1.nature, scope & objective of law of torts
TRANSCRIPT
1. E
volu
tion,
Def
initi
on, N
atur
e, S
cope
and
1.
Evo
lutio
n, D
efin
ition
, Nat
ure,
Sco
pe a
nd
Obj
ect
Obj
ect o
f La
w o
f T
ort
so
f La
w o
f T
ort
s
C J
Raw
anda
le,
C J
Raw
anda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
rA
ssoc
iate
Pro
fess
or
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
2
1.1.
A w
ron
gfu
l act
vio
latio
n o
f dut
y im
po
sed
by
law
du
ty
wh
ich
is o
we
d t
o p
eop
le g
ener
ally
(in
rem
)
1.2
To
rt d
istin
guis
hed
fro
m c
rim
e an
d b
reac
h o
f co
ntra
ct
1.3
Th
e co
nce
pt
of u
nliq
uid
ated
dam
ages
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
3
Intr
oduc
tion
Th
e w
ord
‘to
rt’i
s th
e F
ren
ch e
qu
ival
ent
of t
he
En
glis
h w
ord
‘wro
ng’a
nd
R
om
an t
erm
‘del
ict’.
It is
der
ived
fro
m t
he
Latin
wo
rd ‘T
ort
um
’wh
ich
mea
ns
‘twis
ted
’or
‘cro
oke
d’
act,
i.e.
a d
evia
tion
fro
m s
trai
ght
or
righ
t co
ndu
ct.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
4
In J
ai L
axm
i Sal
t Wor
ks (
P)
Ltd
. V. S
tate
of G
ujar
at,
(19
94)
4 S
CC
1,
Sah
ai,
J. o
bse
rved
:
“Tru
ly s
peak
ing
entir
e la
w o
f Tor
ts is
foun
ded
and s
truc
ture
d on
mor
ality
th
at n
o on
e ha
s a
right
to in
jure
or
harm
inte
ntio
nally
or
even
in
noce
ntly
”.
In F
airc
hild
v G
lenh
aven
Fun
eral
Ser
vice
s Lt
d[2
002]
UK
HL
22;
[2
003]
1
A.C
. 3
2,
Lord
Bin
gham
of C
orn
hill
sai
d:
“th
e o
vera
ll o
bje
ct o
f to
rt la
w is
to
def
ine
case
s in
wh
ich
th
e la
w m
ay
just
ly
ho
ld o
ne
par
ty li
able
to
co
mp
ensa
te a
no
ther
”.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
5
Th
e m
ain
aim
s o
f la
w o
f to
rtsar
e:
1.to
def
ine
ind
ivid
ual
’s r
igh
ts a
nd d
utie
s in
th
e light o
f pre
vale
nt
stan
dar
ds
of
reas
on
able
co
ndu
ct a
nd p
ublic
con
ven
ien
ce.
2.co
mp
ensa
tion
of v
ictim
/s o
r th
eir
dep
end
ent/
s.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
6
Def
initi
on/s
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
7
Sec
tion
2 (m
) Li
mita
tion
Act
, 196
3:
“To
rt is
a c
ivil
wro
ng
wh
ich
is n
ot
excl
usi
vely
breac
h o
f co
ntr
act
or
bre
ach
of
tru
st”.
Sal
mon
d
“A t
ort
is a
civ
il w
ron
g fo
r w
hic
h t
he
rem
edy
is a
co
mm
on
law
act
ion
for
un
liqu
idat
ed d
ama
ges
and
wh
ich
is
not e
xclu
sive
lyth
e b
reac
h o
f a c
on
trac
t, o
r th
e b
reac
h o
f a t
rust
, or
the
bre
ach
of o
ther
mer
ely
equ
itab
le o
blig
atio
n”.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
8
Fra
ser
“A t
ort
is a
n in
frin
gem
ent
of a
rig
ht
in r
em o
f a priv
ate
ind
ivid
ual
, giv
ing
a rig
ht
of c
om
pen
satio
n at th
e su
it of
the
inju
red
part
y”.
Win
field
“To
rtio
us
liabi
lity
aris
es fr
om
th
e b
reac
h o
f du
typ
rimar
ily f
ixed
by
law
; th
is
du
ty is
to
war
ds p
erso
nsg
ener
ally
an
d it
s b
reac
h is
red
ress
ible
by
an
act
ion
for
unliq
uida
ted
da
mag
es”
.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
9
Wha
t is
liabi
lity
?
