. Then fold in the flour with the

eggs, milk and oil. Then add baking soda, salt and spices. Finally, pour the pancake batter onto

the griddle.

8.3.2.2 Cause/Effect Analysis

In cause and effect analysis, you map out possible causes and effects. Two patterns for doing

cause/effect analysis are as follows:

Several causes leading to single effect: Cause 1 + Cause 2 + Cause 3 . . . => Effect

One cause leading to multiple effects: Cause => Effect 1 + Effect 2 + Effect 3

8.3.2.3 Illustration and Example

Examples and illustrations are a basic kind of evidence and support in expository and

argumentative writing.

In her essay about anorexia nervosa, student writer Nancie Brosseau uses several examples to

develop a paragraph:

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Another problem, lying, occurred most often when my parents tried to force me to eat. Because I

was at the gym until around eight o'clock every night, I told my mother not to save me dinner. I

would come home and make a sandwich and feed it to my dog. I lied to my parents every day

about eating lunch at school. For example, I would bring a sack lunch and sell it to someone and

use the money to buy diet pills. I always told my parents that I ate my own lunch.

8.3.2.4 Comparison and Contrast

Comparison and contrast can be used to organize an essay. Consider whether either of the

following two outlines would help you organize your comparison essay.

Block Comparison of A and B

• Intro and Thesis

• Description of A

• Description of B (and how B is similar to/different from A)

• Conclusion

Alternating Comparison of A and B

• Intro and Thesis

• Aspect One: Comparison/contrast of A and B

• Aspect Two: Comparison/contrast of A and B

• Aspect Three: Comparison/contrast of A and B

8.3.2.5 Description

Although we usually think of description as visual, we may also use other senses--hearing, touch,

feeling, smell-- in our attempt to describe something for our readers.

Notice how student writer Stephen White uses multiple senses to describe Anasazi Indian ruins

at Mesa Verde:

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I awoke this morning with a sense of unexplainable anticipation gnawing away at the back of my

mind, that this chilly, leaden day at Mesa Verde would bring something new . . .. They are a

haunting sight, these broken houses, clustered together down in the gloom of the canyon. The

silence is broken only by the rush of the wind in the trees and the trickling of a tiny stream of

melting snow springing from ledge to ledge. This small, abandoned village of tiny houses seems

almost as the Indians left it, reduced by the passage of nearly a thousand years to piles of rubble

through which protrude broken red adobe walls surrounding ghostly jet black openings,

undisturbed by modern man.

8.3.2.6 *arration

Narration is possibly the most effective strategy essay writers can use. Readers are quickly

caught up in reading any story, no matter how short it is. Writers of exposition and argument

should consider where a short narrative might enliven their essay. Typically, this narrative can

relate some of your own experiences with the subject of your essay.

8.3.3 How Audience Affects Purpose

All readers have expectations. They assume what they read will meet their expectations. As a

writer, your job is to make sure those expectations are met, while at the same time, fulfilling the

purpose of your writing.

Once you have determined what type of purpose best conveys your motivations, you will then

need to examine how this will affect your readers. Perhaps you are explaining your topic when

you really should be convincing readers to see your point. Writers and readers may approach a

topic with conflicting purposes. Your job, as a writer, is to make sure both are being met.

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8.4 The Elements Of A Proposal

8.4.1 Introduction and Theoretical Framework

“The introduction is the part of the paper that provides readers with the background information

for the research reported in the paper. Its purpose is to establish a framework for the research, so

that readers can understand how it is related to other research” (Wilkinson, 1991)

In an introduction, the writer should:

• Create reader interest in the topic,

• Lay the broad foundation for the problem that leads to the study,

• Place the study within the larger context of the scholarly literature, and

• Reach out to a specific audience. (Creswell, 1994)

If a researcher is working within a particular theoretical framework/line of inquiry, the theory or

line of inquiry should be introduced and discussed early, preferably in the introduction or

literature review. Remember that the theory/line of inquiry selected will inform the statement of

the problem, rationale for the study, questions and hypotheses, selection of instruments, and

choice of methods. Ultimately, findings will be discussed in terms of how they relate to the

theory/line of inquiry that undergirds the study.

Theories, theoretical frameworks, and lines of inquiry may be differently handled in quantitative and

qualitative endeavors.

• “In quantitative studies, one uses theory deductively and places it toward the beginning

of the plan for a study. The objective is to test or verify theory. One thus begins the study

advancing a theory, collects data to test it, and reflects on whether the theory was

confirmed or disconfirmed by the results in the study. The theory becomes a framework

Proposal Writing 11

for the entire study, an organizing model for the research questions or hypotheses for the

data collection procedure” (Creswell, 1994)

• In qualitative inquiry, the use of theory and of a line of inquiry depends on the nature of

the investigation. In studies aiming at “grounded theory,” for example, theory and

theoretical tenets emerge from findings. Much qualitative inquiry, however, also aims to

test or verify theory, hence in these cases the theoretical framework, as in quantitative

efforts, should be identified and discussed early on.

