26 products and markets special features · argan oil rare moroccan argan oil – now made in...

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NON-WOOD NEWS No. 24 May 2012 26 PRODUCTS AND MARKETS ANDIROBA The uses and economic value of andiroba (Carapa guianensis Aubl.) Andiroba trees have straight trunks that can reach 30 m in height, often with buttress roots. Growing throughout the Amazon basin, Central America and Africa, andiroba prefers seasonally flooded forests and the margins of rivers, but is also found in terra firme forests. A powerful anti-inflammatory medicinal oil extracted from the seeds of andiroba is one of the most widely used natural remedies in the Amazon. Andiroba oil can mend badly sprained ankles, repel mosquitoes and is used in veterinary medicine to cure the infected cuts of animals. Indigenous groups in Brazil have traditionally painted their skin with a mixture of andiroba oil and the bright red pigment from the seeds of urucum (Bixa orellana). Andiroba is also valued for its bark and wood. The bark can be made into a tea to fight fevers, worms, bacteria and tumours. In addition to its lightness and durability, andiroba wood is bitter and oily, deterring attacks by termites and caterpillars. Because the deep, golden-hued wood is of superior quality, andiroba is considered to be on a par with mahogany. For this reason, it is increasingly difficult to find in logged areas. Economic value Andiroba oil is one of the most widely sold natural remedies in Amazonia. The oil industry has its origins in the city of Cametá, in the Brazilian state of Pará, and its commercialization generates significant employment and income throughout Amazonia. In Cametá, children eagerly collect and sell andiroba seeds. Street children relate that 4 kg earns them US$0.10 – enough to buy a packet of crackers. In Salvaterra, on Marajó Island, which lies at the mouth of the Amazon River, unemployed men, women and children comb the beach for seeds washed down from inland rivers. In 2004, they could sell 1 kg (about 55 seeds) for US$0.07 to companies in São Paulo. In 2009, in the Belém market, 1 litre of andiroba oil costs on average US$6. Stores often buy the oil during the harvest when prices are low, hold on to the oil and sell it out of season at a higher price. The oil is also in demand internationally and is exported to Europe and the United States of America. From 1974 to 1985, between 200 and 350 tonnes of oil were exported annually, mainly from the Brazilian states of Maranhão, Pará and Amapá. In 2009, in the United States of America, an 8-oz (227-g) bottle of andiroba oil can be purchased over the Internet for between US$23 and US$40. One proof of andiroba’s popularity is the number of soaps, creams, oils and candles made from andiroba on the market in the Amazon region and throughout the world. In the supermarkets of Belém, the soaps can cost from US$1.50 to US$5, while body oil (50 ml) costs US$3. A 150 g bag of andiroba bark costs US$1. Whereas supermarkets, pharmacies and corner vendors in Belém sell andiroba, in the western Amazonian state of Acre andiroba oil is hard to find on the market: few communities in Acre produce the oil, and those that do generally produce it for local consumption. (Source: FAO, 2011. Fruit trees and useful plants in Amazonian life.) ARGAN OIL Rare Moroccan argan oil – now made in Israel Argan oil, rich in vitamin E and fatty acids, has become the sensation of the decade, sought after by chemists, dieticians, hair salons, chefs and cosmeticians. The only problem with argan is its availability: the argan tree takes 15 years to yield nuts and one tree can yield only a couple of litres of oil, making production costly and limited. Until recently, argan was a rare product grown only in the Atlas Mountains and traditionally made by Moroccan tribes, as the argan tree could not flourish outside Morocco. Today, the Israeli company Sivan is developing Argan 100 – a superstrain of argan that is tolerant of the Mediterranean climate and can produce ten times more nuts than the average tree in Morocco, the company says. Based on 25 years of field research, Sivan's agronomists found a way to produce the oil from their own groves and refuted the widespread legend associated with the production of the oil. According to this legend, argan oil can only be processed from the nut – which looks like an unripe olive – after its hard shell has been removed via a goat's digestive tract. Sivan’s chief agronomist Chaim Oren says there is in fact no need for goats to perform the job of intermediaries. “I was exposed to argan trees many years ago, and we did a breeding session in Israel,” Oren says. “We pollinated trees with other trees. Ours are resistant to soil disease, giving these trees a steady yield every year.” To date, about 2 500 argan trees have been planted in the Ashkelon, Arava and Negev regions in Israel. This commercial endeavour may also be beneficial for the argan trees in Morocco, as competition with the local market could reduce the tree’s chances of extinction. The UN conservation body United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has set up reserves to protect the dwindling argan trees in Morocco. Sivan, founded in 2007 and based in Ramat Hasharon, Israel, sells argan oil to wholesalers, with small quantities of leftovers sold online. Their eventual plan is to sell Argan 100 to other countries. (Source: NoCamels, 8 February 2012 in ENN Daily Newsletter.) % % MOSQUITO REPELLENT AND DENGUE FEVER Andiroba oil can be used as a repellent against gnats and mosquitoes. It also reduces inflammation caused by insect, snake and bat bites. Studies by the Research Institute of the State of Amapá (IEPA) discovered that candles made from the dry remnants of andiroba seeds repel the mosquito that carries dengue, Aedes aegypti.

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Page 1: 26 PRODUCTS AND MARKETS SPECIAL FEATURES · ARGAN OIL Rare Moroccan argan oil – now made in Israel Argan oil, rich in vitamin E and fatty acids, has become the sensation of the

S P E C I A L F E A T U R E S

NON-WOOD NEWS No. 24 May 2012

26 S P E C I A L F E A T U R E SP R O D U C T S A N D M A R K E T S

ANDIROBA

The uses and economic value of andiroba(Carapa guianensis Aubl.)Andiroba trees have straight trunks that canreach 30 m in height, often with buttressroots. Growing throughout the Amazonbasin, Central America and Africa, andirobaprefers seasonally flooded forests and themargins of rivers, but is also found in terrafirme forests.

A powerful anti-inflammatory medicinaloil extracted from the seeds of andiroba isone of the most widely used naturalremedies in the Amazon. Andiroba oil canmend badly sprained ankles, repelmosquitoes and is used in veterinarymedicine to cure the infected cuts ofanimals. Indigenous groups in Brazil havetraditionally painted their skin with a mixtureof andiroba oil and the bright red pigmentfrom the seeds of urucum (Bixa orellana).Andiroba is also valued for its bark andwood. The bark can be made into a tea tofight fevers, worms, bacteria and tumours. Inaddition to its lightness and durability,andiroba wood is bitter and oily, deterringattacks by termites and caterpillars.Because the deep, golden-hued wood is ofsuperior quality, andiroba is considered to beon a par with mahogany. For this reason, it isincreasingly difficult to find in logged areas.

Economic valueAndiroba oil is one of the most widely soldnatural remedies in Amazonia. The oil industryhas its origins in the city of Cametá, in theBrazilian state of Pará, and itscommercialization generates significantemployment and income throughoutAmazonia. In Cametá, children eagerly collectand sell andiroba seeds. Street children relatethat 4 kg earns them US$0.10 – enough to buya packet of crackers. In Salvaterra, on MarajóIsland, which lies at the mouth of the AmazonRiver, unemployed men, women and childrencomb the beach for seeds washed down frominland rivers. In 2004, they could sell 1 kg(about 55 seeds) for US$0.07 to companies inSão Paulo. In 2009, in the Belém market, 1 litreof andiroba oil costs on average US$6. Storesoften buy the oil during the harvest whenprices are low, hold on to the oil and sell it outof season at a higher price.

The oil is also in demand internationallyand is exported to Europe and the UnitedStates of America. From 1974 to 1985,between 200 and 350 tonnes of oil wereexported annually, mainly from the Brazilianstates of Maranhão, Pará and Amapá. In 2009,in the United States of America, an 8-oz (227-g) bottle of andiroba oil can bepurchased over the Internet for betweenUS$23 and US$40. One proof of andiroba’spopularity is the number of soaps, creams,oils and candles made from andiroba on themarket in the Amazon region and throughoutthe world. In the supermarkets of Belém, thesoaps can cost from US$1.50 to US$5, whilebody oil (50 ml) costs US$3. A 150 g bag ofandiroba bark costs US$1.

Whereas supermarkets, pharmacies andcorner vendors in Belém sell andiroba, in thewestern Amazonian state of Acre andiroba oilis hard to find on the market: fewcommunities in Acre produce the oil, andthose that do generally produce it for localconsumption. (Source: FAO, 2011. Fruit treesand useful plants in Amazonian life.)

ARGAN OIL

Rare Moroccan argan oil – now made inIsraelArgan oil, rich in vitamin E and fatty acids,has become the sensation of the decade,sought after by chemists, dieticians, hairsalons, chefs and cosmeticians. The onlyproblem with argan is its availability: theargan tree takes 15 years to yield nuts andone tree can yield only a couple of litres ofoil, making production costly and limited.

Until recently, argan was a rare productgrown only in the Atlas Mountains andtraditionally made by Moroccan tribes, asthe argan tree could not flourish outsideMorocco.

Today, the Israeli company Sivan isdeveloping Argan 100 – a superstrain ofargan that is tolerant of the Mediterraneanclimate and can produce ten times morenuts than the average tree in Morocco, thecompany says. Based on 25 years of fieldresearch, Sivan's agronomists found a wayto produce the oil from their own grovesand refuted the widespread legendassociated with the production of the oil.According to this legend, argan oil can onlybe processed from the nut – which lookslike an unripe olive – after its hard shellhas been removed via a goat's digestivetract. Sivan’s chief agronomist Chaim Orensays there is in fact no need for goats toperform the job of intermediaries. “I wasexposed to argan trees many years ago,and we did a breeding session in Israel,”Oren says. “We pollinated trees with othertrees. Ours are resistant to soil disease,giving these trees a steady yield everyyear.”

To date, about 2 500 argan trees havebeen planted in the Ashkelon, Arava andNegev regions in Israel.

This commercial endeavour may also bebeneficial for the argan trees in Morocco,as competition with the local market couldreduce the tree’s chances of extinction.The UN conservation body United NationsEducational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization (UNESCO) has set upreserves to protect the dwindling argantrees in Morocco.

Sivan, founded in 2007 and based inRamat Hasharon, Israel, sells argan oil towholesalers, with small quantities ofleftovers sold online. Their eventual planis to sell Argan 100 to other countries.(Source: NoCamels, 8 February 2012 inENN Daily Newsletter.)

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MOSQUITO REPELLENT AND DENGUEFEVER

Andiroba oil can be used as a repellentagainst gnats and mosquitoes. It alsoreduces inflammation caused by insect,snake and bat bites. Studies by theResearch Institute of the State ofAmapá (IEPA) discovered that candlesmade from the dry remnants ofandiroba seeds repel the mosquito thatcarries dengue, Aedes aegypti.

Page 2: 26 PRODUCTS AND MARKETS SPECIAL FEATURES · ARGAN OIL Rare Moroccan argan oil – now made in Israel Argan oil, rich in vitamin E and fatty acids, has become the sensation of the

S P E C I A L F E A T U R E S

NON-WOOD NEWS No. 24 May 2012

27S P E C I A L F E A T U R E SP R O D U C T S A N D M A R K E T S

ARTEMISIA

Malaria hopes rise as chemists producecheap artemisininThe cost of the life-saving antimalarialdrug artemisinin could be lowered by athird, with a new method that utilizes awaste product from the current plantextraction process, according toresearchers.

Artemisinin is sourced from thecultivated plant Artemisia annua (sweetwormwood), but demand is outstrippingsupply because artemisinin combinationtherapies (ACTs) are now recommended asa frontline treatment for malaria by theWorld Health Organization (WHO).

The artemisinin extraction processproduces around ten times as muchartemisinic acid as it does artemisininitself. But converting the artemisinic acidprecursor into the chemically morecomplex artemisinin molecule has proveda "formidable challenge" for chemists,researchers noted. They have now found aquick and easy way of converting this acidinto artemisinin. They used continuousflow chemistry, which involves passingchemicals down a tube to increasereaction times, efficiency and safety. Thisdiffers from traditional “batch” chemistrywhere chemicals are mixed together in alarge pot, and it has allowed researchersto simplify one "crucial step" required toproduce the molecule.

Peter Seeberger – director at the MaxPlanck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces,Germany, and co-author of the studypublished in Angewandte ChemieInternational Edition last week – toldSciDev.Net that one refrigerator-sized

in converting the so-called weed tocommercial use, hereby boosting theeconomy of rural people in Nepal bygenerating employment and income.(Contributed by: Krishna H. Gautam,Chieko Imakawa and Teiji Watanabe,Graduate School of Environmental EarthScience, Hokkaido University, Sapporo,Japan. Fax: + 81 11 706 2213; e-mail:[email protected]/)

%MUGWORT USES IN NEPAL

• Mugwort has a high spiritual value inNepal; it is one of the most religiousplants and is offered in almost allritual celebrations. Mugwort andflower are synonyms. Whenever newhouses are built, mugwort foliage isleft on the ridge of the roof toprotect the houses from evil. It is alsoused extensively in the spiritualtreatment of patients; local healersuse the foliage to chase evil awayfrom the patient’s body. Themugwort flower has a specialimportance during Dashain (thelargest Hindu festival inSeptember/October). Elderly peoplebless the young by putting mugwortflowers/foliage on their heads.

• Mugwort is the most reliable andaccessible medicine for rural people inNepal for the treatments of cuts andwounds. The fresh leaves aresqueezed and applied.

• Mugwort is very effective againstleeches. Those who have to walk orwork in leech-prone areas rub theleaves on their skin. Mugwort foliageis kept in rooms to get rid of fleas.