Liab
ility
aris
es f
rom
bre
ach
of d
uty
or
a w
ron
g.
It is
so
met
hin
g w
hic
h a
per
son
mu
st d
o o
r su
ffer
on
acc
ou
nt o
f his
failu
re t
o d
o w
hic
h h
e o
ugh
t to
hav
e d
one
(du
ty).
A p
erso
n h
as c
ho
ice
in fu
lfilli
ng
his
du
ty w
her
eas
liab
ility
aris
es in
dep
end
ent
of o
ne’
s ch
oic
e.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
10
‘Per
son’
Sal
mon
d
“A p
erso
n is
an
y b
ein
g w
ho
m t
he
law
re
gard
s as
cap
ab
le o
f rig
hts
an
d d
utie
s”.
Err
ay
“A p
erso
n is
an
entit
y o
n w
hic
h r
igh
ts a
nd
du
ties
ma
y b
e at
trib
ute
d”.
Th
ese
two
def
initi
on
s sh
ow
th
at th
e co
nce
pt o
f per
so
nal
ity is
lin
ked
with
th
e co
nce
ptio
n o
f rig
ht.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
11
Kin
ds o
f Per
son
Per
son
s in
law
are
of t
wo
kin
ds.
I. N
atur
al P
erso
n: -
A n
atu
ral p
erso
n is
a b
ein
g on
wh
om la
w a
ttrib
ut
es p
erso
na
lity
in
acc
ord
ance
with
rea
lity
an
d tr
uth
.
Hol
land
def
ines
a n
atu
ral p
erso
n a
s “s
uch
a h
um
an b
ein
g a
s is
rec
ogn
ized
by
the
law
as
capa
ble
of r
igh
ts a
nd d
utie
s-in
lan
guag
e of
Rom
an
la
w is
ha
vin
g a
sta
tus”
.
II. L
egal
Per
son:
-Le
gal p
erso
ns
are
bei
ngs
, re
al o
r im
agi
na
ry,
to
wh
om t
he la
w
att
ribu
tes
per
son
alit
y b
y w
ay
of f
ictio
n,
wh
en th
ere
is n
one
in fa
ct.
Sal
mon
d
“Leg
al p
erso
n is
an
y su
bje
ct m
atte
r ot
her
th
an h
um
an
bei
ngs
to
wh
ich
law
att
ribu
tes
per
son
alit
y”.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
12
Whe
ther
Chi
ld (
foet
us)
in th
e W
omb
is a
pe
rson
?
In W
alke
rv.
Gre
at N
orth
ern
Rai
lway
, (1
890
) 2
8 LR
Ir.
69
, [Ir
ish
Cas
e] th
e in
fan
t cl
aim
ed 1
.03
0 P
ound
as
dam
ages
fro
m t
he
rail
wa
y co
mp
any.
It
was
hel
d
that
th
e in
fan
t co
uld
no
t mai
nta
in a
n a
ctio
n.
(Ire
land
)
The
Unb
orn
Vic
tims
of V
iole
nce,
Act
200
4has
gra
nte
d p
erso
nho
od
to a
h
um
an fo
etu
s. (U
nite
d S
tate
s of
Am
eric
a)
Con
geni
al D
isab
ilitie
s (C
ivil
Liab
ility
) A
ct, 1
976
give
s a
righ
t o
f Act
ion
to
an in
fan
t if
he
is b
orn
dis
able
d du
e to
th
e fa
ult
of s
om
e o
ther
per
son
. (Uni
ted
Kin
gdom
)
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
13
Indi
a
Sec
tion
13 o
f the
Tra
nsfe
r of
Pro
pert
y A
ct, 1
887 (T
ran
sfer
fo
r b
enef
it o
f u
nbo
rn p
erso
n)
Sec
tion
113
of th
e In
dian
Suc
cess
ion
Act
(B
equ
est
to p
erso
n n
ot in
exi
sten
ce
at t
esta
tor’s
dea
th s
ubje
ct t
o p
rior
beq
ues
t)
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
14
Sec
tion
11 o
f the
Indi
an P
enal
Cod
e: -T
he
wo
rd “
per
son
”in
clud
es a
ny
Co
mp
any
or
Ass
oci
atio
n o
r b
ody
of p
erso
ns,
wh
eth
er
inco
rpo
rate
d o
r no
t.