8.4.2 Statement of the Problem

The problem statement describes the context for the study and it also identifies the general analysis

approach (Wiersma, 1995). A problem might be defined as the issue that exists in the literature,

theory, or practice that leads to a need for the study (Creswell, 1994). It is important in a proposal

that the problem stand out—that the reader can easily recognize it. Sometimes, obscure and poorly

formulated problems are masked in an extended discussion. In such cases, reviewers and/or

committee members will have difficulty recognizing the problem. A problem statement should be

presented within a context, and that context should be provided and briefly explained, including

a discussion of the conceptual or theoretical framework in which it is embedded. Clearly and

succinctly identify and explain the problem within the framework of the theory or line of inquiry

that undergirds the study. This is of major importance in nearly all proposals and requires careful

attention. It is a key element that associations such as AERA and APA look for in proposals. It is

essential in all quantitative research and much qualitative research. State the problem in terms

intelligible to someone who is generally sophisticated but who is relatively uninformed in the area of

your investigation. Effective problem statements answer the question “Why does this research need

to be conducted.” If a researcher is unable to answer this question clearly and succinctly, and without

Proposal Writing 12

resorting to hyperspeaking (i.e., focusing on problems of macro or global proportions that certainly

will not be informed or alleviated by the study), then the statement of the problem will come off as

ambiguous and diffuse. For conference proposals, the statement of the problem is generally

incorporated into the introduction; academic proposals for theses or dissertations should have

this as a separate section. (Pajares, 2007)

8.4.3 Purpose of Study

The purpose statement should provide a specific and accurate synopsis of the overall purpose of

the study (Locke, 1987). If the purpose is not clear to the writer, it cannot be clear to the

reader. Foreshadow the hypotheses to be tested or the questions to be raised, as well as the

significance of the study. These will require specific elaboration in subsequent sections. The

purpose statement can also incorporate the rationale for the study. Some committees prefer that the

purpose and rationale be provided in separate sections, however. Key points to keep in mind when

preparing a purpose statement.

1. Try to incorporate a sentence that begins with “The purpose of this study is . . .”

This will clarify your own mind as to the purpose and it will inform the reader directly

and explicitly.

2. Clearly identify and define the central concepts or ideas of the study. Some committee

Chairs prefer a separate section to this end. When defining terms, make a judicious

choice between using descriptive or operational definitions.

3. Identify the specific method of inquiry to be used.

4. Identify the unit of analysis in the study.

(Pajares, 2007)

8.4.4 Review of the Literature

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The review of the literature provides the background and context for the research problem. It

should establish the need for the research and indicate that the writer is knowledgeable about the

area (Wiersma, 1995). The literature review accomplishes several important things.

1. It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to the study

being reported. (Fraenkel, 1990)

2. It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature about a topic, filling in gaps

and extending prior studies. (Marshall, 1989)

3. It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study, as well as a

benchmark for comparing the results of a study with other findings.

4. It “frames” the problem earlier identified.

8.4.5 Questions and/or Hypotheses

Questions are relevant to normative or census type research (How many of them are there? Is

there a relationship between them?). They are most often used in qualitative inquiry, although

their use in quantitative inquiry is becoming more prominent. Hypotheses are relevant to

theoretical research and are typically used only in quantitative inquiry. When a writer states

hypotheses, the reader is entitled to have an exposition of the theory that lead to them (and of the

assumptions underlying the theory). Just as conclusions must be grounded in the data,

hypotheses must be grounded in the theoretical framework.

A research question poses a relationship between two or more variables but phrases the relationship

as a question; a hypothesis represents a declarative statement of the relations between two or more

variables. (Kerlinger, 1979) (Krathwohl, 1988)

Hypotheses can be couched in four kinds of statements.

1. Literary null—a “no difference” form in terms of theoretical constructs. For example,

“There is no relationship between support services and academic persistence of

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nontraditional-aged college women.” Or, “There is no difference in school achievement

for high and low self-regulated students.”

2. Operational null—a “no difference” form in terms of the operation required to test the

hypothesis. For example, “There is no relationship between the number of hours

nontraditional-aged college women use the student union and their persistence at the

college after their freshman year.” Or, “There is no difference between the mean grade

point averages achieved by students in the upper and lower quartiles of the distribution of

the Self-regulated Inventory.” The operational null is generally the preferred form of

hypothesis-writing.