• Brooms made from mugwort foliageare thought to be effective inmaintaining a healthy environmentby repelling insects.

• Mugwort is used as a green manureand also as an insecticide. The greenfoliage is used to mulch seedbeds.Stems are used as supports for youngbean plants, probably presuming thatthey protect the young sprouts bytheir insecticidal element.

• Mugwort is goats’ favourite fodder,and thus contributes to ruraleconomy in the hilly regions of Nepal.

chemical reactor can produce 200 g ofartemisinin per day, and unpublishedresults indicate potential yields of up to800 g per day. "If we scale this up, in sixmonths we will be at a point where 400 reactors (that run continuously) will besufficient to produce the entire world'ssupply. Our reactors … could shave thetotal cost of the drug by a third."

Large-scale production could start in asearly as six months' time if negotiationswith pharmaceutical companies aresuccessful, Seeberger said. (Source:SciDev.Net Weekly Update, 23–29 January2012.)

Multiple uses of Artemisia spp. in Japanand NepalA recent study has investigated themultiple uses of Artemisia species inJapan and Nepal.

Artemisia, a shrubby species, isdistributed widely in different geographicregions. The International Plant NamesIndex showed 2 058 entries for the genusArtemisia, reflecting the richness of thespecies and its varieties. Artemisiavulgaris and A. montana are widelydistributed in the mountain regions ofNepal and Japan, respectively. These twospecies look alike in their appearance, sizeand overall site characteristics; however,genetic closeness cannot be claimedwithout further investigation.

The vernacular name for the Artemisiaspecies is mugwort and the studyconsidered that this represents both thespecies cited above. Mugwort is a commonplant and has been a valuable species forspiritual and material uses. It is calledyomogi in Japanese and noya in the Ainulanguage, and pati or titepati (bitter-leafplant) in Nepal. The study listed thedifferent uses of these plants in Japan(mainly in Hokkaido, the northernmostisland of Japan) and Nepal.

Studies in Japan have confirmed thatthe chemical contents of mugwort are inline with indigenous practices, wherecertain foods and medicine are developedfrom the plant, clearly indicating thereliability of indigenous knowledge.Consequently, mugwort now hascommercial uses in Japan whereas,because of lack of knowledge andtechnology, in Nepal it is still considered aweed and confined totraditional/household use. In this context,transferring Japanese knowledge andtechnology to Nepal could be instrumental

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is worth an estimated US$1 billion/year andemploys over 60 000 people in more than 1 000 businesses.

Together with Chinese partners, includingNanjing Forestry University and the WenzhaoBamboo Charcoal Company, INBAR’s Bambooas Sustainable Biomass Energy initiative is

now transferring China’s advanced bamboocharcoal technologies to sub-SaharanAfrica. (Source: Asian Scientist Newsroom,2 December 2011.)

Ghana Bamboo Bikes Initiative winsGerman Government award The Ghana Bamboo Bikes Initiative has beenselected as a winner of the 2011 ImpactBusiness Award, in recognition of theinnovativeness of its business model andenvironmental responsiveness. The award,initiated by the German Government throughthe Deutsche Gesellschaft für InternationaleZusammenarbeit (GIZ), rewards enterprisesthat apply innovative business solutions incombating climate change.

The initiative seeks to break the status quoin the development of a bicycle industry inGhana and train people with little or noeducation in the manufacturing andassembling of bamboo bikes. It is alsospearheading the production of stable,cheaper and reliable bikes in Ghana toreduce the country’s dependence on fossilfuels while increasing the economic activitiesof rural Ghanaians.

With the award, the German Governmentwill complement the work of the GhanaBamboo Bikes Initiative in promotingeconomic development in Ghana whileproviding substantial environmental benefits.

Co-founded by two students, BerniceDapaah and Kwame Kyei of the ChristianService University College and Ternopil StateMedical University, respectively, the initiativeseeks to take advantage of the abundant rawbamboo materials in Ghana to manufacturehigh-quality bamboo bikes suitable for exportmarkets as well as for the road conditions inGhana, and affordable for the poor. The socialenterprise project designs, develops andmarkets multipurpose bikes for thetransportation of passengers, commoditiesor as an ambulance.

Through the provision of a sustainable andlow-carbon transport solution, the GhanaBamboo Bikes Initiative aims at raisingawareness about environmentally friendlyhabits, while increasing the economic andemployment opportunities of rural people –especially youth. (Source: JoyOnline [Ghana],25 January 2012.)

Bamboo use in the PacificBamboo has a range of benefits that make itexcellent for developing small-scaleproductive enterprises. It is widely usedthroughout the Pacific for temporary buildingstructures, rafts, harvesting poles, fishing

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BAMBOO

Bamboo: a green biofuel for Africa? Bamboo may be the key to combating soildegradation and massive deforestation inAfrica as an alternative source of energy. Sub-Saharan Africa has over 2.75 million ha ofbamboo forest, equivalent to roughly 4 percentof the continent’s total forest cover. Apartnership among African nations andcommunities, the International Network forBamboo and Rattan (INBAR), and China areworking to replace forest wood, on which80 percent of the rural population in sub-Saharan Africa depends for its fuel needs, withbamboo charcoal and fuelwood.

At the 17th Conference of the Parties(COP17) to the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) inDurban, South Africa today, initial successeswith bamboo charcoal in Ethiopia and Ghanahave prompted calls across the continent forgreater investment in this “green biofuel” thatcan fight deforestation and mitigate climatechange. “Bamboo, the perfect biomass grass,grows naturally across Africa and presents aviable, cleaner and sustainable alternative towood fuel,” said Dr J. Coosje Hoogendoorn,Director General of INBAR. “Without such analternative, wood charcoal will remain theprimary household energy source for decadesto come – with disastrous consequences,” DrHoogendoorn said.

Burning wood has a significant impact onthe climate, with African households releasingthe equivalent of 6.7 billion tonnes ofgreenhouse gas into the atmosphere by 2050,according to estimates by scientists.

In terms of health, the burning of fuelwoodclaims the lives of an estimated two millionpeople every year – mostly women andchildren – who inhale the smoke. Continuedwidespread indoor use of forest wood charcoalas a household fuel could cause ten millionpremature deaths by 2030.

While it takes 7–10 tonnes of raw wood toproduce one tonne of wood charcoal, the entirebamboo plant, including the stem, branch andits rhizome, can be used to produce charcoal,making it highly resource efficient, with limitedwastage. Its high heating value also makes itan efficient fuel. Furthermore, bamboo is oneof the fastest-growing plants on the planet,and tropical bamboos can be harvested afterjust three years, rather than the two to sixdecades needed to generate a timber forest.

China is a global leader in the productionand use of bamboo charcoal, made throughthe controlled burning of bamboo in kilns,whether traditional, metal or brick. The sector

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PANDAS FIND SCOTTISH BAMBOOJUST TOO HARD TO STOMACH

Two giant pandas removed from publicdisplay at Edinburgh Zoo are sufferingfrom a Scottish form of “Delhi belly” asthey adjust to eating bamboo grownoutside their native China, according to aleading veterinary surgeon. The UnitedKingdom’s only giant pandas arrived inthe capital last month, but Yang Guang,the male, became ill two weeks ago witha bad bout of colic.

Mathew Brash, Vice-President of theBritish Veterinary Zoological Society, saidlast night that there was no great causefor concern and likened the pandas’medical problems to a “travel tummybug”. “Unlike some animals, pandas arecomplicated eaters and very particularabout what they eat and need a high-fibre diet. Whatever the bamboo theywere eating in China will be differentfrom the bamboo they are eating inScotland. In other words, their gut floor isadjusting to living in Scotland. They aregetting used to Scottish bugs, which arenot bad bugs, just different bugs.”

It is expected that the pair will eat upto 18 000 kg of bamboo every year duringtheir stay in the capital. In November, TheScotsman reported that Edinburgh Zoowill pay around £70 000 every year toimport some 85 percent of that bamboofrom a farm near Amsterdam in theNetherlands. The firm also providesbamboo for pandas in Vienna and Berlin.(Source: The Scotsman, 30 January 2012.)

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NON-WOOD NEWS No. 24 May 2012

29S P E C I A L F E A T U R E SP R O D U C T S A N D M A R K E T S

rods, food and water containers, food tongsand handicrafts. Bamboo species are mostoften harvested from the wild, such as thesecondary forests in Melanesia. In Hawai‘i,wild bamboo stands are commonly harvestedfor fishing poles, edible shoots and someconstruction applications, as well as for craftwork and kadomatsu (traditional New Yeardecoration). It is little used for food except toa small extent by Southeast Asianimmigrants. In the highlands of Papua NewGuinea, the shoots of Neololeba atra aresometimes consumed. Nastus elatus (NewGuinea sweet shoot) is an outstanding edibleshoot that can be eaten with minimalpreparation.Local markets. With the exception of minoruses in packaging and handicrafts, bambooproducts are not known to be sold in localmarkets in the Pacific (in Fiji or Polynesia). InHawai‘i, bamboo is utilized on a small scalefor building and for human consumption.Export markets. No export market from thePacific islands is known to exist, but thepotential is significant, with worldwidemarket in traded bamboo products at aboutUS$2.5 billion.

The worldwide consumption of bambooshoots is in excess of two million tonnes,mostly in Asia. The main potential exportmarket for bamboo shoots is Japan.However, the preferred species in Japan isPhyllostachys pubescens (or moso), amonopodial type of subtropical bamboo witha rather unique flavour that cannot be readilysubstituted by any other tropical bamboo.Dendrocalamus latiflorus shoots are popularin Taiwan Province of China and largequantities are exported to Japan. D. aspershoots are a major canned export fromThailand to Japan. D. giganteus is favoured inViet Nam and Southeast Asia. The greatestopportunities for exports of bam boo shootsfrom the Pacific islands would be for freshbamboo shoots to Asian communities on theUnited States mainland and to Asiancountries with direct flight links and availablecargo capacity.Economics. Competition with China, India orother nations that already have bambooresources, culture and industrial technologyis not likely to prove economically viable formost Pacific islands. If niche markets couldbe identified for which well-controlled, value-added products could be found, relativelysmall-scale production and processing mightbe economically viable. Even for localmarkets with little or no shipping costs,locally grown and processed bambooproducts might cost more than imported.

Marketing studies would be needed to definepotential products with viable markets.(Source: A. Benton, L. Thomson, P. Berg andS. Ruskin. Bamboo (various species). In C.R.Elevitch (ed.). 2011. Specialty crops forPacific islands. Permanent AgricultureResources, Holualoa, Hawaii.)

BARK

French maritime pine bark extract hailedas new beauty productA new wonder cream containing tree barkextract may have just brought us one stepcloser to finding the secret to eternal youth.The extract, from French maritime pine,could slow down the signs of ageing,researchers say. It has shown to improveskin elasticity by 25 percent and hydrationby 8 percent.

In tests reported in the journal SkinPharmacology and Physiology, 20 healthywomen aged 55 to 68 were treated withPycnogenol®, a branded supplementcontaining the antioxidant. They weremonitored for skin hydration, skin elasticityand skin fatigue by the Leibniz ResearchInstitute in Dusseldorf over 12 weeks. Atthe end of the study, a biopsy was carriedout to see the levels of hyaluronic acid,which is known to be beneficial to the skin.(Source: MailOnline, 27 January 2012.)

BUSHMEAT

Bushmeat – every man’s protein until theforest is emptySome call it the “African silence” when aforest is rendered silent by poaching andthe bushmeat trade. Others call thisphenomenon “dead zones” that have nobirds, no monkeys, no small mammals, nosnakes … These places have been strippedbare by local communities that arestruggling to feed their families and accessmedical care.

The Mbuti pygmy encampmentsphotographed in the early 1980s depict awire- and nylon-free lifestyle that saw themcapture forest animals on a daily basis forlocal consumption. Today, most of thebushmeat is exported to distant markets bybicycle, 4×4 vehicles and on foot. No-onehas the right to judge these people whenthey focus on bushmeat as their onlysource of protein. We must, however,restrict use of forest products, as far aspossible, to people with heritage rights to

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BAMBOO SHOOTS

Bamboo shoots are usually harvestedwhen they reach 30–60 cm and arepeeled before cooking. Shoots of manyof the clump-forming tropical speciescontain high levels of cyanogens, andmust be boiled well prior toconsumption.

Bamboo shoots may be consumedfresh on the day of harvest, in whichcase no post-harvest handling isrequired, beyond removing obviouslydamaged and below-par shoots priorto sale. In Hawai‘i, fresh shoots areharvested and placed in cold water forrapid temperature reduction andstored at 4° C overnight. They are thentrimmed and cleaned and packed instyrofoam boxes with an ice pack andtransported to market at 10–12° C. Forstorage, shoots can be peeled andboiled for two to three hours,continually refreshing the water. Theyare then cooled as rapidly as possible to30° C or less and stored in jars in brine(salt content of 5–8 percent of theweight of the cooked shoots).

Commercially, shoots are mainlycanned, a complicated processinvolving drying the shoots, removingthe sheaths, rinsing, dressing,classifying according to shape, grading,weighing, placing in cans, sterilizing,adding water, adjusting the pH,cooling, heat preservation, inspectionand packing.

Water 89–93 g

Fat 0.3–0.4 g

Fibre 0.5–0.77 g

Ca 81–96 mg

Fe 0.5–1.7 mg

Vitamin C 3.2–5.7 mg

Protein 1.3–2.3 g

Carbohydrates 4.2–6.1 g

Ash 0.8–1.3 g

P 42–59 mg

Vitamin B1 0.07–0.14 mg

Glucose 1.8–4.1 g

Nutritional content of bamboo shoots(per 100 g)

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probably have to be disguised for Europeanaudiences, so that insect “food” could beused as an additive in burgers and otherfast food.

