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Notes on Childrens Literacy Development

Emergent Literacy: Early Reading and Writing Development

Froma P. Roth, PhD, CCC-SLP

Diane R. Paul, PhD, CCC-SLPAnn-Mari Pierotti, MA, CCC-SLP

Children start to learn language from the day they are born. As they grow and develop,their speech and language skills become increasingly more complex. They learn to

understand and use language to express their ideas, thoughts, and feelings, and to

communicate with others. During early speech and language development, children learnskills that are important to the development of literacy (reading and writing). This stage,

known as emergent literacy, begins at birth and continues through the preschool years.

Children see and interact with print (e.g., books, magazines, grocery lists) in everydaysituations (e.g., home, in preschool, and at daycare) well before they start elementary

school. Parents can see their child's growing appreciation and enjoyment of print as he orshe begins to recognize words that rhyme, scribble with crayons, point out logos and

street signs, and name some letters of the alphabet. Gradually, children combine whatthey know about speaking and listening with what they know about print and become

ready to learn to read and write.

Are Spoken Language and Literacy Connected?

Yes. The experiences with talking and listening gained during the preschool periodprepare children to learn to read and write during the early elementary school years. This

means that children who enter school with weaker verbal abilities are much more likely

to experience difficulties learning literacy skills than those who do not. One spokenlanguage skill that is strongly connected to early reading and writing is phonological

awareness-the recognition that words are made up of separate speech sounds, for

example, that the word dog is composed of three sounds: d, aw, g. There are a variety of

oral language activities that show children's natural development of phonologicalawareness, including rhyming (e.g., "cat-hat") and alliteration (e.g., "big bears bounce on

beds"), and isolating sounds ("Mom,fis the first sound in the word fish"). As children

playfully engage in sound play, they eventually learn to segment words into their separatesounds, and "map" sounds onto printed letters, which allows them to begin to learn to

read and write. Children who perform well on sound awareness tasks become successful

readers and writers, while children who struggle with such tasks often do not.

Who Is at Risk?

There are some early signs that may place a child at risk for the acquisition of literacy

skills. Preschool children with speech and language disorders often experience problems

learning to read and write when they enter school. Other factors include physical ormedical conditions (e.g., preterm birth requiring placement in a neonatal intensive care

unit, chronic ear infections, fetal alcohol syndrome, cerebral palsy), developmental

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disorders (e.g., mental retardation, autism spectrum), poverty, home literacy environment,

and family history of language or literacy disabilities.

Early Warning Signs

Signs that may indicate later reading and writing and learning problems include persistentbaby talk, absence of interest in or appreciation for nursery rhymes or shared book

reading, difficulty understanding simple directions, difficulty learning (or remembering)

names of letters, failure to recognize or identify letters in the child's own name.

Role of the Speech-Language Pathologist

Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) have a key role in promoting the emergent literacy

skills of all children, and especially those with known or suspected literacy-related

learning difficulties. The SLP may help to prevent such problems, identify children at

risk for reading and writing difficulties, and provide intervention to remediate literacy-

related difficulties. Prevention efforts involve working in collaboration with families,caregivers, and teachers to ensure that young children have high quality and ample

opportunities to participate in emergent literacy activities both at home and in daycareand preschool environments. SLPs also help older children or those with developmental

delays who have missed such opportunities. Children who have difficulty grasping

emergent literacy games and activities may be referred for further assessment so thatintervention can begin as early as possible to foster growth in needed areas and increase

the likelihood of successful learning and academic achievement.

Early Intervention Is Critical

Emergent literacy instruction is most beneficial when it begins early in the preschoolperiod because these difficulties are persistent and often affect children's further languageand literacy learning throughout the school years. Promoting literacy development,

however, is not confined to young children. Older children, particularly those with speech

and language impairments, may be functioning in the emergent literacy stage and requireintervention aimed at establishing and strengthening these skills that are essential to

learning to read and write.

What Parents Can Do

You can help your child develop literacy skills during regular activities without adding

extra time to your day. There also are things you can do during planned play and readingtimes. Show your children that reading and writing are a part of everyday life and can be

fun and enjoyable. Activities for preschool children include the following:

Talk to your child and name objects, people, and events in the

everyday environment.

Repeat your child's strings of sounds (e.g., "dadadada, bababa") and

add to them.

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Talk to your child during daily routine activities such as bath or

mealtime and respond to his or her questions.

Draw your child's attention to print in everyday settings such as traffic

signs, store logos, and food containers.

Introduce new vocabulary words during holidays and special activities

such as outings to the zoo, the park, and so on.

Engage your child in singing, rhyming games, and nursery rhymes.

Read picture and story books that focus on sounds, rhymes, and

alliteration (words that start with the same sound, as found in Dr.

Seuss books).

Reread your child's favorite book(s).

Focus your child's attention on books by pointing to words and

pictures as you read.

Provide a variety of materials to encourage drawing and scribbling

(e.g., crayons, paper, markers, finger paints). Encourage your child to describe or tell a story about his/her drawing

and write down the words.

If you have concerns about your child's speech and language development or emergent

literacy skills, please contact a certified speech-language pathologist. Go to ASHA's Web

site at http://www.asha.org/ for more information and referrals, or call 800-638-8255.

Source: American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA), 2006

RSS FeedsSite HelpSite MapPrivacy NoticeTerms of Use

1997-2009 American Speech-Language-Hearing Association

Understanding Literacy Development in Young Children

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Three-year-old Emma is playing house with Jacob at her preschool. They have adoll in a cradle in front of them. Emma picks up a book and sits in a rocking chairfacing the doll and Jacob. She begins telling the story of The Three Bears as she

turns the pages of the book, even though she is actually holding GoodnightMoon.

From a traditional reading readiness perspective, this activity might not havebeen labeled as reading since Emma is not actually reading the story of TheThree Bears. However, because Emma is read to regularly both at home and atpreschool, she has become familiar with the act of reading. She is able topractice the literacy skills she has observed her parents and her teacher using.From the emergent literacy perspective, such activity is considered adevelopmentally appropriate reading behavior.

This article provides a historical perspective on the shift in our understanding ofliteracy development in young children from reading readiness to emergentliteracy, describes the elements of the emergent literacy perspective, and offerssuggestions for promoting the literacy development of young children.