3. Literary alternative—a form that states the hypothesis you will accept if the null

hypothesis is rejected, stated in terms of theoretical constructs. In other words, this is

usually what you hope the results will show. For example, “The more that nontraditional-

aged women use support services, the more they will persist academically.” Or, “High

self-regulated students will achieve more in their classes than low self-regulated

students.”

4. Operational alternative—Similar to the literary alternative except that the operations

are specified. For example, “The more that nontraditional-aged college women use the

student union, the more they will persist at the college after their freshman year.” Or,

“Students in the upper quartile of the Self-regulated Inventory distribution achieve

significantly higher grade point averages than do students in the lower quartile.”

8.4.6 Methodology

Te methods or procedures section is really the heart of the research proposal. The activities

should be described with as much detail as possible, and the continuity between them should be

apparent (Wiersma, 1995). Indicate the methodological steps you will take to answer every question

Proposal Writing 15

or to test every hypothesis illustrated in the Questions/Hypotheses section. All research is plagued

by the presence of confounding variables (the noise that covers up the information you would

like to have). Confounding variables should be minimized by various kinds of controls or be

estimated and taken into account by randomization processes (Guba, 1961). In the design section,

indicate:

1. The variables you propose to control and how you propose to control them,

experimentally or statistically, and

2. The variables you propose to randomize, and the nature of the randomizing unit

(students, grades, schools, etc.).

8.4.6.1 Sampling

The key reason for being concerned with sampling is that of validity—the extent to which the

interpretations of the results of the study follow from the study itself and the extent to which

results may be generalized to other situations with other people (Shavelson, 1988). Sampling is

critical to external validity—the extent to which findings of a study can be generalized to people

or situations other than those observed in the study. To generalize validly the findings from a

sample to some defined population requires that the sample has been drawn from that population

according to one of several probability sampling plans. By a probability sample is meant that the

probability of inclusion in the sample of any element in the population must be given a priori. All

probability samples involve the idea of random sampling at some stage (Shavelson, 1988). In

experimentation, two distinct steps are involved:

• Random selection—participants to be included in the sample have been chosen at

random from the same population. Define the population and indicate the sampling plan

in detail.

• Random assignment—participants for the sample have been assigned at random to one

of the experimental conditions.

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8.4.6.2 Instrumentation

Outline the instruments you propose to use (surveys, scales, interview protocols, observation

grids). If instruments have previously been used, identify previous studies and findings related to

reliability and validity. If instruments have not previously been used, outline procedures you will

follow to develop and test their reliability and validity. In the latter case, a pilot study is nearly

essential.

Because selection of instruments in most cases provides the operational definition of constructs, this

is a crucial step in the proposal. For example, it is at this step that a literary conception such as “self-

efficacy is related to school achievement” becomes “scores on the Mathematics Self-Efficacy Scale

are related to Grade Point Average.” Strictly speaking, results of your study will be directly relevant

only to the instrumental or operational statements (Guba, 1961).

8.4.6.3 Data Collection

Outline the general plan for collecting the data. This may include survey administration

procedures, interview or observation procedures. Include an explicit statement covering the field

controls to be employed. If appropriate, discuss how you obtained entré.

8.4.6.4 Data Analysis

Specify the procedures you will use, and label them accurately. If coding procedures are to be

used, describe in reasonable detail. If you triangulated, carefully explain how you went about it.

Communicate your precise intentions and reasons for these intentions to the reader. This helps

you and the reader evaluate the choices you made and procedures you followed.

Indicate briefly any analytic tools you will have available and expect to use.

8.4.7 Limitations and Delimitations

Proposal Writing 17

A limitation identifies potential weaknesses of the study. Think about your analysis, the nature of

self-report, your instruments, the sample. Think about threats to internal validity that may have

been impossible to avoid or minimize

A delimitation addresses how a study will be narrowed in scope, that is, how it is bounded. This

is the place to explain the things that you are not doing and why you have chosen not to do

them—the literature you will not review (and why not), the population you are not studying (and

why not), the methodological procedures you will not use (and why you will not use them).

Limit your delimitations to the things that a reader might reasonably expect you to do but that

you, for clearly explained reasons, have decided not to do. (Pajares, 2007)

8.4.8 Significance of the Study

Indicate how your research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in the area under

investigation. Note that such refinements, revisions, or extensions may have either substantive,

theoretical, or methodological significance. Think pragmatically (i.e., cash value).

Most studies have two potential audiences: practitioners and professional peers. Statements relating

the research to both groups are in order.

This can be a difficult section to write. Think about implications—how results of the study may

affect scholarly research, theory, practice, educational interventions, curricula, counseling,

policy. (Pajares, 2007)

Proposal Writing 18

9 Proposal Writing

9.1 The Writing Process

Proposals which include descriptions, instructions, cost analyses, scheduling assessments and

personnel considerations, are more demanding than other kinds of technical correspondence.