The Food Standards Agency says of theresearch: “While insects have nottraditionally been used for food in the UnitedKingdom or elsewhere in the EuropeanUnion, it is estimated that about 2.5 billionpeople across the world have diets thatroutinely include insects. While many insectsare regarded as pests, FAO is interested inpromoting edible insects as a highlysustainable source of nutrition”. Someworms contain three times as much proteinas beef per ounce (28 g), while four cricketshave as much calcium as a glass of milk.

Eighty percent of countries worldwidealready eat insects, and more than 1 000insect species are often eaten by humanbeings. Unlike conventional livestock,insects and bugs need little space and canbe bred in sealed buildings under naturallight where they live off waste, paper andalgae. The idea has previously been backedby the United Nations and EU as a way totackle food shortages. Some academicsbelieve that the expense and environmentalcost of raising livestock means that insect-eating will be inevitable – and it has beenclaimed that by the end of this decade,insect-eating will be widespread. (Source:MailOnline, 31 January 2012.)

Hebo – yellow-jacket baby wasps – aspeciality in Japan All manner of insects have been eatendown the ages to the present day, and in allregions of the world. Many insects areeaten in Japan, including two species ofVespula and three species of Vespa. Inparticular, yellow-jacket larvae and pupae,known locally as hachi-no-ko (literally,“baby wasps”) are eaten. People are oftensurprised at how dangerous, stinginginsects such as wasps can be caught andeaten safely. However, in Nagan, Gifu,Aichi, Shizuoka and Yamanashi prefectures,the mountainous areas at the heart of thecentral region of Japan, these yellow-jackets are treasured as autumn’s seasonaldelicacies. Men enjoy going out in groups tocatch them. It is also common for people toraise them near their homes. Everyhousehold prepares hachi-no-ko dishes indifferent ways, each bringing its ownunique flavour to the autumn dinner table.Whole communities have been built,centred on these yellow-jackets – surelyunique to this part of the world.

S P E C I A L F E A T U R E S

practices that benefit both apes and localcommunities. And while the people on theright side of the room felt that localpoverty was not the main threat to theseapes, those on the left – mostly from Africa– disagreed.

People kill apes because they are poor,said one. Conservation creates costs forlocal people and this is an issue of justice,said another. If you solve local poverty, yousolve a lot of problems for great apes,added a third.

Of course, the statement itself wasflawed, as the workshop organizersdesigned it to be. In reality, the situationvaries from location to location and themany threats apes face are allinterconnected.

My favourite answer, though, came fromone of the Indonesian experts. He said thatif the “poverty” in the statement referredto a lack of money then the answer was no,but that if it referred to the mind and a lackof information, then the answer was yes.

As an ice-breaker, the contentiousstatement did its job well. It made mewonder … if every poor person who livesnear an endangered ape was suddenly tentimes richer, would the apes be safer orwould they just face new threats thataffluence and indifference can bring?

The workshop was organized as part ofIIED's Poverty and Conservation LearningGroup initiative, with support from theArcus Foundation, the United States Fishand Wildlife Service and the Great ApesSurvival Partnership. (Source: MikeShanahan blog, IIED, 13 January 2012.)

EDIBLE INSECTS

EU to spend €3 million to promote eatinginsects as “alternative source of protein“The European Union (EU) will spend €3million to research “the potential of insectsas an alternative source of protein”.Research projects will be selected thisyear. Food experts agree that insects would

the land, as they are the custodians ofthese forests.

Terese and John Hart are committed towitnessing, studying, conserving andcombating the atrocities of the bushmeattrade in the Democratic Republic of theCongo. Over the next few weeks, I will posta series of summary posts linking back tothe blogs on their Web site:www.bonoboincongo.com/ (Source: SteveBoyes, Explorer’s Journal, NationalGeographic, 9 February 2012.)

Game reveals complex links betweenpoverty and threats to apesThere were 50 ape experts in the room and aquick game ensued to break the ice. “If youagree with the statement, go to the left side ofthe room,” said the facilitator. “If youdisagree, go to the right.” She then unveiledeight simple words that split the room in two:“Local poverty is the main threat to apes”.

On the right, speakers said that theprimary problem for orangutans inMalaysia and Indonesia is not local people– hunters tend to target other speciesthere. It is the private sector that destroysthe forests on which both orangutans andlocal people depend, added a thirdspeaker, and this deforestation itselfcreates poverty. Someone else added thatit was the wealthier people from localpopulations, not the poor, who wereencroaching on the national park heworked at in Indonesian Borneo.

A speaker from the DemocraticRepublic of the Congo said that it was richpeople in urban areas – not poorcommunities near forests – who fuelledthe market for ape meat. Another fromCameroon said that in some places localpeople do hunt chimpanzees for meat, butat such low levels that it is not a majorthreat; logging and mining activities thatdestroy ape habitat were bigger concerns.

The ape experts had gathered at theCenter for International Forestry Research(CIFOR) in Bogor, Indonesia for a three-day workshop on the links between greatape conservation and poverty, because itjust so happens that all of the world’sgreat apes – gorillas, chimpanzees,bonobos and orangutans – live near peoplewho are poor.

The workshop, organized by theInternational Institute for Environment andDevelopment (IIED) (where I work) andhosted by CIFOR from 11 to 13 January2012, was designed to share lessonslearned in Africa and Asia and to identify

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Catching hebo. Hebo nests are foundbelow ground in fields and mountains. Thewasps are attracted with bait and thengiven small pieces of meat, with tinyribbons attached, to carry back to the nest.The ribbons make it easier subsequently tofollow the wasps and locate the nest.Catching hebo requires teamwork –someone is needed to set the bait,someone to follow the wasps, andsomeone to dig out the nest. Seeinggroups of like-minded friends, franticallychasing after hebo is like watching youngboys totally absorbed in an exciting game.Raising hebo. Some people even raise heboat the bottom of their gardens. They arecareful to place the nest where it will besheltered from the elements. The wasps areprotected from predators and given food.Raising hebo requires a certain combinationof tender loving care, originality andingenuity.Eating hebo. The whole family gets togetherto remove the live larvae from the combs,taking great care not to squash the larvae in

the process. It takes much time and effort,but this provides an opportunity for the familyto enjoy chatting together. The larvae areboiled with soy, sugar and sake. The cookedwasp larvae are then mixed with rice. Variousdishes use Vespula spp. Simple boiled waspwith soy sauce goes well with rice,accompanied by sake. Recipes for wasplarvae dishes vary greatly from household tohousehold, bringing an autumn feast to thedinner table. Gathering around hebo. The Hebo Festival isheld every year, with people competing forthe biggest nest, whether raised at home, orcollected in the fields and mountains. Peoplegather together for all manner of festivitiescelebrating hebo. Food products made fromwasp larvae are popular delicacies, and makegreat souvenirs. (Contributed by: KenichiNonaka, Department of Geography, RikkyoUniversity, 3-34-1 Nishi-Ikebukuro Toshima,Tokyo 171-8501, Japan. E-mail: [email protected]/)

Researchers conduct studies on edibleinsects to fight food insecurity in Uganda Edible insects such as white ants andcrickets could have a permanent presenceon dinner tables in Uganda if researchbeing carried out by a group of researchersfrom Makerere University provessuccessful. The research project now underway in Lango subregion is focusing on thepotential of edible insects in alleviatinghousehold food insecurity and fightingmalnutrition.

In an interview with Uganda RadioNetwork, the research project’s principalinvestigator Dr Jacob Agea said that theychose edible insects because they arecurrently disappearing from menus, butused to be valuable food alternatives. Hesaid they want first to find out why edibleinsects such as white ants and crickets arefast disappearing, and then understandtheir breeding habits and explore how tobreed them throughout the year.

Dr Agea said that the two-year study,costing 110 million Ugandan shillings, willexamine the insect-eating culture of thepeople and document existing knowledge oninsect harvesting, processing and marketing.The study also aims to assess theproportional contribution of edible insectsconsumed as household food and in calorieintake. This will determine the nutritionalvalue of the insects. A number of studentshave been trained to help in the study, whichwill be extended to include other subregionssuch as West Nile, Acholi and Karamoja,

EATING WASPS: A RELATIONSHIPBETWEEN NATURE AND SOCIETY

The habit of wasp eating in Japanconsists of a nature-society relationship,as shown in the illustration. Theeagerness to eat wasps helps promoteand makes people aware of both thewasp environment and indigenousknowledge on wasps. It is complicated,but the mutual relationship makes thecultural habit continue. Moreover,commercial use encourages people whohave fewer economic opportunities topromote socio-economic activities withproper use. Wasps are thus regarded asan essential food resource for thesustainable development of ruralmountain villages.

INSECTS ARE FOOD WEB SITE

The following Web site includes recipes,a full list of edible insects wordwide,and much more.http://insectsarefood.com/faq.html/

FIELD CRICKETS

This is our first post in what we hope will bean ongoing series on insect foraging. Whilenot a normal foraging food, insects could verywell be one of the few foods available in adeep woods survival or famine situation. Oneof the easiest and most popular edible insectsis the cricket. Cricket eating is gainingpopularity these days in the United States ofAmerica.

For the record, 100 g of cricket has 121 calories, 12.9 g protein, 5.5 g fat, 5.1 gcarbohydrates, 75.8 mg calcium, 185.3 mgphosphorus, 9.5 mg iron, 0.36 mg thiamin,1.09 mg riboflavin, 3.10 mg niacin and0.05 percent fat.

Finding field crickets is not a problem; thebest places to catch them are under logs,rocks and in tall weeds that border fences andbuildings. When we were kids, we commonlyleft pieces of plywood on the ground to make“cricket shelters” so we would have a quickand easy way to collect fishing bait.

Be sure that you know what you areeating! Always make a positive identificationbefore eating any insect or plant. You neverknow how healthy the crickets are or if theyare carrying any bacteria, so I highlyrecommend that they be cooked like anyother meat before they are eaten. They canbe oven roasted, sautéed or deep fried. Also,I’ve seen the indigenous cultures that eatcrickets keep them in a container for a day orso to be sure that the crickets “poop” beforethey are cooked. Wings and legs are removedbefore cooking. Always rinse them with cleanwater. Some folks will throw them in thefreezer for awhile if there’s one available.

Dry roasted crickets have a nuttyflavour and are very good eaten plainwith a sprinkling of salt. They are also verytasty as a substitute for nuts in dessert andcookie recipes. Dry roasted crickets can beblended into flour to be added to breadflours. (Source: Foragers Digest Web site,http://foragersdigest.com/)

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where edible insects have long been adelicacy. The study, if successful, will be usedto formulate nutritional policies and beshared with local governments, foodprocessors and institutions that would then beexpected to apply it in practice. This researchis being conducted by the same group ofMakerere scientists who are exploring thepossibility of breeding and rearinggrasshoppers en masse. (Source: UgandaRadio Network Web site, 1 February 2012.)

Insect proteins for animal feed Animal feed market pressure. In 2050, theplanet will number approximately ninebillion people. At the same time, a growingmiddle class will result in higher demandfor fish and meat. In order to meet thisdemand sustainably, since current animalfeed stocks are being overexploited orgrown unsustainably, the livestock andfishery sectors will be forced to look forfeed alternatives.Land and forest depletion. The globalconsumption of meat will grow 173 percentby 2050 mainly as a result of the explosivegrowth of 209 percent in developingcountries. In addition, feed production willneed to grow by 180 percent by 2050 in orderto feed all livestock. At present, 30 percent ofland use is for livestock feed production.Greater and more intensive crop productionresults in deforestation and soil degradationand the subsequent use of fertilizers andpesticides leads to water pollution.Fish depletion. Aquaculture – probably thefastest growing food-producing sector – nowaccounts for nearly 50 percent of the world'sfood fish. According to FAO’s Fisheries andAquaculture Department, commercial fishfeed for aquaculture has increased by400 percent over the past 25 years. Thebiggest aquaculture feed producers are fromAsia; in Viet Nam, for example, fish feedproduction has increased by 700 percent overthe last 25 years. Fishmeal as well as severalgrains (mainly maize) and soybean arenowadays traded unsustainably.