Historical Perspective on Literacy Development: Reading Readiness

In their review of the literature on literacy development, Teale and Sulzby (1986)note that from the late 1800s to the 1920s the research literature on reading andwriting focused only on the elementary school years. In the 1920s, however,educators began to recognize the early childhood and kindergarten years as a"period of preparation" for reading and writing. In 1925, the National Committeeon Reading published the first explicit reference to the concept of readingreadiness.

The introduction of this term gave rise to two different lines of research onpreparing children for reading (Teale & Sulzby, 1986). While one group believedthat reading readiness was the result of maturation ("nature"), the other groupthought that appropriate experiences could accelerate readiness ("nurture").These differing viewpoints underscore the philosophical differences that havecharacterized much of the research on children's development through the years.

Reading Readiness from the "Nature" Perspective. The dominant theory from the1920s into the 1950s was that reading readiness was the result of biologicalmaturation. From this perspective, it was believed that the mental processesnecessary for reading would unfold automatically at a certain period of time indevelopment (Teale & Sulzby, 1986). Researchers argued that good practicewould provide an environment that did not interfere with the predeterminedprocess of development in the child. Thus, educators and parents were advisedto postpone the teaching of reading until children reached a certain age.

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Reading Readiness from the "Nurture" Perspective. During the late 1950s and1960s, the dominant theory shifted from reading readiness as maturation towardreadiness as the product of experience. Proponents of this viewpoint argued thatif children had the appropriate experiences, their reading readiness could be

accelerated. Teale and Sulzby (1986) identify several factors which contributedto this shift:

* a growing reliance on reading readiness workbooks and tests during the firstyears of school, which had been used by the maturationists as an interventiontool;* increased research on young children which was demonstrating thatpreschoolers knew more than had generally been believed;* the adequacy of American education was being questioned since the SovietUnion was the first country to travel in space; and* supporters of social equality argued that "large numbers of minority children

had culturally disadvantaged backgrounds and had to wait until they got to schoolto overcome the disadvantage (p. xii)."

In response to this shift in thinking, educators and parents were encouraged touse more direct instruction and structured curriculum in early childhood andkindergarten programs in order to prepare children for reading. In readingreadiness programs children were considered ready to read when they had metcertain social, physical, and cognitive competencies (Morrow, 1997).

The Shift to an Emergent Literacy Perspective

Starting in the 1970s, researchers began to challenge traditional readingreadiness attitudes and practices. One of the pioneers in examining youngchildren's reading and writing was Marie Clay (Teale & Sulzby, 1986). Clay(1966) first introduced the term emergent literacy to describe the behaviors usedby young children with books and when reading and writing, even though thechildren could not actually read and write in the conventional sense. Whereas theconcept of reading readiness suggested that there was a point in time whenchildren were ready to learn to read and write, emergent literacy suggested thatthere were continuities in children's literacy development between early literacybehaviors and those displayed once children could read independently (IdahoCenter on Developmental Disabilities, 1996).

Clay (1975) also emphasized the importance of the relationship between writingand reading in early literacy development. Until then, it was believed that childrenmust learn to read before they could learn to write.

From the growing body of research on literacy development, Clay's concept ofemergent literacy has evolved to include several elements.

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* Literacy development begins before children start formal instruction inelementary school (Teale & Sulzby, 1986). For example, by age 2 or 3 manychildren can identify signs, labels, and logos in their homes and in theircommunities (Idaho Center on Developmental Disabilities, 1996).* Reading and writing develop at the same time and interrelatedly in young

children, rather than sequentially (Idaho Center on Developmental Disabilities,1996; Teale & Sulzby, 1986). Literacy involves listening, speaking, reading, andwriting abilities (as aspects of both oral and written language).* The functions of literacy (such as knowing that letters spell words and knowingthat words have meaning) have been found to be as important a part of learningabout reading and writing during early childhood as the forms of literacy (such asnaming specific letters or words). Children learn to read so they can read to learn(Council for Exceptional Children, 1996; Idaho Center on DevelopmentalDisabilities, 1996; Teale & Sulzby, 1986).* Children have been found to learn about written language as they activelyengage with adults in reading and writing situations; as they explore print on their

own; and as they observe others around them engaged in literacy activities(Idaho Center on Developmental Disabilities, 1996; Teale & Sulzby, 1986). Forexample, when hearing Goodnight Moon for the 100th time, children are not justmemorizing the words, but actually learning about the meaning of the words andabout how words tell a story.* Children have been found to pass through general stages of literacydevelopment in a variety of ways and at different ages (Idaho Center onDevelopmental Disabilities, 1996; Teale & Sulzby, 1986).

Suggestions for Promoting Literacy Development

As the research on literacy development continues to emerge, it is important totranslate the findings into practical suggestions for supporting early literacydevelopment. The following is a list of suggestions which can promote earlyliteracy development for newborns to preschoolers.

Infants

* Introduce cardboard or cloth books with brightly colored pictures. Try to selectbooks that reflect the child's own experiences such as books about daily life,family members, animals, or food (National Association for the Education ofYoung Children (NAEYC), 1997).* Read books that have rhyme, rhythm, or repetition such as nursery rhymessince the sound of the language is especially important to infants who cannot yetfocus on pictures very well (McMahon, 1996).* Help increase vocabulary by playing "What's that?" or "Where's the ball?" whenreading books together (NAEYC, 1997).* Point out words on signs at the park, at the zoo, when walking or driving.Explain what the words mean as you name them (NAEYC, 1997).* If the infant becomes restless or fussy while reading, put the book away so that

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the child does not develop a negative association to reading (McMahon, 1996).

Toddlers and Preschoolers

* Provide a rich literacy environment by purchasing books for children; taking the

children to the library; subscribing to newspapers and magazines; and providingsuch materials as checks, menus, or greeting cards for play at reading andwriting (Barclay, Benelli, & Curtis, 1995; NAEYC, 1997).* Add simple stories with a basic plot and one central character to nurseryrhymes and favorite books as toddlers' language abilities allow for greaterlistening capacity and understanding (McMahon, 1996).* Provide a warm, accepting atmosphere for reading and writing by responding tochildren's requests for reading and rereading favorite stories. Also, respond toquestions and comments about print inside and outside the home such aspackages at the grocery store, road signs, and menus at restaurants (Barclay,Benelli, & Curtis, 1995; NAEYC, 1997).