Therefore, writing according to process approach is even more important. For our proposal, we

will have to gather more data, more information to organize, and more text to revise. To help you

tackle these tasks,

• Pre-write

• Write

• Rewrite

Remember that the writing process is dynamic and these steps often overlap.

9.1.1 Prewriting

Pre writing involves:

• Brainstorming to outline the key components of our proposal or for our technical

description.

• Reporter’s questions (who, what, when, where, why and how) to help us gather data for

any of the sections in our proposal.

Prewriting

Writing

Rewriting

Proposal Writing 19

• Branching and mind mapping to organize our managerial sections (organizational charts

for chains of command, personnel responsibilities, etc)

In addition to these prewriting techniques we might need to perform research prior to writing.

For instance, let’s say our engineering firm is submitting a proposal to an out of state

corporation. Prior to bidding on the job, you will need to find out what kind of certifications or

licenses this state requires. To do so, we have to research the state’s requirement and read state

laws regarding construction certificates and licenses.

9.1.1.1 Surveys

Before we can take a survey we must decide what questions to ask. Brainstorming would be an

ideal way to gather such data. Follow this procedure

1. Rapidly jot down whatever questions come to mind regarding your topic.

2. Don’t editorialize at this point. Don’t try to organize the list; don’t delete any questions

that emerge.

3. Once you have a list of possible topics, review the list.

• Add any omissions

• Delete any redundancies or irrelevant ideas

• Organize the list according to some rational order

9.1.2 Writing

After gathering your data and organizing your thoughts through prewriting, your next step is to

draft your proposal.

9.1.2.1 Review Your Prewriting

Double check your brainstorming, mind mapping, flowcharting, reporter’s questions, interviews,

research, and surveys. Check whether you have the required data or not. Omit any data if it is

irrelevant or add some data if it is required. Focus your attention on most important details.

Proposal Writing 20

9.1.2.2 Organizing Data

Each of our proposal’s section will require a different organizational pattern. Following our

several possible approaches:

• Abstract: problem/solution/benefit

• Introduction: cause/effect

• Main text: this unit will demand many different methods of organization, including

• Analysis

• Chronology

• Spatial

• Comparison/contrast

• Conclusion/recommendation: analysis and importance

9.1.2.3 Write Using Sufficing Techniques

When we draft our text, don’t worry about correct grammar, highlighting techniques, or

graphics. Just get down the information as rapidly as you can. You can revise the draft during

rewriting,the third stage of the writing process.

9.1.2.4 Formatting for Effective Proposals

To format for our proposal, include the following components

• Tile page

• Cover letter

• Table of contents

• List of illustrations

• Abstract

• Introduction

• Discussion

Proposal Writing 21

• Conclusion/recommendation

• Glossary

• Works cited

• Appendix

9.1.3 Rewriting

After we have written a rough draft of our proposal, the next step is to revise it-fine tune, hone,

sclulpt, and polish our draft.

9.1.3.1 Add Detail For Clarity

In addition to rereading our rough draft and adding a missing who, what, when, where, why, and

how where necessary, add the graphics. Going back to each section of our proposal and

determine where we could use the following

• Tables. Our cost section lends itself to this section

• Figures. Our introduction problem analysis and any of the main text sections could profit

from the following figures

a) Line charts

b) Bar charts

c) Pie charts

d) Line drawings

e) Photographs

f) Flowcharts

g) Organizational charts

Proposal Writing 22

Another important addition to our proposal in this rewriting stage is a glossary. Now that we

have written our rough draft, we have to go back at our each page to decide which abbreviations,

acronyms, and high tech terms must be placed in our glossary.

9.1.3.2 Delete Dead Words And Phrases For Conciseness

Because proposals are long, we have already made our reader uncomfortable. People don’t like

wading through massive pages of text. Anything we can do to help our reader through this task

will be appreciative.

9.1.3.3 Simplify Old-Fashioned Words

A common adage in technical writing is, “Write the way you speak.” Or try to be more

conversational in your writing. Don’t use complex or difficult words. This is especially

important in our abstract and conclusion/recommendation sections, which are geared toward our

low tech management.

9.1.3.4 Move Information

Each section of our proposal will use a different organizational method. Our abstract for example

should be organized according to a problem/solution/benefit approach. Our introduction will be

organized according to the cause and effect. The organization of our main text will vary from

section to section.

We have to analyze according to importance, setup schedules and procedures chronologically,

describe spatially, and so forth.

In rewriting, revise our proposal to ensure that each section maintains the appropriate

organizational pattern. To do so, move information around.

9.1.3.5 Reformat For Reader-Friendly Ease Of Access

If we give our readers wall-to-wall words, they will doze off while attempting to wade through

our proposal. To avoid this, revise the proposal by reformatting. Indent to create white space.