Insects as feed for aquaculture. The summaryreport of the Technical Consultation Meeting“Assessing the potential of insects as food andfeed in assuring food security”, which tookplace in Rome in January 2012 (see pages 66and 70 for more information), states that theurgency to find alternative protein sources forfeed has resulted in high market acceptanceand market recognition for insects. For fishand poultry, insects are already a natural feed.In China, for example, silkworm pupaepowder is used as feed. Costs, reliability ofsupply and the quality of the insect proteinproduct will determine market demand. Costsinclude the possibility of using organic wastestreams, labour involved, yield, investmentneeded and economies of scale. Possibilities of edible insects. Researchershave been looking into the possibilities ofedible insects for many years; today, the

private sector is also investigating andundertaking research and development. Theblack soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) and theyellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) areconsidered to be optimal species for industrialmass production. There is a certain beliefamong new companies that productioncapacity is comparable with, or in some caseseven more powerful than, other alternativeresources such as soybean, sunflower andfishmeal. Although the use of insect proteinshas many opportunities, it is still facingdifficulties – legal issues on biodiversity andalien species, food safety in particularpathogen transfers, production capacity, andprocessing methods all need moreinvestigation.Is industrial mass production the future?Mass rearing of arthropods today is mainlyperformed for biocontrol of insect pests. Using

BLACK SOLDIER FLY (HERMETIAILLUCENS)

Production. The innovative companyOrganic Nutrition in Florida, UnitedStates of America, focuses on blacksoldier fly rearing for use as analternative protein – Ento-Protein™ – infish feed. Ento-Protein could serve as areplacement for fishmeal on theaquaculture market. The business shouldoperate on zero waste by using manureas feed for the insect. The company hasalready carried out economic andenvironmental feasibility studies in orderto be both competitive and sustainable.As such, they ensure that theiroperations, processes and products areenvironmentally responsible. Futurecapacity perspectives are 6 000 tonnes ofEnto-Proteins per year and a factorysetup that enables capacity increase. TheBritish entrepreneur, David Drew, hasalso set up a small pilot plant on blacksoldier fly rearing in South Africa. Hepredicts his Agri-Protein production willbe around 7 300 tonnes per year. His“magmeal” would serve as a substitutefor fishmeal both on the aquaculturemarket and to fatten chickens and pigs.Current research. Manure managementis a growing concern in intensivelivestock facilities. The black soldier flyhas been investigated for its manurebioconversion capabilities into high-

quality proteins and fats. Scientists at theSwiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Scienceand Technology, Dübendorf, Switzerlandare looking into the efficient conversionof organic material by black soldier flylarvae. Based on their study, a wasteprocessing unit could yield a dailyprepupal biomass of 145 g (dry mass) perm2. They concluded that larvae of theblack soldier fly are potentially capableof converting large amounts of organicwaste into protein-rich biomass tosubstitute fishmeal, thereby contributingto sustainable aquaculture. Black soldier fly in rainbow trout diet.Research on fishmeal and fish oilreplacements has identified a variety ofpotential ingredients that when used inappropriate mixtures can promote goodgrowth results for rainbow trout(Oncorhynchus mykiss). A studyconducted in 2011 at the University ofIdaho in the United States of Americaindicates that black soldier fly reared ondairy cattle manure and trout offal canbe used to replace up to 50 percent ofthe fishmeal portion of a practical troutdiet for eight weeks withoutsignificantly affecting fish growth or thesensory quality of rainbow trout fillets,However, the reduced growth observedin the current study indicates thatadditional research is needed to identifyfurther the nutritional limitations of thisingredient.

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sterilized predators that are not pests, pestscan be kept under control in a biologicallyfriendly way. Mass rearing for biocontrol usesthe same techniques and technical equipmentas those necessary to produce edible insectsfor feed and food. According to KarelBolckmans, director of Koppert, one of theleading companies in biocontrol, goodpractices and expertise should be shared andpractical cooperation encouraged. Forinstance, research and development lines onedible insects can be set up in existing mass-rearing factories for biocontrol.

Examples of informal integrated pestmanagement carried out today

• Weaver ant (Oecophylla smaragdina).Weaver ant collectors in Indonesia carryout biocontrol by collecting ants on fruitfields and, as such, they are theinventors of a new agricultural system ofpest control and provide protein foodsources such as queen weaver ant breadto the community and their animals.

• Melon bug (Agonoscelis pubescens). An

integrated pest managementprogramme was designed by ElobiedAgricultural Research Station (in theNorthern Kordofan state of the Sudan) tocontrol the melon bug. The communityparticipated in a “handpicking of melonbug adults” campaign in four differentareas of the state for two seasons.During these seasons, 15 tonnes ofmelon bug adults were collected in thefirst season, and 226 tonnes in thesecond. Melon bugs are edible and, inthe last nymph stage, which is arelatively soft stage, the bugs are cookedand eaten. (Contributed by: EstherMertens, Intern, Edible InsectProgramme, Forestry Department, FAO.)

FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT: Paul Vantomme, Senior Forestry Officer, Non-Wood Forest Products, Forest Products andIndustries Division, Forestry Department, FAO,Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome. E-mail: [email protected];www.fao.org/forestry/65422/en/

FRUITS

Five amazing fruits from the jungleThe Amazon rain forest is said to host half ofthe world's plant and animal species. Whilelocal indigenous people had a diet includingthousands of jungle fruits, modern societieseat just a fraction of them, so there is plenty ofroom for growth. Here are five fruits thatcome from the jungle and could end up insupermarkets around the world.Açaí. The açaí berry comes from the palmtree Euterpe oleracea, which growsabundantly in the Brazilian Amazon, butwhich can also be found in Peru. In the early2000s, it was marketed as a miracle fruit,with incredible antioxidant properties. Healthfood companies sold the juice for upwards ofUS$40/bottle (see Box on page 34).Aguaje. The aguaje fruit, and powders andextracts derived from it, is high in vitamin Acontent (five times greater than that ofcarrots). The fruit itself comes from the aguajepalm Mauritia flexuosa, a major component ofthe ecosystem in and around Amazonianwetlands, and tastes much like a carrot.Arazá. Arazá is hard to find outside thejungle, because no-one has found a goodway to ship it without spoiling the fruit. Itsacidity makes it undesirable for eating off thetree (Eugenia stipitata), but it is deliciouswhen converted into a juice, jam or dessert.Even better, arazá has more than twice asmuch vitamin C as an orange.Camu camu. The camu camu berry is similarto açaí in actual nutritional value. Camu camuis being marketed around the world as thecure for everything from the common cold toarthritis. While such claims are probablyoverblown, the berry of the Myrciaria dubiatree does have the second-highestconcentration of vitamin C of any known fruitin the world. A small-scale study in Japanshowed that it reduced the risk of hardenedarteries. (See page 58 for more information.)

%YELLOW MEALWORM (TENEBRIOMOLITOR)

Production in China. In Hunan province inChangsa, the biggest insect manufacturer– Changshasaibang Lives Science andTechnology Co. Ltd – produces 280 tonnesof yellow mealworms each year. Fortechnical support, the companycollaborates with Hunan AgriculturalUniversity, Hunan Institute of Entomologyand the Hunan Food Institute. Thecompany sells the yellow mealworms forfeed for poultry, fish, turtles, frogs, birds,scorpions, centipedes and snakes.

Sixty km south of Changsa in Xiangtan,the Haocheng Mealworm Inc. companymass rears mealworms mainly for animalfeed. In addition, the company also sellsinsect protein in a powdered form forsupplementary use in human foodproducts. The company is unique in theirmultipurpose marketing. “Mealworm as asource of high protein can be added tobread, flour, instant noodles, pastry,biscuits, sweets and condiments, as well asadding it directly to dishes on the diningtable or processing it into health carenourishment. It is also a direct feed forbirds, dogs, cats, frogs, turtles, shrimps,

scorpions, chilopods, ants, goldfish, wildanimals and other animals and livestock.”(Source: www.hcmealworm.com/)Production in the Netherlands. Yellowmealworms are also reared in temperateregions for pet feed for reptiles, birds andfish. For example, the Kreca farmercompany produces yellow mealworms asa feed for exotic animals. Since 2006, thecompany has also begun to producemealworms for human consumption.Researchers from the Department ofEntomology of Wageningen Universityhave provided technical support andscientific knowledge to develop theproduction process. They are stillcollaborating, and undertaking researchand development to identify new uses.(Source: www.kreca.com/)

Many pet feed companies have thecapacity to rear mealworms and otheredible insects. Farming good practicesand technical equipment can be used toextend edible insects for feed to thelivestock and fishery feed sector andeven the entire food industry.Therefore, the animal feed sectorshould be convinced of the nutritionaland environmental benefits ofintroducing insects into animal diets.

Arazà

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Mocambo. Think of the mocambo(Theobroma bicolor) seed as a less-famoussibling of the fruit world. It shares thegenus of the famous Theobroma cacao treeand grows principally in the westernAmazon, its homeland. It has a sweet pulp.Most vendors stick to just selling the fruit'sseeds, which reportedly taste like peanutswhen roasted. (Source: Peru this Week, 3 December 2011.)

Fruits that are helping to end hungerNo single fruit can put an end to hunger.But worldwide there are many differentfruits and vegetables that are helping toimprove nutrition and diets, whileincreasing incomes and improvinglivelihoods. Among these are the following. Ackee. The ackee tree (Blighia sapida) isindigenous to the tropical forests of WestAfrica. Ackee fruit has a creamy textureand a mild flavour. It is commonly eatenwith meat dishes as a side vegetable. It isvery nutritious, high in fatty acids and richin protein, potassium, iron and vitamin C.However, both the skin and seeds of ackeeare poisonous; they contain toxichypoglycin levels and can even be fatal.Care must be taken in harvesting the fruitat the right time and in the preparation ofackee dishes. In tropical West Africa –where ackee trees are indigenous, welladapted and utilized for other purposes –the safe preparation and nutritious value ofackee arils support food security and ruralincomes. The tree is cultivated in the regionfor several non-food uses: immature fruitsare used to make soap; the wood from thetree is termite resistant and used forbuilding; extracts from the poisonousseeds are taken to treat parasites and aresometimes used as a fish poison; and atopical ointment made from crushed ackeeleaves is applied to the skin to treatheadaches and ulcers. Ackee leaves arealso good as fodder for goats. Monkey oranges. Similar in shape and sizeto apple, pear and orange trees, monkeyoranges (Strychnos spinosa) come from ahighly coveted African wild fruit tree, whichfarmers will often leave standing whenclearing land for cultivation of field crops.The grapefruit-sized fruit is traditionallyeaten raw, or made into jam, juice or fruitwine. It is usually yellow, orange or brown,and emits a sweet scent with a touch ofclove. Monkey oranges are known for theirdelicious sweet and sour flavour and arerich in vitamins B and C. They are animportant indigenous African resource that

supports farmers in times of crop failure,providing a supplementary food in ruralareas. By adding the trees to crop fields,gardens, parks, fence lines and streetsides, monkey oranges can boost foodsecurity and nutrition. Safou. Native to the humid, tropical forestsof West and Central Africa, safou(Dacryodes edulis) is also known as“butterfruit” for its rich, oily pulp. People inWest and Central Africa have been eatingsafou for centuries as a fresh fruit betweenmeals, or cooked as a main course. Whenroasted or quickly boiled in salted water,the pulp separates from the skin and seedand takes on a buttery texture. In Nigeria,the cooked pulp is combined with starchyfoods such as maize to make a maincourse. The World Agroforestry Centre(ICRAF) promotes safou as a key treespecies in agroforestry systems that can beintercropped with food crops to provideshade and biomass while also producingedible fruit. And the United Kingdom-basedInternational Centre for UnderutilizedCrops has been searching for varieties thatcombine high-quality taste, nutrition andresistance to disease. (Source: WorldwatchInstitute, 4 October 2011.)

Wild edible fruits of sacred groves,Kodagu, Western Ghats, India Sacred groves are one of the oldest formsof nature conservation. These forests areeasily distinguished from other forest typesby the presence of deity symbols ortemples, and are mostly managed by localtemple committees. The Western Ghats ofIndia – one of the mega diversity centres –is dotted with sacred groves, with some ofthe highest concentrations located in theKodagu district, Kamataka, centralWestern Ghats. A recent study assessedthe species composition of the sacredgroves of Kodagu and explored whetherthey shelter wild edible fruit species.

Edible wild fruits are found in differentforest tracts of India and botanically comefrom widely different families. In all, about600 kinds are known, of which 100 or so arepromising. The majority of the fruits areeaten raw when ripe or after processing.However, certain unripe fruits are usedeither as vegetables or in making pickles.Some fruits are used under starvation orfamine conditions.

Results from the study indicated thatsacred groves are rich in wild edible fruitspecies. In fact, the authors report that thesacred groves of Kodagu harbour about

AÇAÍ (EUTERPE OLERACEAMART.)

In the darkness before dawn, thousands ofAmazonian river dwellers fill their largewoven baskets with purple, pebble-sizedaçaí fruit and make the trip in small canoesor large boats to the scattered outdoormarkets of the city of Belém, Brazil. As theboats near Ver-o-Peso, the largest marketat the mouth of the Amazon River, a sellershouts, “blood of the cow!”. Buyers run tothe boat, pressing their nails into the fruitsto see if they are of good quality. “Blood ofthe cow” is a local reference to the meatyaçaí fruit with its wine-coloured pulp. Fromthe age of six months, children in theeastern Amazon drink açaí juice. And withgreat benefits – açaí is being touted as a“superfruit” for its anti-inflammatory,antioxidant and anticancer effects. Becauseof its growing reputation, demand for açaíis expanding around the world.

In some Amazonian caboclocommunities, açaí was found to make upto 42 percent of a person’s daily intake byweight. Some people in Belém drink up to3 litres of açaí/day. In the 1990s, an averageperson from Belém consumed 60 litres ofaçaí/year. An estimated 180 000 tonnes ofaçaí are consumed each year in the city.

The fruit is being marketed in theUnited States of America and Europe as a“superfood”. In 2006, a study found thatextracts from açaí berries initiated a self-destruct response in up to 86 percent ofthe leukaemia cancer cells tested in thelaboratory. These effects have not yetbeen demonstrated on cancer in humans.Açaí is rich in flavonoids, which give it itsdark purple colour and provide a highdose of antioxidants.

Açaí pulp has become a fad in gyms inthe south of Brazil. Athletes enjoy açaímixed with guaraná fruit and oats to givethem a burst of energy. (Source: FAO,2011. Fruit trees and useful plants inAmazonian life.)

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51 wild edible fruit species (23 percent) andshelter species that are absent in reserveforests. Even though the groves appearsmall, they are rich in biodiversity and arethus really worthy of conservation. Notmuch is known about the nutritive value ofthe wild edible fruits, but availableinformation suggests that they are rich inproteins, minerals and carbohydrates, andthus can be used as a source of nutrition.Consequently, the authors conclude thatthere is a need to assess the nutritive valueof available wild edible fruit species and touse them to improve the lives of peopleliving adjacent to the forests. (Source: B. Tambat and G.N. Chaithra. 2011. Wildedible fruits of sacred groves, Kodagu,Western Ghats. In MFP News, XXI (4).)

FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT: B. Tambat, Agricultural College campus,University of Agricultural Sciences (B), Hassan-573 225, Kamataka, India. E-mail:[email protected]/

GINSENG

An unlikely root of China's prized cureIt was once worth its weight in gold andreserved for emperors in ancient times, buttoday the use of ginseng (renshen inChinese) as a cure for minor ailments isflourishing among China's booming middleclass. The luxury herb, and China’s lust forit, is also bringing wealth to an unlikelylocation in the heart of the United States ofAmerica.

Discovered more than 5 000 years ago inthe mountains of China, ginseng is amultimillion-dollar business and is thegolden crop in the fields of Wisconsin. Manytonnes of ginseng are shipped back toChina, the Middle Kingdom, each year.

As stores across China fill with shoppersrushing to buy Spring Festival gifts, fewrealize the most popular brands have rootsin the Midwest of the United States ofAmerica. Recently, in the basement of aBeijing department store near China'sNational Stadium, swarms of Chineseshoppers lined up around a pharmacydisplay of American ginseng stamped with ared, white and blue crest bearing anAmerican eagle and the words "GinsengBoard of Wisconsin" in bold type.

"Every year I give the best I can find to myfather for Spring Festival," said Gao Feng,who was eyeing a container of large ginsengroots selling for about 150 yuan (US$23.80).

He said his father, who is in his late 60s,usually mixes the bitter-tasting root into atea to help keep him active during the coldwinter. When asked if he knew what thecrest meant, the 37-year-old real estateagent said he thought it was the brandname and chose Wisconsin ginsengbecause he was told by a sales clerk it wasamong the best. Asked if he knew whereWisconsin was, Gao simply replied "no".

Creating brand awareness in a potentialconsumer market of more than 1.3 billionis one in a long list of challenges facingWisconsin farmers, who produce more than90 percent of America's ginseng, or Panaxquinquefolius, as they push to reassert theWisconsin strain in the Chinese market.

An unexpected winter storm in 2010destroyed more than 50 percent of theginseng crops, which take three to fouryears to mature fully, making their recoverya slow-going process, says Joe Heil,President of the Ginseng Board ofWisconsin. Heil, who started growingginseng 20 years ago after converting hisfamily's dairy farm to grow the normallywild root, says that unlike other agriculturein Wisconsin, ginseng can only be grownonce on a plot of land before the landbecomes unusable for at least 100 years,which made the storm's impact more thanparticularly troublesome.

Producing about 60 000 lb (27 215 kg)annually on his farm, Heil is one of thelargest of about 130 different ginsengfarms in the state. While Heil says thestorm has taken its toll, he maintains anoptimistic view that the drop in Wisconsincrops is actually a turning-point forproduction. After suffering losses of morethan half of their annual produce, the priceof the crop has shot up to a recordUS$40–60 per pound (0.45 kg).

To help farmers get back on their feet,they have received help from one of China'sbiggest traditional Chinese medicine (TCM)distributors. In late 2010, the GinsengBoard of Wisconsin signed a five-yearcontract that guarantees one of China'soldest and most respected apothecaries,Tongrentang, exclusive distribution rights.The 360-year-old apothecary, which onceserved the highest echelons of Chinesesociety, now deals with Wisconsin farmersdirectly to help reduce the hefty price tag ofthe highly sought-after root.

Recently, Tongrentang imported about400 000 lb (181 437 kg) of Wisconsinginseng just in time for the Spring Festivalrush when shoppers, such as Gao Feng, are

buying gifts before making their annualtrek home to see their families. The haulwill bring in more than US$16 million inprofits for Wisconsin farmers who arewelcoming Tongrentang's help with openarms as they try to recover from thetravails of the past two years.

Tong Song, director of internal riskmanagement at Tongrentang, says thebiggest draw among TCM practitioners inChina for Wisconsin ginseng is themedicinal versatility of the North Americanstrain. "Compared with Chinese andKorean ginseng, Wisconsin is milder inChinese traditional medicine theory, so itcan be applied to a broader number ofpeople," she says.

With more than 1 000 outlets dottedthroughout China selling the Western root,Tong says the company is pushing toestablish the Wisconsin strain as a superiorroot, making vast efforts to inform China'sconsumers on the benefits while taking it onthe road to TCM trade fairs. "We want to letthe Chinese consumers know theeffectiveness of this imported product," shesays. (Source: China Daily, 20 January 2012.)

China to start equity trading of wildginsengBeijing. China's only online equity exchangeportal, Jinmajia (jinmajia.com), will soonlaunch the trading of wild ginseng, thecompany said on Wednesday. Fan Dongping,president of Beijing Jinmajia EquityExchange Online Service Inc., said that thetrading may start in March or April, and thebenchmark subscription price is likely to beset at around 10 000 yuan (US$1 588). Hesaid that ginseng plants to be subscribed fortrading are those that have been grown byBishui Forestry Company in the mountainsof northeast China's Jilin province for morethan five years.

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According to the Chinese nationalstandard for regulating ginseng quality,plants grown in natural forests for severalyears can be regarded as wild ginseng. The forestry company in Jilin has planted 70 million of these wild ginseng plants in anatural environment.

Fan said subscribers can either sell theequity of the ginseng products via the Website, or pay an annual fee of 50 yuan toJinmajia to keep the equity for added value.Jinmajia is jointly funded by over 20 equityexchange firms, including China BeijingEquity Exchange and Guangzhou EnterprisesMergers and Acquisitions Services. Fan saidwild ginseng has great potential to increasein market value, adding that the older theginseng grows, the more valuable itbecomes. He added that equity trading willhelp build up the domestic brand of high-quality wild ginseng and increase its price.

China produces annually 60–70 percent ofthe world's ginseng products on average andexports 70–80 percent of its annualproduction. However, its annual output valueon the products accounts for only less than 4 percent of the world's total, as the exportsare priced very low, according to the Beijing-based Guangming Daily.

Dubbed the "King of Herbs" in China,ginseng has been used as a traditionalmedicine and health care product for morethan 4 000 years. (Source: Bernama[Malaysia], 15 February 2012.)

HONEY AND HONEYBEES

EU: pollen warning on honey jarsUnder new European Union regulations, jarsof honey will have to be marked “containspollen” – a move that experts have brandedludicrous, and say could put some Britishbeekeepers out of business. Honey will alsohave to undergo expensive tests to prove itdoes not contain unauthorized geneticallymodified pollen.

Until now, honey had always beenconsidered an entirely unadulterated productfor the purposes of food labelling. But theEuropean Court of Justice has decreed thatpollen is an ingredient of honey rather than anintrinsic component. It means that productswill, for the first time, have to carry a list ofingredients such as “honey (contains pollen)”.

Britain’s largest supplier of retail honey,Rowse, said that the bill for relabelling andtesting its entire range will run into hundredsof thousands of pounds. John Howat,secretary of the Bee Farmers’ Association,

which represents the United Kingdom’s300 commercial beekeepers, said the rulingwas a nuisance. “The idea that pollen is aningredient of honey is nonsense. Pollen isintegral to honey. Bees collect nectar andpollen. When they are storing it away, pollengets into the nectar and hence into the honey.”

The ruling came after a German amateurbeekeeper found small amounts ofgenetically modified (GM) pollen in his honey.He sued the state of Bavaria, which ownedtrial GM maize plots near his hives, fordamaging his produce.

Anyone who sells honey to the public,including the United Kingdom’s 40 000amateur beekeepers, faces tests. Supplierswhose pollen is found to be more than0.9 percent GM must undergo full safetyauthorization and label their honeyaccordingly. The European Commission isexpected to finalize the regulations over thenext year. (Source: Daily Mail [UnitedKingdom], 7 November 2011.)

What passes for honey on United Statesshelves – and the role of pollen Food Safety News bought more than60 samples from ten states and the Districtof Columbia in a recent investigation on thequality of honey on grocery shelves in theUnited States of America. They sent thejars, jugs and plastic bears to Texas A&MUniversity, where Vaughn Bryant, Directorof the Palynology Research Laboratory,analysed them. Bryant is a palynologist,someone who studies spores and pollen.He is also a melissopalynologist (someonewho studies honey pollen). What he learnedin testing for Food Safety News shouldmake every honey consumer wary. His keyresults were that:

• 76 percent of samples bought atgroceries had all the pollen removed;

• 100 percent of the honey sampled fromdrugstores had no pollen;

• 77 percent of the honey sampled frombig box [large retail] stores had thepollen filtered out;

• 100 percent of the honey packaged insmall individual service portions fromfast food chains had the pollen removed;

• every one of the samples Food SafetyNews bought at farmers’ markets,cooperatives and “natural” stores hadthe full, anticipated amount of pollen.

Pollen-free honey may not sound like aproblem, but without pollen it is notpossible to trace the source. One-third ormore of all the honey consumed in theUnited States of America is likely to havebeen smuggled in from China and may betainted with illegal antibiotics and heavymetals. A Food Safety News investigationhas documented that millions of pounds ofhoney banned as unsafe in dozens ofcountries are being imported and sold herein record quantities.

No pollen, no traceability, no assuranceof safety. Furthermore, when pollen isfiltered from honey, so are many of thehealth benefits such as allergy relief andthe nutritional value of vitamins, mineralsand trace nutrients in bee pollen.

The Food Safety News test results comejust as the European Union has decided toorder honey producers to test for thepresence of unauthorized geneticallymodified pollen and to identify pollen as aningredient rather than a natural componentof honey. Industry spokespeople fear theruling will put many small-scalebeekeepers and honey producers out ofbusiness. (Source: www.care2.com, 7 November 2011.)

MEDICINAL PLANTS AND HERBS

Liquorice named “Medicinal plant of theyear 2012” Liquorice has been selected as “Medicinalplant of the year 2012” because of itsparamount importance to human well-beingworldwide. The selection was made by a panelfrom the University of Würzburg, World WideFund for Nature (WWF) and TRAFFIC and wasannounced today at an event organized byWWF Germany.

“Liquorice is special because it can quicklysoothe sore throats and coughs and was usedcenturies ago to treat coughing, hoarsenessand asthma by Ancient Greek and Egyptianphysicians,” said Professor Johannes Mayer,an expert on the history of medicinal botany atthe University of Würzburg.

The liquorice plant is a woody shrub that isnative from the Mediterranean to East Asia,

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the Americas and Australia, and grows up to1 m tall. It is a member of the Fabaceae (peafamily), widely cultivated for its medicinalproperties and also for use in beverages.

Only the root is utilized, from which a widevariety of compounds – 400 to date – havebeen isolated. Among the most important isglycyrrhizin, a chemical that possesses almost50 times the sweetening power of cane sugar.

Today, liquorice is used as an importantingredient called gan cao in traditionalChinese medicine, while in Germany, Europe’smajor consumer and trader in medicinalplants, around 500 tonnes of liquorice areimported each year, 100 of them consumeddomestically in medicinal teas.

The root is also used in confectionery and inmany herbal liqueurs. In Japan, liquorice isused mainly in medicine but also as aningredient in cosmetics. (Source: TRAFFIC, 21 November 2011.)

Japanese delegation visits India to learnabout responsible and sustainable tradeof medicinal plants Representatives from leading herbalcompanies in Japan have just returnedfrom a visit to India, where they witnessedat first hand the responsible andsustainable collection practices utilized inthe medicinal and aromatic plant trade.The visit, organized by TRAFFIC withsupport from I-AIM (Institute of Ayurvedaand Integrative Medicine) took place aspart of a project supported by theKeidanren Nature Conservation Fund,with the aim of gaining a betterunderstanding of the benefits ofsustainable sourcing of wild medicinalplants and to help promote use of theFairWild Standard within Japaneseindustries.

Japan was the world’s fourth largestimporter of medicinal and aromatic plantsin 2007, and India the second largestsupplier to the country. Many of the plantsare wild sourced; however, this is notwidely appreciated in Japan.

The Japanese delegates were shown avariety of insights into the trade, includingthe techniques used to ensure the plantsare not damaged during harvesting, thequantities a harvester can gather betweenearly morning and noon, and how localNGOs organize individual harvesters intocooperatives. Briefings took place throughface-to-face meetings with localcommunities and industry, the ForestryDepartment and other stakeholders.

The FairWild Standard has previouslybeen implemented in field projects inUttarakhand and Karnataka, and used toinform the National Committee on NTFPsand the medicinal, aromatic and dyeplants (MADP) guidelines for India'sNational Working Plan Code. “Followingthe success of this visit, we hope thatparticipating companies look favourablyupon adopting and implementing theFairWild Standard, to ensure its usebecomes widespread within Japaneseindustry,” said TRAFFIC’s Kahoru Kanari.“We also hope the companies can helppromote our way of thinking within theprivate business sector. In the long run,involvement of Japanese industry shouldhave a positive impact on conservation ofwild plant resources.”

An intensive round-table meeting ofleading herbal companies in Japan will beheld next month in Tokyo. (Source:TRAFFIC News Update, 10 February 2012.)

FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT:MKS Pasha, Coordinator, Research andTraining, TRAFFIC India, 172 B Lodhi Estate,New Delhi 110003, India. E-mail:[email protected] or Kahoru Kanari, SeniorProgramme Officer, TRAFFIC East Asia – Japan,6th Fl. Nihonseimei Akabanebashi Bldg, 3-1-14,Shiba, Minato-ku, 105-0014 Tokyo, Japan. Fax:(81) 3 3769 1304; e-mail: [email protected]/

MULBERRIES

Silk versus synthetic fibresScientists at the Universities of Oxford andSheffield in the United Kingdom havedemonstrated that natural silks are athousand times more efficient than commonplastics when it comes to forming fibres. Areport of the research is published this weekin the journal Advanced Materials. Thefinding comes from comparing silk from theChinese silkworm with molten high-densitypolyethylene (HDPE) – a material from whichthe strongest synthetic fibres are made. Theresearchers used polarized light shiningthrough a disk rotating over a plate to studyhow the fibres are formed as the twomaterials are spun.