* Capitalize on your child's developing interests and take short trips which relateto those interests as well as reading and rereading stories about similar events orplaces (NAEYC, 1997).* Create an environment that is supportive of early writing by making sure paper,crayons, pens, pencils, and markers are available. Let toddlers help you writeshopping lists (Barclay, Benelli, & Curtis, 1995; NAEYC, 1997).* Allow preschool-age children to carry out the steps written in recipes (NAEYC,1997).

Conclusion

It is never too early to begin reading to a child (McMahon, 1996). By reading toinfants, parents can help their children develop an understanding about print atan early age as infants learn to make connections between words and meaning(NAEYC, 1997). By engaging children at an early age in reading and allowingchildren to observe those around them engaged in reading activities, parents canhelp foster a lifelong passion for reading that leads to benefits in all areas ofdevelopment as the children grow older.

Additional Resources

ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English and Communication

http://www.indiana.edu/~eric-rec/

The Parents' & Teachers' Guide to Helping Young Children Learn: Creative Ideasfrom 35 Respected Experts edited by Betty Farber. Published in 1997 byPreschool Publications, Inc. ISBN 1-881425-05-3.

Sources

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Barclay, Kathy; Benelli, Cecelia; & Curtis, Ann. (1995). Literacy begins at birth:What caregivers can learn from parents of children who read early. YoungChildren, 50 (4), 24-28.

Clay, Marie. (1966). Emergent reading behaviour. Unpublished doctoral

dissertation, University of Auckland, New Zealand.

Clay, Marie. (1975). What did I write? Auckland, New Zealand: HeinemannEducational.

Council for Exceptional Children. (1996). Reading: The first chapter in education.[Online]. Available: http://www.cec.sped.org/ericec/frstchap.htm [NPIN Editor'snote (04-25-02): this URL has changed: http://www.ericec.org/frstchap.html][1998, March 3].

Idaho Center on Developmental Disabilities. (1996). What is emergent literacy?

[Online]. Available: http://www.ets.uidaho.edu/cdhd/emerlit/intro.htm [2000 April6].

McMahon, Rebecca. (1996). Introducing infants to the joy of reading. Dimensionsof Early Childhood, 24(3), 26-29.

Morrow, Lesley Mandel. (1997). Literacy development in the early years: Helpingchildren read and write. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

National Association for the Education of Young Children. (1997). Helpingchildren learn about reading. [Online]. Available:

http://npin.org/library/texts/home/learnabo.html [1997, September 25].

Teale, William, & Sulzby, Elizabeth. (1986). Emergent literacy: Writing andreading. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation.

Dawn Ramsberg

Credits: National Parent Information Network

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Piaget and Vygotsky

Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget and Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky examined how

children acquire language. Both were interested in the relationship of thinking andlanguage learning.

Piaget's idea was that children learn through action. He believed that children are born

with and acquire schemas, or concepts for how to act and respond to the world. As

children explore their world, they form and reform ideas in their minds. The moreactively involved children are, the more knowledge is gained. McGee and Richgels

(1996) note, "Because children construct their own knowledge, this knowledge does not

come fully developed and is often quite different from that of an adult" (p. 7).Accordingly, the Piagetian perspective of literacy acquisition emphasizes a child's stages

of development and reflects "concepts of reading and writing as the child has constructed

them," state McGee and Richgels (1996, p. 10). They add, "Children 's concepts ofreading and writing are shaped more by what they accomplished in preceding

developmental stages than by their simply imitating adults' behavior or following adults'directions" (p. 10).

The Vygotskian perspective of literacy acquisition emphasizes social interaction butplaces less emphasis on stages of behavior. From this perspective, language and cognition

emerge in development at about the same time and are intertwined. Children build new

concepts by interacting with others who either provide feedback for their hypotheses orhelp them accomplish a task (McGee & Richgels, 1996). Vygotsky suggested that

learning is a matter of internalizing the language and actions of others. According to

McGee and Richgels (1996), "Vygotsky believed that children need to be able to talk

about a new problem or a new concept in order to understand it and use it" (p. 8). As the

child discusses a problem or task with an adult, the adult supplies language to assist thechild in solving the problem; the child gradually internalizes the language until the task

can be completed independently (McGee & Richgels, 1996). The instructional techniquein which the teacher models the desired learning strategy or task and then gradually shifts

responsibility to the students is called scaffolding.

[email protected]

Copyright North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. All rights reserved.Disclaimer and copyright information.

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Critical Issue: Addressing the Literacy Needs of Emergent andEarly Readers

ISSUE: Literacy development begins in the very early stages of childhood, even thoughthe activities of young children may not seem related to reading and writing. Early

behaviors such as "reading" from pictures and "writing" with scribbles are examples of

emergent literacy and are an important part of children's literacy development. With the

support of parents, caregivers, early childhood educators, and teachers, as well asexposure to a literacy-rich environment, children successfully progress from emergent to

conventional reading. The theoretical and research-based knowledge of child

development in general and of literacy development in particular provides anunderstanding of the literacy acquisition of young children and suggests strategies that

can help children become successful, confident readers and writers.

OVERVIEW: In 1966, New Zealand researcher Marie Clay introduced the termemergent literacy to describe the behaviors seen in young children when they use booksand writing materials to imitate reading and writing activities, even though the children

cannot actually read and write in the conventional sense (Ramsburg, 1998). In the three

decades since Clay's introduction, an extensive body of research has expanded theunderstanding of emergent literacy. According to current research, children's literacy

development begins long before children start formal instruction in elementary school

(Allington & Cunningham, 1996; Burns, Griffin, & Snow, 1999; Clay, 1991; Hall &Moats, 1999; Holdaway, 1979; Teale & Sulzby, 1986). This literacy development is

nourished by social interactions with caring adults and exposure to literacy materials,

such as children's storybooks (Sulzby, 1991). It proceeds along a continuum, and children

acquire literacy skills in a variety of ways and at different ages (Emergent LiteracyProject, n.d.; McGee & Richgels, 1996; Ramsburg, 1998; Strickland & Morrow, 1988).

Children's skills in reading and writing develop at the same time and are interrelated

rather than sequential (Teale & Sulzby, 1986). Educators can promote children'sunderstanding of reading and writing by helping them build literacy knowledge and skills

through the use ofengaged learningactivities.