Sec
tion
11
of t
he
IPC
has
no
t def
ine
the
term
“p
ers
on
’in
a n
arro
w a
nd
te
chn
ical
sen
se b
ut h
as g
iven
a w
ider
me
anin
g to
the
term
to
incl
ude
bo
th a
n
atu
ral p
erso
n (
a h
um
an b
ein
g, w
het
her
a m
an o
r a
wo
man
) an
d a
n a
rtifi
cial
or
jurid
ical
per
son
.
In J
abba
rv.
Sta
te,
AIR
19
66
All
550
(59
3)
the
cou
rt h
eld
that
a c
hil
d in
the
wo
mb
wh
ose
bo
dy
has
su
ffici
ently
de
velo
ped
to
hav
e a
sep
arat
e id
entit
y o
f its
o
wn
is a
per
son
.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
15
Kan
ta M
ohan
lal K
otec
hav.
The
Bra
nch
Man
ager
, Uni
ted
Indi
a In
sura
nce
Co.
Ltd
.(R
epo
rted
in th
e T
imes
of I
nd
ia T
ues
da
y, M
arch
6, 2
007
)
Is a
n u
nbo
rn c
hild
a c
on
sum
er e
ntit
led
to in
sura
nce
co
vera
ge?
A p
regn
ant
wo
man
is a
co
nsu
mer
. B
ut
can
the
foet
us
in th
e w
om
b b
e co
nsi
der
ed a
sep
arat
e en
tity
in r
esp
ect
of w
hic
h a
n in
sura
nce
cla
im c
an b
e m
ade?
Th
is u
niq
ue
and
inte
rest
ing
case
has
rec
ently
bee
n
dec
ided
th
rou
gh a
lan
dm
ark
jud
gmen
t o
f th
e M
ahar
ash
tra
Sta
te C
om
mis
sio
n in
thi
s ca
se.
Th
e ju
dgm
ent
was
del
iver
ed o
n 6
No
vem
ber
, 2
00
6 b
y Ju
stic
e B
.B.
Vag
yan
i on
beh
alf o
f th
e b
ench
pre
sid
ed o
ver
by
him
alo
ng
with
me
mb
ers
P.N
. K
ash
alka
r an
dS
wat
i Le
le.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
16
Acc
ord
ing
to s
cien
ce, d
urin
g th
e se
con
d t
rimes
ter
of p
regn
ancy
-fr
om
th
e 1
3th
to
the
27t
h w
eek-
the
em
bry
o t
urn
s in
to a
foet
us
and
att
ain
s a
reco
gniz
able
h
um
an fo
rm.
Th
e sc
ien
tific
ter
min
olo
gy “
hu
ma
n fo
etu
s”im
plie
s that a
hu
man
is p
rese
nt
wh
ere
the
org
anis
m is
aliv
e an
d g
row
ing
and
po
sses
sin
g a
un
iqu
e ge
net
ic c
od
e.
Hen
ce a
n u
nbo
rn c
hild
in th
e w
om
b is
livi
ng
is e
nti
tled
to p
erso
nho
od.
Th
e M
ahar
ash
tra
Sta
te C
om
mis
sio
n d
ecre
ed t
hat
an
un
bo
rn fo
etu
s sh
ou
ld b
e co
nsi
der
ed a
s a
sep
arat
e en
tity
with
res
pec
t to
ins
ura
nce
cla
ims.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
17
Dis
tinct
ion
betw
een
Tor
ts &
Crim
e
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
18
1.T
ort
is a
less
ser
iou
s w
ron
g w
her
eas
Cri
me
is m
ore
se
riou
s w
ron
g.
2.T
o m
ake
on
e lia
ble
und
er la
w o
f to
rts,
on
e m
ust
pro
ve fa
ult,
neg
ligen
ce o
r w
ron
gfu
l in
ten
t on
the
par
t of t
he
def
end
ant.
Gen
eral
ly s
pea
kin
g, in
ten
tion
d
oes
no
t fo
rm a
n e
ssen
tial e
lem
ent
to m
ake
on
e lia
ble
un
der
Law
of
To
rts.