Proposal Writing 23

Add headings and subheadings. Itemize ideas, boldface key points, and underline important

words or phrases. Using graphics will also help you avoid long, overwhelming blocks of text. By

reformatting our proposal, we will make the text inviting and ease reader access.

9.1.3.6 Enhance The Tone Of Our Proposal

Although we want to keep our proposal professional, remember that people write to people. Our

reader is a human not a machine. Therefore, to achieve a sense of humanity, enhance the tone of

the text by using pronouns and positive motivational words. These are important in our

statements of benefit and recommended courses of action.

9.1.3.7 Correct Errors

If you’re proposing a sale, you must provide accurate figures and information. Proposals for

example are legally binding. If we state the fee in our proposal or write about schedules, our

prospective client will hold us responsible; we must live up to those fees or schedules. Making

sure that our data is accurate.

Recheck each of our numbers, recalculate or figures, and double check our source of

information. Correct errors prior to submitting the report. Failure to do so could be catastrophic

for our company or our client.

Of course, we must also check for typographical, mechanical, and grammatical errors.

Submitting reports with error show un-professionalism and undermine our credentials.

9.1.3.8 Avoid Biased Language

Don’t talk about foreman, manpower or men and girls. Change them to supervisors, workforce

and to men and women. Don’t address the cover letter to gentlemen. Either find out the name of

the reader or omit the salutation according to simplified letter style. Avoid cultural or age-related

biases.

Proposal Writing 24

9.2 The Writing Format

A proposal consists of following parts:

• Title page

• Cover letter

• Table of contents

• List of illustrations

• Abstract(or executive summary)

• Introduction

• Discussion(the body of the proposal)

• Conclusion/recommendation

9.2.1 Title Page

The title page serves several purposes. On the simplest level, a title page acts as a dust cover or

jacket keeping the report clean and neat. More important, the title page tells your reader the

• Title of the proposal(thereby providing clarity of intent)

• Name of the company, writer, or writers submitting the proposal

• Date on which the proposal was completed

If the external proposal is being mailed outside your company to a client, you also might include

on the title page the audience to whom the report is addressed.

If the internal proposal is being submitted within your company to peers, subordinates, or

supervisors, you might want to include a routing list of individuals who must sign off and

approve the proposal.

9.2.2 Cover Letter

A cover letter prefaces the proposal and provides the reader an

tells the reader:

• Why are you writing

• What you are writing about(the subject of this proposal)

• What exactly of importance is within the proposal

• What you plan to do next as follow up

• When the action should occur

• Why the date is important

Proposal Writing

Figure 1Title Page (Associates A. B., 20110)

A cover letter prefaces the proposal and provides the reader an overview of what is to follow. It

What you are writing about(the subject of this proposal)

What exactly of importance is within the proposal

What you plan to do next as follow up

When the action should occur

te is important

Proposal Writing 25

overview of what is to follow. It

9.2.3 Table Of Conents

Proposals are read by many different readers, each of whom will have a special area of interest.

Our responsibility is to help th

them. One way to accomplish this is through a table of contents. The table of components should

be a complete and accurate listing of the main and minor topics covered in the proposal. A

effective table of contents flashes out complete detail so your reader knows exactly what is

covered in each section. By providing a thorough table of contents, we will save our readers time

and help them find the information they want and need.

9.2.3.1 List of Illustrations

If our proposal contains several tables or figures, you will need to provide a list of illustrations.

This list can be included below our table of contents, if there is room on the page, or on separate

page. As with the table of contents, you

Proposal Writing

Figure 2 Cover Letter (America, 2010)


Our responsibility is to help these different readers find the sections of the proposal that interest


be a complete and accurate listing of the main and minor topics covered in the proposal. A



and help them find the information they want and need.



page. As with the table of contents, your list of illustrations must be clear and informative.

Proposal Writing 26


ese different readers find the sections of the proposal that interest


be a complete and accurate listing of the main and minor topics covered in the proposal. An





r list of illustrations must be clear and informative.

Figure

9.2.4 Abstract

The abstract (or executive summary)

toward a low-tech reader. If the intended audience is composed of upper level management, this

unit might be called an executive summary. To accomplish the required brevity, one should limit

the abstract to approximately 3 to 10 sentences. These

paragraph or as smaller units of information separated by headings. Each proposal writ

focuses on unique ideas. Therefore the content of abstracts

focus on the following

• The problem necessitating our proposal

• Our suggested solution

• The benefits derived when our proposal suggestions are implemented

Proposal Writing

Figure 3 Table of Contents (Associates C. B., 2008)

(or executive summary) is a brief overview of the proposal’s key poin

tech reader. If the intended audience is composed of upper level management, this


the abstract to approximately 3 to 10 sentences. These sentences can be presented as one

paragraph or as smaller units of information separated by headings. Each proposal writ

on unique ideas. Therefore the content of abstracts differs. Nonetheless, abstract should

necessitating our proposal

Our suggested solution

The benefits derived when our proposal suggestions are implemented

Proposal Writing 27

is a brief overview of the proposal’s key points geared

tech reader. If the intended audience is composed of upper level management, this


sentences can be presented as one

paragraph or as smaller units of information separated by headings. Each proposal written

. Nonetheless, abstract should

The benefits derived when our proposal suggestions are implemented

These three points work for external as well as internal proposals.