Children's growth from emergent to conventional literacy is influenced by their

continuing literacy development, their understanding of literacy concepts, and the effortsof parents, caregivers, and teachers to promote literacy.

Children's Literacy Development

From as early as the first months through the second year of life, children's experiences

with oral languagedevelopment and literacy begin to build a foundation for later readingsuccess (Burns, Griffin, & Snow, 1999; Strickland & Morrow, 1988; Weaver, 1988).

From 2 to 3 years of age, children begin to produce understandable speech in response to

books and the written marks they create.

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From 3 through 4 years of age, children show rapid growth in literacy. They begin to

"read" their favorite books by themselves, focusing mostly on reenacting the story from

the pictures. Eventually, they progress from telling about each picture individually toweaving a story from picture to picture using language that sounds like reading or written

language (Holdaway, 1979; International Reading Association & National Association

for the Education of Young Children, 1998; Sulzby, 1991). At this time, children alsoexperiment with writing by forming scribbles, letter-like forms, and random strings of

letters (Barclay, 1991; Clay, 1975; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998; McGee & Richgels,

1996). They also begin to use "mock handwriting" (Clay, 1975) or wavy scribbles(Sulzby, 1985b) to imitate adult cursive writing. Letter-like forms or "mock letters"

(Clay, 1975) are the young child?s attempt to form alphabetic letters; these forms of

writing eventually will develop into standard letters (Barclay, 1991). When using various

forms of writing, children maintain their intention to create meaning and will often "read"their printed messages using language that sounds like reading (Clay, 1975; McGee &

Richgels, 1996; Sulzby, 1985b).

Around age 5, children enter school and begin receiving formal literacy instruction. Mostchildren at the kindergartenlevel are considered to be emergent readers. Theycontinue

to make rapid growth in literacy skills if they are exposed to literacy-rich environments

(Burns, Griffin, & Snow, 1999). Children at this age continue to "read" from books they?

ve heard repeatedly. Gradually, these readings demonstrate the intonation patterns of theadult reader and language used in the book. Emergent readers are just beginning to

control early reading strategies such as directionality,word-by-word matching, and

concepts of print. They use pictures to support reading and rely heavily on theirknowledge of language (Holdaway, 1979; Pinnell, 1996b; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998).

Children's writing also develops rapidly during the kindergarten year. Just as children?s

reading acquisition does not occur in a linear path, children?s writing skills also reflect anoverlapping development. Children continue to use the variety of writing formsdeveloped earlier, but they typically add random letter strings to their repertoire; in effect,

they create strings of letters for their written messages without regard for the sounds

represented by the letters (Sulzby, 1989, 1992). At this age, children plan their writingand are able to discuss their plans with others. If allowed, they begin to useinvented

spelling (phonetic spelling). Invented spelling typically represents the most dominant

sounds in a word, such as the beginning and ending sounds (Gentry, 1982; McGee &Richgels, 1996; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998; Weaver, 1988). Even though children

begin applying phonetic knowledge to create invented spellings, there is a lapse in time

before they use phonetic clues to read what they write. Often children will try to recall

what has been written or will use a picture created with the text to reread instead of usingthe letter clues (Kamberelis & Sulzby, 1988; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). It is

interesting to note that once children start to use invented spelling, they do not use it

equally for all writing tasks. In a study on emergent writing, Sulzby, Barnhart, andHieshima (1989) observed children employing writing forms typical of earlier literacy

development when asked to engage in more extended writing tasks. The children

typically used invented spelling to represent single words or short phrases, but theyreverted to less mature forms of writing when required to create more complex pieces.

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Tracy van Peeren, a kindergarten teacher at Greenwood Elementary School

in St. Clair Shores, Michigan, describes the use of developmentally appropriate literacy

activities in the kindergarten classroom [560 k audio file]. Excerpted from a videotaped

interview with Tracy van Peeren (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 1999).A text transcript is available.

At some point during the kindergarten or first grade year, most children move from

emergent literacy into conventional literacy. This process is gradual. Although all aspectsof conventional literacy are developing during the emergent period, they become

recognizable in conventional literacy. Educators working with young children must keep

in mind that there is no prescribed grade level for reaching conventional literacy.

Emergent literacy and conventional literacy "are not discrete stages but a continuum oflearning that varies with the complexity of each individual?s development," states Pinnell

(1996b, p. 177). As children are moving into conventional literacy, they pass through

different periods of development in their efforts to become successful readers, just as theydid at the emergent level. Many traditional researchers use the terms early reader,

transitional reader, andfluent readerto describe these periods of literacy growth.

Most children at the first gradelevel are or will become early readers. They know how to

use early reading strategies and can read appropriately selected text independently after astory introduction given by a teacher (Pinnell, 1996b). Early readers begin to attend to

print and apply thephonetic value (International Reading Association & National

Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998)of letters in order to read. They commonly look at beginning and ending letters in order

to decode unfamiliar words (Clay, 1991; Pinnell, 1996b; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998).

Children in this early reading period also begin to attend to more than one source for cueswhile reading. Attention is paid to meaning cues, grammatical cues, and prior knowledge

on a limited basis (Clay, 1991; Holdaway, 1979; International Reading Association &

National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998; Pinnell, 1996b; Snow,

Burns, & Griffin, 1998). These children are able to recognize a small number of words onsight. In writing, children typically progress through five stages of invented spelling,

ranging from writing the initial consonant sound of a word to using conventional spelling.

Most children at the second gradelevel are transitional readers. They are able to read

unknown text with more independence than can early readers. Transitional readers usemeaning, grammatical, and letter cues more fully. They recognize a large number of

frequently used words on sight and use pictures in a limited way while reading (Clay,1991; International Reading Association & National Association for the Education ofYoung Children, 1998; Pinnell, 1996b; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). Some children

continue to use phonetic or invented spelling, but the spelling is easily readable.

Sometime during the development from early reader into transitional reader, children?swriting also begins to demonstrate characteristics of the transitional speller (Gentry,

1982; McGee & Richgels, 1996; Weaver, 1988). Transitional spellers are able to apply

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spelling rules, patterns, and a variety of other strategies for putting words on paper

(Gentry, 1982; Weaver, 1988).