In c
ase
of C
rim
e o
ne
mu
st p
rove
bo
th a
ct a
s w
ell a
s in
ten
tion
.
Exc
eptio
n: D
octr
ine
of S
tric
t Lia
bilit
y
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
19
3.T
ort
bei
ng
a p
rivat
e w
ron
g, t
he
inju
red
par
ty h
imse
lf h
as t
o fi
le a
su
it as
a
pla
intif
f.
On
th
e o
ther
han
d, th
e cr
imin
al p
roce
edin
gs a
gain
st t
he
wro
ngd
oer
are
no
t b
rou
ght
by
the
inju
red
par
ty b
ut
by t
he
Sta
te.
In c
ase
of t
he
crim
e, e
ven
th
ough
th
e im
med
iate
vic
tim is
an
ind
ivid
ual
, th
e cr
imin
al w
ron
g is
co
nsi
dere
d t
o b
e a
pu
blic
wro
ng
i.e.
a w
ron
g ag
ain
st t
he
Sta
te.
Exc
eptio
n: S
ectio
n 4
97
Ad
ulte
ry;
Sec
tion
499
IPC
Def
am
atio
n
4.In
cas
e o
f to
rt,
the
pla
intif
f m
ay
agre
e to
co
mp
rom
ise
with
th
eto
rt-f
easo
r an
d w
ithd
raw
th
e su
it fil
ed b
y h
im.
In c
ase
of C
rim
e, in
gen
eral
th
e co
mp
ou
ndin
g o
f off
ence
is c
on
sid
ered
to
be
un
law
ful.
Exc
ept
in c
erta
in e
xcep
tion
al c
ases
, th
e la
w d
oes
no
t per
mit
a se
ttle
men
t b
etw
een
th
e w
ron
gdo
er a
nd
the
aggr
ieve
d
par
ty [S
ectio
n 32
0 C
r.P
.C g
ives
a li
st o
f com
poun
dabl
e of
fenc
es a
nd the
per
sons
by
who
m
part
icul
ar o
ffenc
es a
re c
ompo
unda
ble]
.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
20
5.In
cas
e o
f To
rt,
the
obj
ect
of l
aw is
pa
ymen
t o
f co
mp
ensa
tion
i.e.
to
mak
e go
od
the
loss
su
ffere
d b
y h
im.
Exc
eptio
n: U
nd
er S
ectio
n 5
7 C
r.P
.C.
a ju
dgm
ent
deb
tor
ma
y b
e a
rres
ted
an
d
imp
riso
ned
in e
xecu
tion
of a
dec
ree.
Su
ch a
per
son
is
rel
ease
d e
ven
bef
ore
th
e ex
pira
tion
of f
ixed
ter
m,
if th
e d
ecre
e is
sat
isfied.
In c
ase
of C
rim
e, t
he
ob
ject
of l
aw is
pu
nis
hm
ent
of t
he
offe
nd
er.
Exc
eptio
n: S
ectio
n 3
57
Cr.
P.C
. 19
73
even
a C
rimin
al C
ou
rt w
hil
e p
assi
ng
jud
gmen
t m
ay
ord
er t
hat
th
e in
jure
d p
arty
ma
y b
e p
aid
co
mp
ensa
tion
ou
t of
the
fine
imp
ose
d.
In E
ngl
and
, co
mp
ensa
tion
pay
me
nts
are
mad
e u
nd
er t
he
Po
wer
s o
f C
rimin
al
Co
urt
s A
ct 1
973
. Fu
rth
er th
e C
rimin
al I
nju
ries
Co
mp
ensa
tion
Sch
em
e 1
96
4
mak
es e
x gr
atia
pa
ymen
ts t
o v
ictim
s o
f vio
len
t cr
ime.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
21
Fel
onio
us T
ort
So
met
imes
, th
e sa
me
set
of
fact
s m
ay
con
stitu
te b
ot
h a
tort
an
d a
crim
e. S
uch
w
ron
gs a
re c
alle
d a
s “F
elo
nio
us
To
rts”
.