For an internal proposal suggesting a course of action

your company’s work force, etc).

planned action. Next, action planning to

brief overview of how your plan would so

For an external proposal to sell a client new product or service, you would still focus on problem,

solution and benefit. The abstract would remind the readers of their company’s problem, state

that your company’s new product or service could alleviate this problem, and then emphasize the

benefits derived. (Gerson, 2009)

In each case, you not only want to brief, focusing on the most important issues, but also you

should avoid high tech terminology and concepts. The purpose of abstract is to provide our

reader with an easy to understand summary of the entire proposal’s focus. Executives want the

bottom line, and they want it quickly. They don’t want to waste time deciphering your hig

hieroglyphics.

Figure

Proposal Writing

These three points work for external as well as internal proposals.

For an internal proposal suggesting a course of action (limiting excessive personnel, increasing

your company’s work force, etc). Firstly, an abstract should specify the problem requiring your

planned action. Next, action planning to be implemented should be mentioned

brief overview of how your plan would solve the problem, thus benefiting your company.



ny’s new product or service could alleviate this problem, and then emphasize the

(Gerson, 2009)


tech terminology and concepts. The purpose of abstract is to provide our


bottom line, and they want it quickly. They don’t want to waste time deciphering your hig

Figure 4 Abstract (Curriculum Designers, 2007)

Proposal Writing 28

sive personnel, increasing

abstract should specify the problem requiring your

ed should be mentioned. This leads to a

lve the problem, thus benefiting your company.



ny’s new product or service could alleviate this problem, and then emphasize the


tech terminology and concepts. The purpose of abstract is to provide our


bottom line, and they want it quickly. They don’t want to waste time deciphering your high tech

Proposal Writing 29

9.2.5 Introduction

Our introduction should include two primary sections

1. Purpose

2. Problem

9.2.5.1 Purpose

In one to three sentences tell your reader the purpose of your proposal. This purpose statement

informs your reader why you are writing or what you hope to achieve. This statement repeats our

abstract to a certain extent. However it’s not redundant; it’s a reiteration.

The purpose statement, in addition to theabstract, is another way to ensure that our readers

understand our intent. It neither reminds them of what they have just read in the abstract nor

informs them for the first time if they skipped over the abstract. Our purpose statement is

synonymous with a paragraph’s topic sentence, an essay’s thesis, the first sentence in a letter or

in the introductory paragraph in a shorter report. (Gerson, 2009)

9.2.5.2 Problem

Whereas the purpose statement should be limited to one to three sentences for clarity and

conciseness, your discussion of the problem must be much more detailed.

For example, if you are writing an internal proposal to add a new facility, your company’s

current work space must be too limited. You have got a problem that must be solved. If you are

writing an external proposal to sell a new piece of equipment, your perspective client must need

better equipment. Your proposal will solve the client’s problem. (Gerson, 2009)

Introduction focuses on the problem, which could average one to two pages, is important for two

reasons:

• Firstly, it highlights the importance of our proposal. It emphasizes for our readers the

proposal’s priority. In this problem section, one persuades his readers

exists and need needs immediate attention.

• Second, by clearly stating the problem, we also reveal our knowledge of the situation.

The problem section reveals our expertise. Thus, after reading this section of the

introduction, our audience should recognize the severity of the problem and trust us to

solve it.

One way to help our readers understand the problem is through the use of highlighting

techniques, especially headings and subheadings.

Proposal Writing

t highlights the importance of our proposal. It emphasizes for our readers the

proposal’s priority. In this problem section, one persuades his readers

exists and need needs immediate attention.

Second, by clearly stating the problem, we also reveal our knowledge of the situation.


ence should recognize the severity of the problem and trust us to


techniques, especially headings and subheadings.

Figure 5 Introduction (Bail, 1995)

Proposal Writing 30

t highlights the importance of our proposal. It emphasizes for our readers the

proposal’s priority. In this problem section, one persuades his readers that a problem truly

Second, by clearly stating the problem, we also reveal our knowledge of the situation.


ence should recognize the severity of the problem and trust us to


Proposal Writing 31

9.2.6 Discussion

The discussion section of our proposal constitutes its body. In this section, we sell our products,

service, or suggested solution. As such, the discussion section represents the major portion of the

proposal, perhaps 85 percent of the text.