Children at the third grade level typically arefluent readers. They use all sources ofinformation flexibly to read a variety of unknown texts. Fluent readers are able to read for

meaning with less attention to decoding and can independently solve problemsencountered in the text (Clay, 1991; International Reading Association & National

Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998; Pinnell, 1996b; Snow, Burns, &Griffin, 1998). Typically, writing has developed into mostly conventional spelling;

children may employ transitional and phonetic spellings to spell infrequently used words

or words that are challenging to the child. Children are able to write expressively in manydifferent forms using rich vocabulary and more complex sentences. They often revise and

edit their own work (International Reading Association & National Association for the

Education of Young Children, 1998). If the reading materials are appropriatelychallenging, children's fluency (which includes automatic word recognition, rapid

decoding, and checking for meaning) continues to increase.

Children's Concepts of Literacy

In addition to acknowledging children's developmental acquisition of decoding,

comprehension, and writing skills, emergent literacy research emphasizes the changesthat occur in children's understanding of literacy concepts. "The transition to real reading

involves changes not only in composition of skills but also in concepts about the nature

of literacy," note Snow, Burns, and Griffin (1998). As children have more experiencewith reading and writing, their understanding of the concepts of reading and writing

expand and grow to fit their new knowledge.

For instance, Sulzby (1985a) describes categories of children's storybook reading fromemergent through conventional reading. She notes that children eventually move frompointing and labeling pictures in a book, to "reading" a story through the illustrations, to

telling the story using book language, and finally to reading conventionally using the text

of a story.

An important transition is when children?s "reading" of stories changes from soundinglike oral language to sounding like written language. This transition demonstrates a

change in ideas from thinking of reading as spoken words to understanding that reading is

recreated from written text that has special wordings(McGee & Richgels, 1996; Sulzby,1991). A similar shift in language can be observed in children?s story dictation and in the

rereading of their emergent writing (Sulzby, Barnhart, & Hieshima, 1989).

The young child?s concept of words changes as the child's literacy development evolves.

Ferreiro (1986), for example, notes that young children often think words should showsome figural resemblance to their meaning; later, children think words need a minimum

number of symbols; still later, they think words need varied letters. In a study by Pick,

Unze, Brownell, Drozdal, and Hopmann (1978), children as young as 3 years old wereasked to sort word cards into piles of "words" and "not words." The children put all

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single-letter and two-letter cards into the "not words" pile and cards of three or more

letters into the "words" pile. Their notion of words was a string of at least three letters. In

contrast, first graders put all word cards they could read--regardless of length--into the"words" pile, and all word cards they did not recognize into the "not words" pile. The

first graders' concept of words was that words can have any number of letters but must be

recognizable and meaningful to the reader.

These studies indicate that children's ideas about words are quite different from adults'concepts of words. "Because children construct their own knowledge, this knowledge

does not come fully developed and is often quite different from that of an adult. Thus,

there are differences between how an adult understands reading and writing and how achild understands reading and writing," note McGee and Richgels (1996, p. 7). As

children progress into conventional literacy, however, their concepts of literacy gradually

change toward the more conventional adult conceptualizations.

Efforts to Promote Children's Literacy Development

Because reading and writing are thinking processes (Allington & Cunningham, 1996;

McGee & Richgels, 1996), emergent literacy also must be considered in the context of

children's developingcognitive skills. The theories of bothPiaget and Vygotsky are

relevant to the discussion of emergent literacy and help explain the cognitive conceptsformed by young learners. Emergent literacy is partly discovered; children construct their

own ideas about literacy as they actively participate in literacy activities (Piaget).

Emergent literacy also is based on behaviors modeled and supported by adults(Vygotsky) that encourage children to change and refine their own ideas to more closely

match conventional notions. One example of this interface between literacy acquisition

and literacy instruction is the child's development ofphonemic awareness (awareness that

spoken words are made with individual sounds). By playing with language, such asrhyming or substituting sounds in words, some children develop a degree of phonemic

awareness on their own, while other children require instruction from adults. Instructionmay enable some children to use metacognition (the process of thinking about and

regulating one's own learning) to achieve a higher level of phonemic awareness.

David Kerbow, a researcher for the Center for School Improvement at the University of

Chicago, discusses the development of phonemic awareness and the value of readingaloud to children[784 k audio file]. Excerpted from a videotaped interview with David

Kerbow (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 1999). Atext transcript is

available.

In their literacy development, children progress through several categories ofphonological skills. The earliest and easiest tasks involve rhyming, identifying words that

rhyme, and thinking of rhyming words. Intermediate tasks involve the blending of

phonemes (for example, /i/ and /n/ = in) and syllable splitting (separating the firstphoneme of a word from the ending sound: /b/ /at/). The most difficult tasks involve the

complete segmentation of phonemes and manipulation of them to form new words

(Griffith & Olson, 1992; Hall & Moats, 1999).

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Children's parents, caregivers, and early childhood educators play an important role in

ensuring that children successfully progress in their literacy development. Children's

literacy efforts are best supported by adults? interactions with children through readingaloud and conversation and by children?s social interactions with each other (McGee &

Richgels, 1996). It is imperative that caregivers and educators in all settings are

knowledgeable about emergent literacy and make a concerted effort to ensure thatchildren experience literacy-rich environments to support their development into

conventional literacy.

Of utmost importance is reading aloud to children and providing opportunities for them

to discuss the stories that they hear (Burns, Griffin, & Snow, 1999). Anderson, Hiebert,Scott, and Wilkinson (1985) state, "The single most important activity for building the

knowledge required for eventual success in reading is reading aloud to children. This is

especially so during the preschool years" (p. 23). Reading aloud to children helps themdevelop in four areas that are important to formal reading instruction: oral language,

cognitive skills, concepts of print, andphonemic awareness. Development of these skills

provides a strong foundation to support literacy development during the early schoolyears (Allington & Cunningham, 1996; Hall & Moats, 1999; Holdaway, 1979).

Children who are read to develop background knowledge about a range of topics and

build a large vocabulary, which assists in later reading comprehension and development

of reading strategies. They become familiar with rich language patterns and gain anunderstanding of what written language sounds like. Reading aloud to children helps

them associate reading with pleasure and encourages them to seek out opportunities to

read on their own. Children also become familiar with the reading process by watching

how others read, and they develop an understanding of story structure. Repeated readingsof favorite stories allow children an informal opportunity to gradually develop a more

elaborate understanding of these concepts. By revisiting stories many times, childrenfocus on unique features of a story or text and reinforce previous understandings. Inaddition, rereadings enable children to read emergently (Sulzby, 1985b; Sulzby, Buhle, &

Kaiser, 1999).