Th
e ci
vil a
nd
crim
inal
re
med
ies
in s
uch
a c
ase
are
not a
ltern
ativ
e bu
t are
co
ncur
rent
.E.g
. D
efa
mat
ion
, N
eglig
ence
, N
uis
ance
etc
.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
22
Dis
tinct
ion
Bet
wee
n T
ort &
Con
trac
t
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
23
1.In
cas
e o
f to
rt,
the
wro
ng
com
mitt
ed is
vio
latio
n o
f rig
ht
in r
em w
her
eas
in
case
of
con
trac
t it
is v
iola
tion
of r
igh
t in
per
son
am.
2.In
cas
e o
f To
rts,
th
e d
uty
is p
rimar
ily f
ixed
by
law
wh
erea
s in
Co
ntr
act,
it is
fix
ed b
y th
e p
artie
s to
the
con
trac
t w
ith t
hei
r fr
ee
con
sen
t.
In a
co
ntr
act,
the
du
ty is
bas
ed o
n th
e p
rivity
of
con
trac
t an
d e
ach
par
ty o
we
s d
uty
on
ly t
o t
he
oth
er c
on
trac
ting
par
ties.
Du
ties
imp
ose
d b
y la
w u
nd
er la
w o
f to
rts
are
not
tow
ard
s an
y sp
ecifi
c in
div
idu
al o
r in
div
idu
als
butt
hey
are
to
war
ds
the
wo
rld a
t la
rge.
3.D
ama
ges
in c
ase
of
con
trac
t m
ay
be
liqu
idat
ed o
r un
liqu
idat
ed.
In T
ort
s, th
e d
amag
es
are
alw
ays
un
liqu
idat
ed.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
24
Th
ere
ma
y b
e ce
rtai
n c
ase
s w
hen
th
e sa
me
fact
res
ul
ts in
a b
reac
h o
f co
ntr
act
as w
ell a
s a
tort
.
E.g
. 1
. Du
e to
neg
ligen
ce o
f a d
river
, a
railw
ay
pas
sen
ger
is in
jure
d,
the
railw
ay
auth
orit
ies
are
liab
le fo
r th
e b
reac
h o
f th
e co
ntr
act
ofs
afe
carr
iage
, an
d
ther
e is
als
o to
rt o
f neg
ligen
ce w
hic
h r
esu
lts in
dam
age
to t
he
pas
sen
ger.
2.
If I
leav
e m
y h
ors
e w
ith m
y n
eigh
bo
ur
for
on
e w
eek
an
d g
o o
utan
d th
e n
eigh
bou
r al
low
s th
e h
ors
e to
die
of s
tarv
atio
n,
ther
e is
bre
ach
of c
on
trac
t in
asm
uch
as
the
bai
lee
has
faile
d t
o e
xerc
ise
du
e c
are
in t
he
mat
ter,
an
d th
e b
aile
e h
as a
lso
co
mm
itted
to
rt o
f neg
ligen
ce.
One
mus
t rem
em
ber
that
the
plai
ntiff
can
not c
laim
the
dam
ages
twic
e ov
er. H
e ha
s a
choi
ce e
ither
to s
ue fo
r th
e br
each
of
con
trac
t or
for
the
com
mis
sion
of t
ort.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
25
Doc
trin
e of
priv
ity o
f con
trac
t fal
lacy
& th
e E
xcep
tion
Win
terb
otto
mv.
Wrig
ht,
(18
42
) 1
0 M
& W
. 10
9-
Wh
en A
’s w
ron
gfu
l act
re
sults
in th
e b
reac
h o
f a c
on
trac
t w
hic
h h
e h
ad e
nte
red
into
with
B a
nd
als
o
the
com
mis
sio
n o
f a t
ort
aga
inst
C,
it w
as t
ho
ugh
t th
at ju
st li
ke B
, C h
as a
lso
to
sho
w p
rivity
of c
on
trac
t b
efo
re h
e c
an b
ring
an a
ctio
n fo
r to
rt.
Th
is r
ule
lost
its
san
ctity
in 1
932
.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
26
Don
oghu
ev. S
teve
nson
, (1
932
) A
.C.
56
2.
A w
ent
to a
res
tau
ran
t w
ith a
wo
man
frie
nd
an
d b
oug
ht
one
bott
leo
f gin
ger
bee
r m
anu
fact
ure
d b
y th
e d
efen
dan
ts.