Silk is a natural protein fibre, some formsof which can be woven into textiles. The best-known type of silk is obtained from thecocoons of the larvae of the mulberrysilkworm, Bombyx mori, reared in captivity.The shimmering appearance of silk is aresult of the triangular prism-like structureof the silk fibre, which allows silk cloth torefract incoming light at different angles,thus producing different colours.

Silk is one of the strongest natural fibresbut loses up to 20 percent of its strengthwhen wet. It has a good moisture regain of11 percent. Its elasticity is moderate to poor:if elongated even a small amount, it remainsstretched. It can be weakened if exposed totoo much sunlight. It may also be attacked byinsects, especially if left dirty.

HDPE forms filaments at over 125° C andin addition requires substantial energy inputin the form of shear force applied to thematerial in its molten form. Silk, in contrast,in the same setup forms filaments at ambienttemperature and in addition requires only atenth of the shear force. If the energetic costsof melting HDPE are included forcomparison, silks become a thousand timesmore efficient.

The discovery of a low-energy method forfibre formation has led the researchers to

We received this interesting feedbackfrom one of our readers, following thereproduction of the TRAFFIC article inNWFP-Digest 17/11.I am happy to note that Jaythimadh (inone of the main languages of India) orliquorice, has been named the MedicinalPlant of the Year 2012. The articlementions “Ancient Greek and Egyptianphysicians” BUT Indian physicians knewabout the medicinal properties ofJaythimadh even earlier. Westernscholars often do not have access toIndian literature because many of theold texts have never been translated intoEnglish or other European languages.Hence, Indian scholars often go withoutbeing recognized. (Ardeshir Damania,India. E-mail: [email protected]/)

Liquorice

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that clearly does not augur well for thestate’s silk rearing industry.

A majority of farmers coming to thecocoon market have no alternativeoccupation or lucrative crop to fall back on.All they can look forward to is moreuncertainty in the future. (Source: DeccanChronicle [India], 21 January 2012.)

NUTS

The Brazil nut and wildlifeThe Brazil nut tree demonstrates theimportant links between plants and animals inan intact rain forest. For example, there aretwo species of poisonous frog (Dendrobatescastaneoticus and D. quinquevittatus) thatalmost exclusively use the rain-filled hollow ofBrazil nut fruits for their tadpoles.

The Brazil nut flower has a closed hood andis pollinated efficiently only by large-bodiedbees capable of pushing open the hood andentering the flower. These bees of the generaBombus, Centris, Epicharis, Eulaema andXylocopa live in the closed forest. A recentdecline in Brazil nut production has beenlinked to pollination deficiency, possibly owingto the smoke from forest fires reducing beeabundance or to the reluctance of some beesto visit fragmented landscapes.

The creamy, pale yellow flowers are also afavoured food of paca, peccary, armadillo anddeer. Hunters often build platforms near Brazilnut trees, where they wait for game to comeand devour the thousands of meaty flowersscattered on the forest floor.

The agouti is a true friend of the Brazil nutas it is one of the only animals able to gnawthrough the thick, hard husk of the nut fruit toreach the nuts inside. It is primarily the agouti,but occasionally squirrels, that dispersesBrazil nuts throughout the forest. The agoutiscatter-hoards the seeds up to 1 km awayfrom the mother tree, burying and reburyingthem at depths of 1–2 cm to dig up and eatduring the leaner times between fruit seasons.Like squirrels, the agouti may forget some oftheir buried seeds, allowing the seeds to

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seven times.” He started investing in silkproduction in Uganda in 1992. “We have thecapacity of producing 30 bags of egg wormsfrom just one hectare of land,” he explained.

“Textile manufacturing will be possiblewith this silk produced from the moth ofcaterpillars,” Mousavi said. “Once theinvestment grows and we get governmentsupport, we can start producing upholstery,wall coverings and carpets.” (Source: NewVision [Uganda], 26 January 2012.)

Silk no longer reels out happiness forfarmers in IndiaFifty-year-old Rangamma, a landless silkfarmer from Jalamangalakur village nearRamanagara (India), looks defeated as shecomes to terms with the price her silkcocoons have fetched at auction at theRamanagara Cocoon Market, the largest inAsia.

The cocoons having sold for onlyRs171/kg, Rangamma, who grows mulberryon leased land, gets to take home a paltryRs4 626 for the little over 27 kg she broughtto the auction. “I will grow three more cropsthis year. But if the price keeps slumping,how can I feed my family of four when I needto pay Rs15 000 annually to cultivatemulberry on my leased land,” she wails.

There are many more distraughtmulberry growers such as Rangamma atthe bustling cocoon market, which auctionsabout 50 000 kg of cocoons daily and sees3 000 licensed cocoon dealers andthousands of farmers arrive not only fromRamanagara, Kanakapura and Channapatnain the state, but also from Tamil Nadu andAndhra Pradesh.

The slash in import duty on raw silk from33 to 5 percent last March has wiped thesmiles off the faces of nearly 10 lakh silkfarmers of the state, who are having tobattle rising expenditure and dippingincomes.

Their misery is compounded by the lowminimum support price of Rs160/kg ofcocoon extended by the government, whichis nowhere near their cost of production ofaround Rs350/kg. Things were even worsesome months ago when the cocoon pricecrashed to Rs70/kg.

With the selling price slumping below thebasic cost of production, the farmers arebeing pushed into a debt trap, which theyhave no way of escaping. Small farmers arein deeper trouble, having to cope with croploss, poor quality yield, crashing marketsand an emerging labour shortage. Many arenow migrating to the cities for jobs – a trend

view silks as a new class of polymers theycall aquamelts.

"Silk produced by spiders and silk mothsdemonstrates combinations of strength andtoughness that still outperform theirsynthetic counterparts,” said Dr ChrisHolland of the Oxford Silk Group, part ofOxford University’s Department of Zoology.”Not only are silks superior to man-madefibres, they are produced at roomtemperature with just water as a by-product."

"Combining the best of polymer sciencewith biology we were able to determine howmuch energy is required to form these twofibres,” he said. “And it seems that we havediscovered some fundamental differencesbetween natural and synthetic materials.With hundreds of millions of years of R&D infibre production it is not surprising thatsilkworms and spiders have found ways toconserve energy while still making superiorfibres." (Source: University of Oxford [UnitedKingdom], 23 November 2011.)

Uganda to export silk to the IslamicRepublic of IranUganda is set to start exporting the silkwormto the Islamic Republic of Iran. MohammadAli Mousavi, the chairman of Iran-UgandaEstablishments, said the production of silkfrom the 1 000-ha farm in Kisozi, Gombadistrict should start next month.

Mousavi said that over 500 000 mulberrytrees had been planted over a period of tenyears. The silkworms feed on the leaves ofthe mulberry tree to produce silk. “Now isthe time to reap. The investment is worthUS$9 million [about 27 billion Ugandanshillings],” he said. “Once we start, weshall be producing at least 1 500 tonnes forexport to Iran.” About 5 000 jobs will becreated once production kicks off. “We have14 000 hectares, but we are currentlyutilizing only 1 000. We hope to increaseproduction this year,” Mousavi added.

The multibillion investment is aninitiative of the Iran Agro Industrial Group.If production hits full capacity, Uganda willbe among the top producers of silk in theworld. China is the number one silkproducer, followed by India, Thailand, theRepublic of Korea and the Islamic Republicof Iran.

Mousavi said Uganda will be exportingsilk worth US$200 000 (about 560 millionshillings) every year once productioncommences, adding that the country’sclimate was conducive for silk production.“Whereas we can produce silk only once ayear in Iran, in Uganda we can produce it

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germinate. Given their key role in dispersingseeds, it is important not to overhunt theagouti, so that there is no shortage of Brazilnut trees in the future. Scientists think thatboth the work of the agouti and that of peoplefollowing indigenous management practiceshave been responsible for creating highconcentrations of Brazil nut trees in certainareas. (Source: FAO, 2011. Fruit trees anduseful plants in Amazonian life.)

Project on Maya nut: an ancient food for ahealthy futureMaya nuts (Brosimum alicastrum) belong tothe fig family (Moraceae). They were thestaple food for pre-Hispanic culturesthroughout the neotropics, who probably atethem boiled, and protected them as a sourceof food that attracted their favourite gamespecies (deer, wild pigs and large forestrodents). Maya nuts are exceptionallynutritious, providing high-quality protein,calcium, iron, folate, fibre and antioxidants.They are also one of the best native foragespecies and show great promise in providingecological alternatives to pasture for cattleranches in the neotropics. In recent history,Maya nuts have been critical to rural foodsecurity; thousands of villages throughoutCentral America and Mexico have surviveddrought and famine by eating the "lifesaving"nuts when no other food was available.

The Maya Nut Institute is working to rescuelost traditional knowledge about the Maya nuttree for food, fodder and ecosystem services.Since our inception in 2001, we have trainedmore than 17 000 women from 1 150communities in Honduras, Nicaragua,Guatemala, El Salvador, Mexico, Cuba, Peru,Jamaica and Haiti. This programme hasresulted in the planting of more than 1 300 000new seedlings.

Our programme focuses on women as thecaretakers of the family and the environment,and addresses key factors for sustainablelivelihoods – sociocultural, environmental andeconomic – by creating leadership, educationaland economic opportunities for women andgirls. Our newest programme, “Healthy Kids,Healthy Forests” (Bosques Sanos, NiñosSanos) aims to provide Maya nut-based schoollunches to rural children. Starting inGuatemala in 2008, we are now feedingchildren in Nicaragua, El Salvador, Mexico,Haiti and Guatemala with Maya nut schoollunches. These communities are plantingMaya nut trees as “food forests” to sustain theprogramme in the future.

In addition to these accomplishments, weplan to carry out the following: (i) create a

women's alternative marketing organization tocertify Maya nuts produced and sold by MayaNut Institute-trained producer groups; (ii)create a certification scheme to certifysustainable, women-produced, fairtrade,organic Maya nuts; (iii) establish aninternational Maya nut standard; (iv) promotecertified Maya nuts to the public through a Website that brings together all the producergroups in the region; (v) expand theprogramme to the Plurinational State ofBolivia and Colombia in 2012; (vi) obtainresearch funding to explore the Brosimumgenome; (vii) expand the "Healthy Kids,Healthy Forests" school lunch programmefrom 46 schools in 2008 to 100 schools in 2012;and (viii) obtain recognition of the Maya nut inschool lunch programmes from the WorldFood Programme. (Source: Eco-Index®Monthly Update, March 2012.)

FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT:Erika Vohman, Founder and Executive Director,Maya Nut Institute, PO Box 2371, Crested Butte,Colorado 81224, United States of America. E-mail: [email protected];http://mayanutinstitute.org/

Le noisetier d’Afrique (Coula edulis Baill.).Un produit forestier non ligneux méconnu Les produits forestiers non ligneux (PFNL)représentent un enjeu alimentaire, culturel etéconomique considérable pour lespopulations d’Afrique centrale. Lescommunautés rurales dépendent en effetlargement de ces produits, sourcesd’aliments, de fourrage, de médicaments, degomme, de résine et de matériaux deconstruction. Les PFNL commercialiséscontribuent à satisfaire des besoinsquotidiens et assurent des emplois et desrevenus, notamment pour les populationsrurales. Ces dernières sont en outredétentrices d’excellentes connaissances,issues du savoir traditionnel, quant à lavaleur et aux propriétés de nombreusesespèces végétales encore sous-utilisées. Ils'agit là de plantes sauvages ou cultivéesdont le potentiel a été peu exploitécommercialement, mais qui constituent unsupport pour la subsistance économique etalimentaire des populations locales. Cesressources sous-utilisées comprennentnotamment des légumes africainstraditionnels.

De nombreuses espèces donnant lieu àdes PFNL restent cependant en outre peuétudiées sur le plan scientifique, par exempleCoula edulis. Les connaissances encorefragmentaires à ce sujet montrent pourtant

que les fruits de cette espèce à usagesmultiples sont régulièrement consommés etcommercialisés par différents groupesethniques. La culture de Coula edulis restetoutefois limitée, notamment à cause dufaible taux de germination de ses graines.Son bois, renommé pour sa résistance auxtermites, est utilisé localement commematériau de construction. Les recherchessur les propriétés mécaniques de ce bois ontconfirmé ses potentialités technologiques,qui pourraient conduire à revendiquer pourcette espèce une place de choix parmi lesessences commerciales. Mieux connu, lepotentiel de Coula edulis pourrait permettred’envisager une gestion durable de cetteressource, conciliant exploitation du bois etproduction alimentaire.

L’abondance actuelle de l'espèce dérivesans doute de l’intérêt que les hommes luiportent depuis 5 000 ans. La reconnaissanceet l’intérêt des valeurs culturelle,économique et alimentaire de Coula edulissont en effet bien établis. Coula edulis faitl’objet d’utilisations diverses de la part descommunautés locales, principalement à desfins alimentaires et médicinales. Parailleurs, son bois est utilisé pourconfectionner les armatures de cases et sesqualités technologiques sont susceptiblesd'être exploitées commercialement. Uneattention particulière doit donc lui êtreprêtée, car il constituera alors un cas typiquede ressource concurrentielle (convoitée à lafois par les compagnies forestières et lespopulations locales), à l’instar du moabi. Unedescription fiable de son écologie, de sesmécanismes de régénération et de sadynamique des populations devraitpermettre de disposer d’éléments de basepour envisager son exploitation durable.L’étude des niveaux de prélèvements par lespopulations locales, la description de safilière de commercialisation et l’analyse deson potentiel de domestication devraientcompléter cette approche, en vue d’aboutir àun modèle de gestion qui pourrait s’avérerapplicable à d’autres PFNL moins connus.(Source: Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ.2011, 15(3): 485-495.)