All children need to have high-quality children's books as a part of their daily experience

(Burns, Griffin, & Snow, 1999). Storytime can include a variety of reading materials,including "books that positively reflect children?s identity, home language, and culture"

(International Reading Association & National Association for the Education of Young

Children, 1998, p. 9). Children benefit from having access to a wide range ofliteracymaterials, such as books, magazines, newspapers, and a variety of writing materials. The

library media specialist at school or the children?s librarian at the public library can help

identify a variety of materials, including picture books, rhyming books, alphabet books,short stories, and chapter books.

Literacy-rich environments, both at home and at school, are important in promoting

literacy and preventing reading difficulties. In literacy-rich home environments, parents

and caregivers provide children with occasions for daily reading,extended discourse(extensive talking or writing), language play, experimentation with literacy materials,

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book talk (discussion of characters, action, and plot), and dramatic play (Burns, Griffin,

& Snow, 1999;International Reading Association & National Association for the

Education of Young Children, 1998). In literacy-rich classrooms, teachers incorporate thecharacteristics of literacy-rich home environments, but they also usegrouping for

learning,developmentally appropriate practices, and literacy routines; in addition, they

have classroom designs that continue to encourage reading and writing (McGee &Richgels, 1996) through learning centers and engaged learning activities. In their joint

position statement, Learning to Read and Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practices

for Young Children, the International Reading Association and the National Associationfor the Education of Young Children (1998) confirm that the first eight years of a child's

life are the most important years for literacy development and that developmentally

appropriate practices at home and at school are crucial for ensuring that children become

successful readers.

David Kerbow, a researcher for the Center for School Improvement at the University of

Chicago, notes that developmentally appropriate literacy activities can function at

different levels and are valuable and applicable to all children in a classroom [364 kaudio file]. Excerpted from a videotaped interview with David Kerbow (North Central

Regional Educational Laboratory, 1999). Atext transcript is available.

Some children, however, enter elementary school without a strong background in

literacy. The children most at risk of developing reading problems are those who beginschool with low language skills, less phonemic awareness and letter knowledge, and less

familiarity with literacy tasks and underlying purposes (Burns, Griffin, & Snow, 1999).

Research in the areas offamily risk factors that contribute to children's reading

difficulties, adult-child interactions during story reading, and language developmentdelays verifies that successes or struggles with reading can be observedvery early in a

child's life. To help children develop emergent skills and overcome barriers to literacy,teachers may need to take special efforts in working with children individually and inoffering support and encouragement to parents and caregivers for participating in their

children's literacy development. Schools also can use a wide variety ofliteracy

intervention programsto minimize identified risk factors and support children in theirliteracy development.

Special consideration can be given to children who do not have strong skills in oral

English. According to Snow, Burns, and Griffin (1998), non-English-speaking children

need adequate preparation before they are taught to read in English. The ability to speakEnglish provides the foundation for learning alphabetic principles, the structure of the

language, and the content of the material they are reading. If children cannot speak

English, they can be taught to read and write in their own language while becomingproficient in English. If that is not possible, "the initial instructional priority should be

developing the children's oral proficiency in English" (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998, p.

325). Formal reading instruction in English can be started after the child is adequately

proficient in oral English.

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It is imperative that teachers who work with young children either in preschool or

primary environments are continually provided opportunities to learn more about child

development, especially as it relates to literacy acquisition (Burns, Griffin, & Snow,1999; International Reading Association & National Association for the Education of

Young Children, 1998). Preservice education and later professional development can

provide the research base as well as instruction on how to apply literacy research toclassroom practice (Burns, Griffin, & Snow, 1999). By continually expanding their

knowledge base, teachers will be better prepared to select appropriate instructional

strategies, interventions, and materials to ensure that they are meeting the diverse needsof young children.

Screening and assessment are crucial tools for determining children?s literacy needs.

Screening provides educators a quick look at children?s skills and development in

specific areas prior to beginning reading instruction, while assessment provides ongoingfeedback about children?s literacy progress and growth. Both screening and ongoing

assessment can help teachers identify children who are developing atypically and are in

need of intervention. The earlier children receive this intervention, the better. Duringkindergarten and first grade, children can be screened for phonemic awareness,

alphabetic knowledge, and an understanding of basic language concepts (Texas

Education Agency, 1997a). Throughout kindergarten and the primary grades, teachers

can use a full continuum of assessment options, ranging from performance-basedassessment to standardized testing. The use of performance-based assessments (such as

observational records of reading and writing, developmental benchmarks, andportfolios)

can be used to inform daily teaching (Allington & Cunningham, 1996; Burns, Griffin, &Snow, 1999; International Reading Association & National Association for the Education

of Young Children, 1998; Slegers, 1996). End-of-year assessments inform parents and

educators of children's literacy progress and assist in planning for the following school

year (Texas Education Agency, 1997a).

Literacy development begins very early in a child?s life and forms a foundation for the

acquisition of conventional literacy. "Research consistently demonstrates that the more

children know about language and literacy before they begin formal schooling, the betterequipped they are to succeed in reading," note Burns, Griffin, and Snow (1999, p. 8).

Parents, caregivers, and teachers need to ensure that young children are exposed to

literacy-rich environments and receive developmentally appropriate literacy instruction.Such environments and experiences have a profound effect on children's literacy

development by providing opportunities and encouragement for children to become

successful readers.

GOALS

Teachers and caregivers understand and support childrens emergent

literacy and, in later years, children's transition to conventional readingand writing.

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Teachers, administrators, and specialists understand the developmental

nature of emergent literacy and early conventional literacy; they ensurethat the K-2 curriculum and instructional materials are appropriate.

Parents are supported in sharing and exploring literacy with their children.

Homes, day care settings, and schools provide literacy-rich environments

for children.

Home cultures and languages are used as literacy resources, and children

are read to from rich literature.

The literacy program supports children?s social, emotional, aesthetic,

maturational, and cognitive needs.

Childrens literacy development is supported through balanced reading

programs that incorporate quality literature, writing opportunities,development of phonemic awareness, and alphabetic knowledge.