Because every proposal will differ, one cannot tell exactly what to include. However, the

discussion can contain any or all of the following: (Gerson, 2009)

1. Analyses

• Existing solution

• Solutions

• Benefits

2. Technical descriptions of mechanism, tools, facilities, or products

3. Technical instructions

4. Options

• Approaches or methodologies

• Purchase options

5. Managerial chains of command

6. Biographical sketches of personnel

7. Corporate and employee credentials

• Years in business

• Satisfied clients

• Certifications

• Previous accomplishments

8. Schedules

• Implementations schedules

Proposal Writing 32

• Reporting intervals

• Maintenance schedules

• Delivery schedules

• Completion dates

• Payment schedules

• Projected milestone

9. Cost charts

One has to decide which of these sections will be geared toward high tech readers, low tech

readers, or a lay audience. Once this section is made, you will have to write accordingly, defining

terms as needed. In addition to audience recognition, one should also enhance his discussion with

figures and tables for clarity, conciseness, and cosmetic appeal.

9.2.7 Conclusion/Recommendations

As with shorter reports, one must sum up the proposal, providing readers with a sense of closure.

The conclusion can restate the problem, solutions and the benefits to be derived. In doing so,

remember to quantify. Be specific, state percentages and amounts.

Recommendations suggest the next course of action. Specify when this action will or should

occur and why that date is important. (Gerson, 2009)

The conclusion/recommendation section can be made accessible through highlighting

techniques, including headings, subheadings, underlining, boldface, itemization and white space.

Conclusion/recommendations liken abstract, will be read primarily by executives, hence write to

a low tech reader.

9.2.8 Glossary

Because we will have numerous readers with multiple levels of expertise, we must be concerned

about our use of high tech language. Although some of our readers will und

terminology, others won’t. However, if you define your terms each time you use them, two

problems will occur: we will insult high tech readers, and we will delay our audience as they

read our text. To avoid these pitfalls use a glossary.

A glossary is an alphabetized list of high tech terminology placed after your

conclusion/recommendation. A glossary is invaluable. Readers who are unfamiliar with our

terminology can turn to the glossary and read our definitions. Those readers who understand ou

word usage can continue to read without stopping for unneeded information.

9.2.9 References

If you have used research to write yo

This page documents the source (book, periodicals, interviews, computer software, etc) you have

searched and quoted or paraphrased.

Proposal Writing


about our use of high tech language. Although some of our readers will und



read our text. To avoid these pitfalls use a glossary.

ssary is an alphabetized list of high tech terminology placed after your


terminology can turn to the glossary and read our definitions. Those readers who understand ou

word usage can continue to read without stopping for unneeded information.

Figure 6 Glossary (Inc, 2001)

If you have used research to write your proposal, you will need to include a work cited page.


searched and quoted or paraphrased.

Proposal Writing 33


about our use of high tech language. Although some of our readers will understand our



ssary is an alphabetized list of high tech terminology placed after your


terminology can turn to the glossary and read our definitions. Those readers who understand our

word usage can continue to read without stopping for unneeded information. (Gerson, 2009)

ur proposal, you will need to include a work cited page.


9.2.10 Appendix

A final, optional component is an appendix. Appendices allow you to include any additional

information (survey results, tables, figures, previous report findings, relevant letters or memos)

that you have not built into your

The contents of our appendix should not be of primary importance. Any truly important

information should be incorporated within the proposal’s main text. Valuable data should appear

in the text where it is easily accessible. Informati

simply because of it placement at the end of the report. We don’t want to bury our key ideas. An

appendix is a perfect place to file nonessential data that provides documentation for future

reference. (Gerson, 2009)

Proposal Writing

Figure 7 References (M.A., 2008)



that you have not built into your proposal’s main text.



in the text where it is easily accessible. Information provided within an appendix is buried,



Proposal Writing 34





on provided within an appendix is buried,



Proposal Writing 35

10 Critical Analysis

Today majority of the proposals written are actually hard copy printouts of power point slides.

Technical writers and authors have concluded that most readers want less text and easy to read

documentation, complete with ample graphics. And power point is the best solution to this need.

Not only the writers and proposal drafters use power point to make oral presentations about their

project, but they can also print out the power point slides as landscape pages and bind them as

handouts.

The benefit of the hard copy pages is that they are easy to create, read, understand, and meet

reader’s need for conciseness. Also that power point slides and their hardcopy are easy to

understand for a low tech management and the officials who need the basic idea of our proposal.

Power point proposals have also benefitted the firms and associations in founding the perfect

way to present clear, concise and thorough documentation of their assets. Rather than scrolling

through the hundreds of pages of report the reader can easily and within a short time span get the

idea of the proposal.