POUR EN SAVOIR PLUS, CONTACTER L'AUTEURPRINCIPAL: Christian Moupela, Université deLiège-Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech., Laboratoire deforesterie des régions tropicales etsubtropicales, Unité de gestion des ressourcesforestières et des milieux naturels, Passage desdéportés, 2. B-5030 Gembloux, Belgique.Courriel: [email protected];[email protected]/

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peeled off and used for weaving, while the"core" of the rattan can be used for variouspurposes in furniture-making (wicker).Some rattan fruits exude a red resin calleddragon's blood. This resin was onceconsidered to have medicinal properties andwas also used as a dye for violins. Other rattan benefits. Rattan harvesting andprocessing provide alternatives to loggingtimber in areas where forests are scarce. Infact, rattan grows best under some sort oftree cover, including secondary forest, fruitorchards, tree plantations or rubber estates.As a result, rattan planting indirectly protectstree cover, along with forests. Some rattanspecies are appropriate for small-scalecultivation under fruit trees or in rubbergardens. This allows smallholders to earnextra money on small areas of land. (Source:WWF Web site, wwf.panda.org/).

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The important role of rattan plantations insalvaging the rattan furniture industry inthe Philippines Rattan production in the Philippines isexperiencing a drastic decline. Foreststatistics show that 32 336 000 linealmetres of cane in 2008 were reduced to3 102 000 m in 2009. This resulted in a lossin export revenue of more than US$12 000for that period alone. With the continuingdestruction of forest habitat, it is expectedthat this scenario will further worsen. In1988, the Philippine Governmentestablished approximately 12 000 ha ofrattan plantations to salvage thismultimillion dollar industry, which meansthat these materials are now ready forharvest. Plantations could definitelyprovide an inexhaustible supply of rawcanes for the industry but their use is a bigrisk for manufacturers. Limitedinformation pertaining to the growth habitsof the plant and on the kind and quality ofcane produced in plantations is the causeof such uncertainties.

Financial assistance from theInternational Foundation for Science (IFS),Sweden, the Philippine Government andthe University of the Philippines Los Bañoshas led to a series of scientific inquiries onplantation-grown Calamus merrillii Becc.(palasan), one of the commerciallyimportant Philippine species. Datarevealed that the growth rate of the canewas highly affected by the soil pH, organicmatter, nitrogen, potassium andphosphorous content of the site.Furthermore, site elevation, amount ofsunlight exposure and topography also hada direct impact on cane production. Growthrate ranged from 0.36 to 3.79 m/yr.

In terms of basic cane properties,studies showed that fibre length was from1.3649 to 1.9124 mm, fibre wall thicknessfrom 0.0054 to 0.0109 mm and fibredistribution from 21.14 to 38.42 percent.Specific gravity varied from 0.38 to 0.51,modulus of rupture was from 14.35 to32.45 MPa, while modulus of elasticitywent from 3.23 to 6.37 GPa. All theseproperties were minimally affected by thegrowth rate of the plant. Unlike woodwhose properties are normally altered inplantation conditions because of theproduction of juvenile wood, plantation-grown palasan stems were unaffected bygrowth-enhancing activities.

Furthermore, comparing the propertiesof plantation-grown canes with wild canestaken from natural forest revealed that the

RATTAN

Rattan: facts and figures What is rattan and where is it found? Rattanis a naturally renewable palm that grows inthe tropical regions of Africa, Asia andAustralasia and is used, among other things,for furniture, handicrafts and buildingmaterial. Rattan continues to be aninvaluable part of rural people’s livelihoodsin South and Southeast Asia.

Rattan belongs to the palm family(Arecales or Palmea) and is found from sealevel up to 3 000 m. Around 600 species and13 genera of rattan are known. Althoughmost rattan species are native to the tropicalregions of Africa, Asia and Australia, there iswide variety in their distribution.Commercially used rattan usually grows inhilly tropical areas, with a mean annualtemperature of 25° C and an annual rainfallof 2 000 mm. As a result, the main area forrattan production is in the tropical regions ofSouth and Southeast Asia.

There are different types of rattan palms,such as high or low climbers, single-stemmed or clustered rattan species. Somehave very short and underground stems.Several rattan species are known to reachlengths of 100 m.

The majority of the world’s rattans arefound in Indonesia’s forests, with most of therest of the world's supply provided by thePhilippines, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, the LaoPeople’s Democratic Republic, Cambodia,Viet Nam and Bangladesh. Almost all rattanis collected from tropical rain forests.Because of deforestation, rattan populationshave decreased over the last few decadesand there is now a shortage of supply. Rattan collection and processing. Rattan isan attractive resource because it is easier toharvest than timber, easier to transport andalso grows more quickly than trees. Rattancanes are cut in the forest and are partiallyprocessed before being sold. Canes of smalldiameter are dried in the sun and oftensmoked using sulphur. Large canes areboiled in oil to make them dry and protectthem from insects.Rattan products. Because it is light, durableand relatively flexible, rattan is used for arange of purposes: food (the inner core aswell as the shoot of some of the rattanspecies is edible); furniture (the main end-product of rattan); shelter (rattan is anapproved material for house building in ruralareas); and handicrafts (besides furniture,handicrafts provide the main income of therattan industry). The skin of rattan strands is

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Rattan is the common name for adiverse group of climbing palms foundthroughout Old World tropical forests.They have been used for binding,basketry, home construction, food andnumerous other non-market purposesfor centuries while the canes of somespecies are gathered for themultibillion dollar furniture, handicraftand mat-making industries. Simply put,rattan is vital to the culture andeconomic well-being of millions ofcollectors, artisans and labourersthroughout tropical Asia and Africa.(Source: S.F. Siebert. 2012. The natureand culture of rattan: reflections onvanishing life in the forests ofSoutheast Asia. University of Hawai’iPress, Honolulu, Hawaii.)(Please see pages 10–11 and 74 formore information.)

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two were practically the same in allaspects, e.g. mechanical, physical,structural and chemical properties. Theywere also similar in terms of theirsoftening temperatures. Thus, it can besaid that plantation-grown palasan stemsbehave similarly to wild canes duringprocessing. This proves that plantationcanes could be extensively used in therattan industry without sacrificing thequality of the finished products. This isgood news for rattan manufacturers notonly in the Philippines but in all rattan-producing nations. (Contributed by: DrWillie P. Abasolo, Chair, Forest Productsand Paper Science Department, Universityof the Philippines Los Baños, Laguna,Philippines 4031. Fax. 63-49-536-3206; e-mail: [email protected]/)

SHEA BUTTER

As the shea industry continues to grow,stakeholders set their sights on Cotonoufor annual conferenceWith rising global interest in shea, theAfrican shea industry is growing at anunprecedented rate. Prices for shea haveincreased by a staggering 50 percent since2006 as the shea-producing industry hasforged connections and built on its strength.Now, industry stakeholders will focus onpositive impacts to communities andstrengthening sustainability at the sixthannual shea conference, which is beinghosted by the Global Shea Alliance. “Theindustry is expanding so rapidly – this is acritical time for shea,” said Gilles Adamon ofNatura, a Benin shea butter producer.

Shea nuts grow on wild trees that arecritical to maintaining environmentalsustainability in the West African Sahel region.Harvested mainly by some four millionwomen in the region, shea is a significant andgrowing source of income for families andcommunities. A 2010 USAID study showedthat for every US$1 000 of shea nuts sold atthe farmgate level, US$1 580 in additionalhousehold income is generated in the local

economy. A major aim of the 2012 sheaconference (www.globalshea.com) is tohighlight and strengthen the sheaindustry’s focus on the triple bottom line ofpeople, planet and profit.

With 12 000 tonnes in processing capacityand 35 000 tonnes of shea nuts harvested forexport each year, Benin is an ideal place forindustry stakeholders to identify newinvestment opportunities that will benefitbusiness and local communities.

“We see our annual participation in theshea conference as critical,” said MonicaHjorth of AAK, the world’s leading trader ofshea nuts. “It allows us to discuss the mostimportant issues in an industry that has sucha huge impact on the world.”

The conference includes a business-to-business forum that will match companies toservice providers, financiers, suppliers andothers, according to their needs. A set of fieldtrips will take conference participants toimportant industry sites across Benin.

After launching the Global Shea Alliance atShea 2011 in April, industry stakeholders aredeveloping the vision for the industry. TheAlliance connects hundreds of companiesacross the sector, providing a platform foradvocacy, promoting shea worldwide, andhelping to set quality standards across theindustry. “The Alliance has brought togetherthe entire industry to build strength and forgecollaborations for the positive development ofthe shea industry worldwide,” said EugeniaAkuete, President of the Global Shea Alliance.

Shea, which is used widely in foodproducts, is also growing in popularity for itsbenefits as a natural cosmetic as well asemerging research suggesting healthbenefits of its natural oils. (Source: WestAfrica Trade Hub, 21 February 2012.)(Please see page 70 for more information.)

SHELLAC

Shellac's as tough as nails Edmonton, Canada. A manicure that lasts upto two weeks without chipping or smudgingmay sound too good to be true, but thanks toa hybrid gel polish, it doesn’t have to be.

One of the biggest nail innovations of 2010,shellac (a resin secreted by the female lacinsect, Laccifera lacca) has steadily gainedrecognition for its sleek finish and long-lasting results. Developed by California-based company Creative Nail Design, shellacis steadily gaining popularity in Canada aswell. The product brushes on like regular nailpolish, but is the first-ever “powder polish” to

set like a gel nail under ultraviolet light.This curing process makes shellac moreflexible and durable than the averagemanicure, and avoids the lengthy dryingtimes of regular polish.

The treatment is more nail friendly than itsgel counterpart in that no sculpting or heavyfiling is required, and nails may feel strongerand look healthier as a result. (Source:Edmonton Journal, 8 February 2012.)

STEVIA

Stevia in EuropeIn case you missed it, the European Union(EU) approved stevia (Stevia rebaudiana) lastautumn as a food additive for foods andbeverages. The approval, specificallyintended for stevia’s sweetening compounds(steviol glycosides), comes at a time whenconsumers increasingly demand productswith little or no added sugars. According tomarket research group Datamonitor, globallaunches of products with “no sugar added”positioning increased from 490 to 2 308during 2009–2010.

But an EU approval is just the beginningfor stevia foods in Europe. While proponentsof the zero-calorie, natural sweetener areunderstandably smitten over its growingrecognition, the European legislation (as itcurrently reads) presents some initialchallenges. Stevia-sweetened products musthave the ingredient listed under itsdesignated E number – E 960 – which may beaccompanied by the ingredient name steviolglycosides. This isn’t doing much for theaverage consumer who isn’t yet familiar withthe stevia plant, much less the name of itsscientifically active compound.

A listing of stevia leaf or stevia extractelsewhere on product packaging would makefor a “friendlier” label, but allowingalternative wording will be up to individualmember states. Marketers may also wish tofall back on images of the stevia plant, ifauthorized.

An acceptable daily intake (ADI) for steviolglycosides set at 4 mg/kg of body weightpresents another challenge. The EuropeanFood Safety Authority (EFSA) (Parma, Italy),the health body that established ADI,considers it a “conservative” level that mightstill be exceeded by some users.

Flavoured soft drinks are predicted to bethe biggest contributors of stevia to the EUdiet. Exposure limits in these productsspecifically may be subject to change. EFSAsays that it will reassess this ADI in the

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most locations, simple machines used toextract the kernels from macadamia nut(Macadamia spp.) or kukui (candlenut)could also be adapted to work for tamanu.The kernels need to be dried to produce theoil. Sun drying takes one to two months, butnuts may also be dried in homemade solardriers similar to those used to dry fruit orcoffee, or in an oven at 37° C. In formertimes, nuts were baked on hot rocks from afire. Some kernels will develop mouldduring the drying process, and these needto be removed daily or they will ruin thewhole batch. Wood-fired copra driers aresometimes used to dry tamanu kernels onislands where there is a copra industry, butthis lends a smoky odour to the oil. Kernelsmay be cut in half to speed the dryingprocess. Processing begins when thekernels turn deep golden brown and an oilyfilm forms on the surface. The kernels arethen ground in a food grinder and cold-pressed to extract the oil. Extraction of theoil in boiling water is not recommended asheating may change the chemicalproperties of the oil. Tamanu oil is usuallysold in pure form but it may also be mixedwith olive oil or shea butter. It has a shelf-life of about a year.

Value-added processing The value of tamanu oil lies not just in itsphysical and healing properties, but withthe connection that consumers make withthe Pacific islands. For Western users, itallows an escape from the daily routine andthe chance to try something exotic. Forconsumers in Hawai‘i or Polynesia, usingtamanu oil allows them to connect with acultural tradition. The oil is seen as a treator an indulgence rather than something foreveryday use. As currently sold, it ispackaged in very small bottles, usually only30 ml (1 oz) and seldom more than 60 ml (2 oz) with labels evoking Hawai‘i or theSouth Pacific. For the Hawai‘i market (or formarketing to those who have visitedHawai‘i), the oil is labelled kamani oil, usingthe Hawaiian name, but for the rest of theworld it is more commonly labelled tamanuoil, using the Tahitian name. Although theoil is now also sourced from Madagascar,marketing emphasizes the connection withTahiti or Hawai‘i rather than with Africa.Value is added to the product not so muchby processing as by packaging andmarketing. Some oil is marketed as beingUSDA-certified organic, although it isunlikely that pesticides or chemicalfertilizers are used to any great extent for

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future, following information it will requestfrom producers and users of steviolglycosides.