Teachers and caregivers participate in long-term professionaldevelopment and learning forums in emergent literacy and earlyconventional literacy; they recognize, support, and assess children'sliteracy skills.

ACTION OPTIONS: Administrators, teachers and early childhood educators,

and parents and caregivers can take the following steps to provide opportunities forchildren's literacy acquisition.

Administrators:

Work with community groups and libraries to provide informationalprograms for parents regarding the development of literacy skills in youngchildren.

Review research on reading and young children, such as Beating the

Odds in Teaching All Children to Read, Reading the Right Way,

Beginning Reading Instruction: Components and Features of aResearch-Based Reading Program, Balanced Reading Instruction,and Improving the Reading Achievement of America's Children.

Become familiar with Learning to Read and Write: Developmentally

Appropriate Practices for Young Children (the joint position statementof the International Reading Association and the National Association for

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the Education of Young Children), and thePrimary Literacy Standardsdeveloped as part of the New Standards project.

Develop an understanding ofphonological terms.

Work with teachers to provide a developmentally appropriate curriculum inreading and writing that is "challenging but attainable with sufficient adultsupport" (International Reading Association & National Association for theEducation of Young Children, 1998, p. 8).

Develop strategies forpreventing reading difficulties in young

children.

Ensure that the library or resource center has extensive and variedresources for younger students.

Ensure that appropriate screenings and assessments are used todetermine intervention programs for children who are experiencingreading problems and children who are at risk of developing readingproblems.

Support teachers in implementing developmentally appropriate literacy

practices in their classrooms.

Provide teachers with ongoing professional development on topics suchas children's growth from emergent literacy to conventional literacy,literacy instruction, and developmentally appropriate practice. (Refer to

CIERA links for various literacy and educational resources.)

Teachers and Early Childhood Educators:

Use developmentally appropriate literacy practice that acknowledges

children?s development, interests, and literacy knowledge.

Read to children daily and allow them to take turns "reading" the material

to each other.

Use a wide range ofliteracy materials in class. Allow children to

experience a variety of children's books, magazines, and newspapers.

Take time to listen to children to determine their interests, language skills,

and areas of need.

Use children's home cultures and languages as literacy resources.

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Provide multiple rereadings of stories for pleasure and exploration. Invite

children to join in the readings, honoring their emergent reading behaviors.

Create a literacy-rich classroom environment. Provide appropriate literacy

activities for children, such as literacy activities for day care and

preschool settings, literacy activities for kindergarten, and literacyactivities for first grade.

Ensure that the school provides appropriate writing materials for

children.

Encourage children to compose stories and informational articles in

emergent forms; provide opportunities for children to read, share, anddisplay their writing.

Provide opportunities forreading and writing in a kindergarten

classroom that will benefit children at every phase of their literacydevelopment.

Provide "writing experiences that allow the flexibility to use

nonconventional forms of writing at first (invented or phonetic spelling) andover time move to conventional forms" (International Reading Association& National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998, p.9).

Use appropriate strategies for teaching beginning reading.

As children begin to read conventionally, provide balanced reading

instruction to teach both skills and meaning and to meet the readingneeds of individual children.

Share ideas with parents and caregivers on creating an optimal

environment to support young children's literacy development.

Participate in professional development activities to increaseunderstanding of emergent literacy and appropriate teaching practices.

Parents and Caregivers:

Read aloud to children. Share and explore books and other readingmaterials with children.

Provide a literacy-rich environment by promoting home literacy activitiesfor infants and toddlers and home literacy activities for preschoolers.

Realize the value ofhelping children learn about reading.

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Encourage children's literacy development at home through resources

such as

Beginning Reading Instruction: Practical Ideas for Parents (Adobe Reader PDF 494 KB) and Helping Your Child Learn to Read.

Talk with and listen to children to promote their oral language

development.

Encourage children to retell stories that have been read to them.

Encourage children to draw pictures or "write" about the stories they have

listened to and to emergently "read" these stories.

Provide children with a positive role model by taking time to read andwrite.

Visit the library regularly with children. Children may enjoy having their

own library card.

Take children to the "story hour," children's plays, and other community

activities.

Develop an understanding ofphonological terms.

Take advantage of opportunities to learn and read about children?s

development and literacy acquisition.

IMPLEMENTATION PITFALLS: Because of the various demandsof early childhood classrooms, teachers working with young children sometimes find itdifficult to match the method of teaching with each child's level of literacy development

and individual skills. Instructional activities that are used before the child is ready will

result in less-than-expected progress. For example, if instruction focuses on isolated skills

(such as word recognition, one-to-one pointing and chanting, or sounding out nonsensewords) before a child has developed the prior concepts necessary for mastering these

skills, real understanding and learning cannot take place. To be successful in their literacyacquisition, children need to grasp basic instruction before they can add new skills. Earlyassessment, screening, and knowledge of children's abilities help ensure that children

receive appropriate and individualized instruction.

Traditional school-based literacy programs often assume that children?s literacy concepts

are sufficiently developed to match the adult notion of literacy. In light of what is knownabout children?s developmental progression, this assumption may or may not be true

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when children enter school. To ensure successful reading experiences, instruction needs

to be appropriate to the child?s development. For example, instruction must take into

consideration the child?s concept of words. If a child thinks only nouns and verbs arewords and rejects one- to two-letter words (such as a, an, on, and of), drilling on these

words as sight vocabulary does not make sense. This idea is particularly relevant in

determining when to introduce conventional reading instruction. Moving slightly aheadof development may workwith 7- to 8-year-olds but not with 3- to 4-year-olds.

Teachers may assume that very young children should be taught through a conventional

model of reading instead of an emergent model. They may provide direct instruction to

the class instead of taking time to determine the appropriate instruction for each child.Teachers should encourage and support the literacy development of each individual. If a

child is not able to apply the phonetic value or determine meaning independently, the

teachers' role is to guide the child through these learning processes and ensure successfulreading experiences.

When working with young children, teachers may focus on one literacy component to theexclusion of others (for example, emphasizing phonics to the exclusion of reading for

learning and enjoyment). Learning to read will be more successful for children if thevarious components are interwoven into literacy instruction.

Teachers may be given reading tools and materials without long-term professional

development to ensure deep understanding of children's literacy development.