As a proposal’s primary objective is to persuade our target audience to take specific action, a

good proposal often presents a key opportunity for us to stand out from the crowd and can

influence, where as a poorly written proposal can quickly kick out our chances. Hence it is

thought that a proposal which is easy to understand, concise and brief, and notify the point i.e.

one made on power point slides, is more effective than the proposal which is long, complex and

intricate.

Proposal Writing 36

11 Conclusion

Implementing the mentioned techniques and format; and especially the quality control reviews

and checkpoints, will help ensure proposal creates the maximum impact. The proposal must be

easily grasped by the evaluators. When creating proposals, many organizations seem to forget

this grade-school lesson: For effective communication, your words must be understood.

The most important thing is that the proposal has to be written for whom it is meant. Use

language that they know!

Proposal Writing 37

12 References

1. (RPI), R. P. (2000). Proposal Purpose. Retrieved June 20, 2010, from

http://www.rpi.edu/web/writingcenter/wc_web/school/proposalpurpose.htm

2. America, G. S. (2010). AKC - Retrieving Letter. Retrieved June 20, 2010, from GSPCA:

http://www.gspca.org/General/News/images/AKC-Retrieving-letter.jpg

3. Associates, A. B. (20110). Proposal Cover. Retrieved June 20, 2010, from Albert B. York &

Associates: http://www.globalgrantwriter.com/GGWimages/Proposal-

Cover_1203134116.jpg

4. Associates, C. B. (2008). Table of Contents. Retrieved June 20, 2010, from Chestertown

Maryland: http://www.chestertown.com/gov/pdf/CompPlan/Table-of-Contents.gif

5. Bail, A. L. (1995). Introduction. Retrieved June 20, 2010, from ALB Crytallography:

http://www.cristal.org/glasses/versailles/introduction.gif

6. Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative & quantitative approaches. Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage.

7. Curriculum Designers, I. (2007). Ohio Summary. Retrieved June 20, 2010, from Curriculum

Designers:

http://www.curriculumdesigners.com/Static/Resources/Documents/Bulletin%20Board%20Re

sources/OhioSummary.jpg

8. Fraenkel, J. R. (1990). How to design and evaluate research in education. New York:

McGraw-Hill.

9. Gerson, S. J. (2009). Technical Writing Process and Product. New Dehli: Dorling

Kindersley.

10. Guba, E. G. (1961). Elements of a proposal. UCEA meeting. Chapel Hill, NC.

11. Inc, D. S. (2001). Glossary. Retrieved June 20, 2010, from DB Streams Site:

http://www.dbstreams.ca/images/glossary.jpg

12. Kerlinger, F. N. (1979). Behavioral research: A conceptual approach. New York: Holt,

Rinehart, & Winston.

13. Krathwohl, D. R. (1988). How to prepare a research proposal: Guidelines for funding and

dissertations in the social and behavioral sciences. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.

14. Locke, L. F. (1987). Proposals that work: A guide for planning dissertations and grant

proposals (2nd Ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Proposal Writing 38

15. M.A., S. T. (2008). Citing APA Refenreces . Retrieved June 20, 2010, from Suzzane

Delahanty's Homebase: http://suzanned.info/APA/graphics/citing-apa-reference-list.gif

16. Marshall, C. &. (1989). Designing qualitative research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

17. Newman, L. (2006). Proposal Guide for Business and Sales Professionals. Shipley

Associates.

18. Pajares, F. (2007). Elements of a proposal. Retrieved June 18, 2010, from Division of

Education Studies: http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/proposal.html

19. Shavelson, R. J. (1988). Statistical reasoning for the behavioral sciences (second edition).

Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

20. The Writing Center. (2004). Writing the Research Proposal. Retrieved June 19, 2010, from

Saint Mary’s University of Minnesota:

http://www2.smumn.edu/deptpages/~tcwritingcenter/Forms_of_Writing/ResearchProposal.ht

m

21. WebFinance, I. (2010). InvestorWords.com. Retrieved June 20, 2010, from

http://www.investorwords.com/3905/proposal.html

22. Wiersma, W. (1995). Research methods in education: An introduction (Sixth edition).

Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

23. Wikipedia. (2004). Research Proposal. Retrieved June 19, 2010, from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_proposal

24. Wilkinson, A. M. (1991). The scientist’s handbook for writing papers and dissertations.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

25. Writing@CSU. (1993). A Definition of Purpose. Retrieved June 18, 2010, from Colorado

State University's: http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/processes/purpose/pop2a.cfm

26. Writing@CSU. (1993). Definitions of Proposals. Retrieved June 18, 2010, from Colorado

State University: http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/documents/proposal/pop2a.cfm

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University: http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/processes/purpose/pop2b.cfm

Proposal Writing 39

13 Appendix