But even with intangibles like these yet tobe clarified, the notion of mass steviaconsumption in Europe is not goinganywhere. Whereas EFSA directives allowmember states a “take it or leave it”approach to legislation, the stevia approvalcomes in the form of a regulation, somethingthe International Stevia Council (Brussels)affirms cannot be denied in any memberstate. “Steviol glycosides have beenauthorized through a CommissionRegulation and therefore EU member stateshave to implement the legal text in full,” saidthe International Stevia Council’s executivedirector Maria Teresa Scardigli. “They do nothave the freedom to deny the use of stevia ata national level.”

Stevia’s approval in Europe casts a littlemore uncertainty on the artificial sweetenerindustry worldwide. To make Europe’s casemore interesting, EFSA recently announcedits intent to speed up a risk assessment ofthe artificial sweetener aspartame, from itsoriginal 2020 deadline to a much earlierdeadline of 2012. Rising concern fromregulatory bodies and consumers overartificial sweeteners has already ledsuppliers to take stock in stevia and otheralternatives. Shortly following the EU’s steviaapproval, Chicago-based Merisant, whichsupplies the artificial sweetener Equal,expanded its Misura stevia line with a launchof the first tabletop stevia sweetener in Italy.Other companies have made similaradvancements. (Source: Nutritional Outlook,8 February 2012.)

TAMANU OIL

Uses and products Oil extracted from the fruit of the tamanu(Calophyllum inophyllum) has been used asa traditional medicine and cosmetic inPacific island cultures for centuries. The oilis tinted green, is thick and woodsy or nuttysmelling, and is easily absorbed into theskin. It does not solidify in cool weather asdoes coconut oil. Modern cosmetic productsbased on tamanu oil are sometimes mixedwith olive oil or shea butter.

Traditional and modern uses are alltopical – the oil is not edible. In addition tobeing used as a massage oil and skinmoisturizer, tamanu oil has traditionallybeen used to treat various skin injuries suchas scrapes, burns, insect bites, sunburn,

and diseases and sores such as dry skin,psoriasis, eczema, ringworm and evennappy rash. The oil has traditionally beenused to treat rheumatism and inflammationand is believed to help heal scars.

While some claims are clearlyexaggerated, medical research has shownthat tamanu oil has antibacterial propertiesand may help promote healing of scars.Other tamanu plant extracts and chemicalsderived from them have been shown todecrease the growth of tumours and inhibitleukaemia cells in laboratory settings. Theresults of some studies have even shownthat inophyllums, chemicals extracted fromtamanu oil, inhibit HIV reversetranscriptase in a novel way, whichindicates that some day they may be usedas part of a combination therapy for AIDS.The main fatty acids that comprise the oilare palmitic, stearic, oleic and linoleicacids. There has been at least one casedocumented of an allergic reaction to theoil, so individuals should apply a smallamount first as a test before using. Aqualified medical professional should beconsulted for serious or long-term injuriesor diseases.

Tamanu oil was traditionally used aslamp oil in Polynesia and has beenproposed as a source of biodiesel. However,the high value of the oil in the cosmeticsmarket today makes it unlikely that it wouldbe burned for energy. In addition to the fattyacids, the oil also contains up to 30 percentresins, and there was early interest in theuse of the oil as a varnish. Traditionally, theoil was used to help waterproof kapa (barkcloth) in Hawai‘i.

Tamanu nuts are usually harvested fromthe ground beneath wild stands. The nutsare harvested when the husks are partiallyor wholly rotten but the kernels are stillfresh. While processing is done by hand in

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Calophyllum inophyllum

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tamanu. Tamanu wood is likewise prized inHawai‘i, Tahiti and elsewhere in the Pacificbecause of its cultural connections.

MarketsTamanu oil is traded internationally, fromwholesale producers to bottlers and retailers.Retail prices advertised on the Internet forpure tamanu oil range from US$4.00 toUS$40.00 for a 30 ml bottle. Shelf prices fortamanu oil in Hawai‘i are about US$10 for a 30 ml bottle. Opportunities exist to produceand market locally sourced tamanu oil forlocal sale in resort locations rather thanproducing it in bulk for the wholesale market.In Hawai‘i, consumers might prefer oilproduced in Hawai‘i from trees grown inHawai‘i, and a grower would be able to realizemore income from local retail sales than fromwholesale sales. (Source: J.B. Friday and R.Ogoshi. Tamanu (Calophyllum inophyllum). In C.R. Elevitch (ed.). 2011. Specialty crops forPacific islands. Permanent AgricultureResources, Holualoa, Hawaii.)

FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT:James B. Friday, College of Tropical Agricultureand Human Resources, University of Hawai’i atMànoa, Komohana Agriculture Complex, 875Komohana St, Hilo, HI 96720, United States ofAmerica. E-mail: [email protected]/

TRUFFLES

Italian truffles achieve PEFC certification White truffles (Tuber magnatum Pico) fromMuzzana del Turgnano, a small town innorthern Italy between Trieste and Udine,have become the world's first truffles toobtain PEFC certification (Programme for theEndorsement of Forest Certification).

"While the main focus of PEFC as theworld's largest forest certification system ispromoting sustainable forest managementand certified timber, the importance ofcertified so-called 'non-timber forestproducts' cannot be underestimated," saidAntonio Brunori, Secretary General of PEFCItaly. "These products often represent asignificant source of income for ruralcommunities (all over the world) and are anintegral part of local people's lives. Inaddition, they help in increasing theirconnection to the forest, which is certified forits sustainable management: thiscertification of one of its products will helpthem in communicating their territory andnatural resources, enhancing the value fortourism and hospitality activities."

wonder then that people pay as much asUS$50 000/kg, roughly the same as the priceof gold.

The rhinoceros and its horn are not alone:powdered tiger bone is used to treatrheumatism; and the scales of the toothless,anteater-like pangolin are believed to reduceswelling and improve blood circulation. It is asimilar story for many other endangeredspecies whose commercial use is restricted– or banned outright – by the Convention onInternational Trade in Endangered Speciesof Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

The illicit trade in wildlife is a boomingindustry, estimated by the United Statescongressional research service to be worthas much as US$20 billion globally each year.Although this figure includes trade inbushmeat, skins and exotic pets, in theexpanding Asian market, estimated to be thelargest in the world, a significant driver istraditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Indeed,despite showing signs of decline in the1990s, the poaching and trade ofendangered animals such as tigers andrhinos are once again on the rise. Yetcheaper and more potent alternatives areavailable. Organizations such as theAmerican College of Traditional ChineseMedicine say that sustainable substituteshave been used successfully for nearly twodecades. So why is there still a burgeoningmarket to use these precious animals intraditional Asian medicine?

One likely factor driving this demand isthe rise in the wealth of China, says SabriZain, director of advocacy for TRAFFICInternational in Cambridge, UnitedKingdom, which was established in 1973 tomonitor wildlife trade.

The market for these substances alsoseems to be expanding. A range of newproducts has emerged over the past decade,available as black market products orthrough online stores. “Tiger bone is nowbeing used in wine,” says Debbie Banks, asenior tiger investigator with the

"Furthermore, NWFPs allow us to betterinform the public about the benefits ofcertification as people can relate more toforest-derived products such as truffles,essential oils, mushrooms and even beer –products that they can experience with alltheir senses. Timber products such aswooden beams, paper or furniture tend to beof a more 'functional' nature and therefore donot convey the message of sustainability thatwell," Mr Brunori continued.

The truffles are harvested by hand in theregion's PEFC-certified Baredi Forest, whichcovers over 160 ha of communal land. TheMuzzana white truffle boasts a unique odourand is considered to be very tasty and of highvalue to chefs everywhere, and has a retailvalue of around €3 000/kg.

Certification of the truffles was pioneeredby the Associazione Muzzana Amatori Tartufi(Muzzana Amateur Truffle Association) andinvolves a system that assigns barcodes toeach and every truffle harvested on behalf ofthe Association. In addition to originatingfrom PEFC-certified forests, this system alsoensures that the truffles come from localforests, namely the Baredi Forest.

"The white truffle is the most valued of allunderground fungi and represents a greatexample of the value that non-wood forestresources offer to local communities," saidEnore Casanova, President of PEFC Friuli-Venezia Giulia. "Only local people with therequired skills and experience in harvestingare allowed to pick these certified truffles,and we are very proud to have harvested thefirst PEFC-certified truffles in the world."

FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT:Antonio Brunori, PEFC Italia, Strada dei Loggi, 22,06135 Perugia, Italy. E-mail: [email protected];www.pefc.org/

WILDLIFE

Biodiversity: endangered and in demand With an ingredients list that includesrhinoceros horn and tiger bone, traditionalAsian medicine is on a collision course withwildlife preservation.

It looks innocuous enough: a small phialbearing a white and orange label with thewords Shi-He Ming Yan Wan. Yet the pillscontained within are said to hold greathealing powers, able to cure just aboutanything, from a mild fever to a brainhaemorrhage, from cancer to AIDS. Thepill's power, it is claimed, comes from asmall amount of rhinoceros horn. Little

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Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA), acampaign group in London. Association withstatus is a major issue, reflected in thedemographic of the modern-day user ofthese products, says Zain. “It is a myth thatthese products are only being consumed byan older generation. It is also young, wealthyprofessionals,” he says. “It may be a way ofshowing their peers that they can affordthese very expensive medicinal products.”

In Viet Nam, which is one of the largestmarkets for TCM outside China, traditionalremedies are much sought after. If incomeswere to increase, so too would consumptionof products containing endangered species.This is hardly surprising, says Zain, given theperception that products such as rhino hornare capable of curing cancer – a medicinalproperty previously unheard of in traditionalAsian medicine.

But perhaps the most disturbing notion isthe prospect that people might trade inendangered animals as a means of “investingin extinction”. This is the idea that by activelybuying up and stockpiling rare animal parts,one can not only push up the price, but alsoencourage further poaching that willeventually force the species into extinction. Incold-blooded business terms it makes anawful lot of sense, says John Scanlon,secretary-general of CITES in Geneva,

Switzerland. “If something is rare it becomesmore attractive,” he says. “And the rarersomething is, the more valuable it becomes.”

Scanlon concedes that he only has“rumour and anecdotal evidence” thatanyone is actually “investing” in the demiseof a species. “It is still speculative,” he adds.According to EIA, however, tiger farms arestockpiling the bones and skins of tigers thatdie. Indeed, Chinese authorities have set uptwo operations – one in Guangxi and one inGeilongjiang – to dismember the carcassesof dead tigers and destroy all but the bonesand skins. The Chinese authorities say this isto ensure there is adequate supervision ofthe carcass and body parts, but why thebones and skin are then not destroyed is notclear. So although there is no proof of peoplestockpiling wild tiger parts, it is certainlyhappening in farms.

There is no simple solution to tackleillegal trade in these endangered animals,says Scanlon. But the hope is that progresscan be made by adopting diverse tactics,including controlled delivery, tracking illicitsubstances to the buyer. (Source: Nature, 22 December 2011.)

Regional wildlife conservation project inAsia Dhaka, Bangladesh. On Sunday, the WorldBank launched a wildlife conservationproject here that will also cover threeneighbouring countries. The StrengtheningRegional Cooperation for WildlifeProtection in Asia project, which is to beimplemented in Bangladesh, Bhutan, Indiaand Nepal, aims at helping participatinggovernments to enhance shared capacity,institutions and knowledge. It also aims ataddressing cross-border poaching andother regional conservation threats tohabitats in border areas.

With South Asia's rich biodiversity, theregion is a lucrative target of the illegalwildlife trade, said the Washington-basedlender in a statement, adding that illegalpoaching of the iconic tiger and elephant,deer and reptiles, different species of birdsand corals is the most severe threatagainst biodiversity conservation.

To address this, the World Bank recentlyapproved a US$36 million fund for wildlifeconservation efforts in Bangladesh.Participation by other tiger range countriesin South Asia and Southeast Asia isenvisaged in later phases, the statementadded. Bangladesh holds the largestremaining population of tigers in theSundarbans. Habitats across Bangladesh,

Bhutan, India and Nepal are home to over65 percent of the 3 000 or so remaining wildtigers. Bangladesh faces severeconservation challenges, said thestatement, adding that 4–5 percent offaunal species and about 10 percent offloral diversity have become extinct in thelast century in the country.

No single country can manage oreliminate the threat of wildlife poaching onits own, said the statement, adding thatneither can a single country managecontiguous cross-border wildlife habitateffectively, since wild animals cannot beconfined to national boundaries.

It said conservation of these habitatswould also contribute to sustainablelivelihoods for people dependent onforests. The project is expected to bringabout regional collaboration in combatingwildlife crime. (Source: Zee News [India],13 February 2012.) ♣

Nearly all men can stand adversity, butif you want to test a man’s character,give him power.

Abraham Lincoln

“Illegal and unsustainable wildlife tradehas reached unprecedented levels inSoutheast Asia. If enforcement effortsare not stepped up, many species will belost forever. Existing tools such as CITESand the ASEAN Wildlife EnforcementNetwork must be fully utilized andurgent action must start now.” (Source:C.R. Shepherd, Deputy Regional Director,TRAFFIC Southeast Asia. TRAFFICBulletin, 23(3), 2011.)