Professional development is important in helping teachers understand that appropriatereading and writing skills should be taught to children at the appropriate times. These

skills must be presented in different ways to reach all children in the classroom.

Professional development also helps teachers assess children?s readiness to learn new

skills.

Differences in training of early childhood educators and K-8 educators have resulted in

widely varying programs and interpretations of emergent literacy. Early childhood

educators tend to focus on nurturing the social and emotional needs of children andproviding developmentally appropriate instruction. Teachers trained for grades K-8, on

the other hand, tend to be more focused on curriculum and instructional strategies. Recent

research indicates a trend toward a more structured academic kindergarten (Slegers,1996) in which the curriculum reflects skills that have been moved down from first grade.

As a result, teachers may feel pressure to formally teach reading skills to children in

kindergarten. If these teachers keep in mind the different kinds of development their

students demonstrate,they will be able to provide appropriate instruction for all students.Individualized instruction with a focus on continual progress within a continuum of

learning will meet the varying needs of children.

DIFFERENT POINTS OF VIEW: Although some early childhood educators provideactivities that support emergent literacy development, others interpret "developmentally

appropriate" to mean that reading and writing are academic skills that belong only in

programs for older children (Slegers, 1996).

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Traditionally, children's literacy skills were compared with adults' literacy skills, and

reading and writing were viewed as difficult processes for children to learn. "Children

were considered knowledgeable about literacy only when their reading and writingapproximated adults' reading and writing," states the Emergent Literacy Project (n.d.).

"Children who could identify written words without picture clues were considered

readers. Similarly, children who could spell words so that adults could read them wereconsidered writers. This definition of reading and writing was based on what adults could

do."

Some educators believe that children must reach a certain level of physical and

neurological maturation before they are ready for reading and writing. This perspective,called reading readiness, "suggests that there is a point in time when a child is ready to

begin to learn to read and write" (Emergent Literacy Project, n.d.) rather than a

developmental continuum of reading and writing acquisition. "It also assumes thatphysical and neurological maturation alone prepare the child to take advantage of

instruction in reading and writing," note the International Reading Association and the

National Association for the Education of Young Children (1998, p. 2). They add, "Thereadiness perspective implies that until children reach a certain stage of maturity, all

exposure to reading and writing, except perhaps being read stories, is a waste of time or

even potentially harmful" (p. 2). According to the reading readiness viewpoint,

conventional literacy skills should be taught in kindergarten so children are ready for thefirst-grade curriculum when they enter first grade.

There are varying opinions on the strategies for teaching young children to read and

write. Some educators believe that instruction in conventional literacy should be based on

early, explicit, and intensive instruction in sound-letter relationships to develop children'scomprehension and decoding skills. Others emphasize immersion in language and

literature.

Before the concept of emergent literacy was introduced, it was believed that childrenmust learn to read before they could learn to write. Some educators still believe that this

approach is the best way to teach young children.

Some parents and educators think that schools should discourage the use of invented

spelling. They believe that invented spelling prevents children from learning to spellcorrectly and affects their success in school and life.

ILLUSTRATIVE CASES:

Jo Wingo, a kindergarten teacher at Centralized Kindergarten North

School, in Indianapolis, Indiana, demonstrates literacy best practice in akindergarten classroom [text and videostreaming feature].

Elizabeth Sulzby, professor of education at the University of Michigan in

Ann Arbor and principal investigator at the Center for the Improvement of

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Early Reading Achievement, discusses children's development ofemergent writing [text and videostreaming feature].

The literacy program at Cherry Valley Elementary School, in Polson,

Montana, emphasizes teaching and reaching each child as an

individual.

Successful Early Childhood Education in an Imperfect Worlddescribes educational strategies--including literacy practices--used withyoung children in four Northwest schools: Cherry Valley ElementarySchool, in Polson, Montana; Helen Baller Elementary School, in Camas,Washington; Harborview/Capital Elementary School, in Juneau, Alaska;and Mary Harrison Primary School, in Toledo, Oregon.

CONTACTS:

Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement (CIERA)

University of Michigan, School of Education

610 E. University Ave, Room 1600 SEBAnn Arbor, MI 48109-1259

(734) 647-6940; fax (734) 763-1229

Contact: Elfrieda Hiebert, Director

E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.ciera.org/

ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and Communication

Indiana UniversitySmith Research Center, Suite 150

Bloomington, IN 47408-2698

(800) 759-4723 or (812) 855-5847; fax (812) 855-4220

WWW: http://www.indiana.edu/~eric_rec/

International Reading Association

800 Barksdale Road

P.O. Box 8139

Newark, DE 19714-8139(302) 731-1600; fax: (302) 731-1057

WWW: http://www.reading.org/

National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)1509 16th St. N.W.

Washington, DC 20036-1426

(202) 232-8777 or (800) 424-2460; fax (202) 328-1846

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Contact: Pat Spahr, Information Services Director

E-mail:[email protected]

WWW: http://www.naeyc.org/

National Institute for Literacy

1775 I St. N.W., Suite 730Washington, DC 20006-2401

(202) 233-2025; fax (202) 233-2050Contact: Andrew Hartman, Director

E-mail:[email protected]

WWW: http://www.nifl.gov/

Whole Language Umbrella

National Council of Teachers of English

1111 West Kenyon Road

Urbana, IL 61801

(2l1) 328-3870 or (800) 369-6283; fax (217) 328-9645E-mail: [email protected]

WWW: http://www.ncte.org/groups/wlu

This Critical Issue was written by Debra Johnson, a freelance writer who also is a

multiage resource teacher at Lincoln School in Mundelein, Illinois, in collaboration with

Elizabeth Sulzby, professor of education at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor andprincipal investigator at the Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement

in Ann Arbor.

Date posted: 1999

[email protected]

Copyright North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. All rights reserved.Disclaimer and copyright information

Queen's Printer for Ontario, 20102008-2009 - Last Modified: 17/3/09 9:00 AM

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Early Reading Strategy, The Report of the Expert Panelon Early Reading in Ontario, 2003, Ministry ofEducation, Ontario

Why Early Reading Matters

Stages of Reading Development

Reading to Learn

Making It Happen

Laying a Strong foundation

Reading in a Second Language

Becoming a reader is a continuous process that begins with the development of oral

language skills and leads, over time, to independent reading. Oral language the

20101228111226emergent literacy reading american speech-1

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