Th
e w
om
an c
on
su
med
par
t o
f th
e co
nte
nts
bu
t wh
en t
he
rem
ain
der
was
po
ure
d in
to th
e g
lass
, sh
e o
bse
rved
th
e d
eco
mp
ose
d b
ody
of a
sn
ail i
n it
. Th
e gi
nge
r b
eer
bo
ttle
, b
ein
g m
ade
of d
ark
op
aqu
e gl
ass
and
sea
led
with
met
al c
ap,
the
pre
sen
ce
of s
nai
l cou
ld n
ot h
ave
bee
n o
bse
rved
ear
lier.
Th
e w
om
an b
rou
ght
n ac
tion
agai
nst
th
e m
anu
fact
ure
r fo
r n
eglig
ence
an
d
alle
ged
th
at b
y ta
kin
g a
par
t o
f th
e co
nta
min
ated
drin
k, s
he
had
con
trac
ted
se
riou
s ill
nes
s.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
27
Th
e H
ou
se o
f Lo
rds
hel
d th
at th
e m
anu
fact
ure
r o
wed
h
er a
du
ty t
ota
ke c
are
that
th
e b
ottl
e d
id n
ot c
on
tain
no
xio
us
mat
ter
inju
riou
s to
hea
lth.
Ref
errin
g to
th
e lia
bili
ty o
f th
e m
anu
fact
ure
r o
f f
oo
d a
rtic
les L
ord
Mac
mill
ano
bse
rved
: “The
dut
y, in
my
opin
ion,
he
owes
to th
ose
who
m h
e inte
nds
to
cons
ume
his
prod
uct”
.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
28
Kla
us M
ittel
bach
ert
v. E
ast I
ndia
Hot
els
Ltd.
AIR
19
97
Del
201
.
Th
ere
was
a c
on
trac
t b
etw
een
Lu
fthan
sa,
a G
erm
an A
irli
nes
an
d H
otel
Ob
ero
i In
ter-
Co
ntin
enta
l of D
elh
i fo
r th
e st
ay
of t
he
cre
w o
f Lu
fthan
sa a
s g
ues
ts in
the
ho
tel.
Th
e p
lain
tiff K
lau
s M
ittel
bach
ert,
a c
o-p
ilot in
Lu
fthan
sa s
taye
d in
th
e h
ote
l fo
r a
few
da
ys.
Du
ring
his
sta
y, a
s a
pla
inti
ff to
ok
a d
ive
in a
sw
imm
ing
po
ol in
th
e h
otel
, du
e to
def
ectiv
e d
esig
n o
f th
e s
wim
min
g p
oo
l,h
is h
ead
hit
the
bott
om
of t
he
poo
l an
d h
e re
ceiv
ed s
erio
us
hea
d in
jurie
s. A
sa
con
seq
uen
ce
of t
hat
, h
e w
as p
aral
ysed
and
co
ntin
ued
in a
gon
y fo
r 1
3 y
ears
be
fore
he
die
d.
In a
n a
ctio
n fo
r d
amag
es b
y th
e p
lain
tiff,
on
e o
f th
e d
efen
ces
ple
ade
d w
as t
hat
h
e w
as a
str
ang
er t
o c
on
trac
t, a
s th
e co
ntr
act
for
stay
wa
s m
ade
bet
wee
n t
he
em
plo
yer,
i.e.
Lu
fthan
sa a
nd
the
ho
tel.
Th
e p
lea
wa
s re
ject
ed.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
29
It w
as h
eld
th
at h
e co
uld
su
e u
nder
co
ntr
act
as a
ben
efic
iary
oft
he
con
trac
t.
Mo
reo
ver,
for
an a
ctio
n un
der
Law
of
To
rts,
for
com
pen
satio
n t
he
ple
a o
f st
ran
ger
to c
on
trac
t w
as ir
rele
van
t.
Du
e to
haz
ard
ou
s n
atu
re o
f th
e p
rem
ises
, th
e ru
le w
as a
bso
lute
liab
ility
was
ap
plie
d a
nd
the
def
end
ants
wer
e re
qu
ired
to p
ay e
xem
pla
ry d
am
age
s a
mo
un
ting
to 5
0 la
c ru
pee
s.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
30
Ess
entia
ls o
f a T
ort
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
31
To
co
nst
itute
a t
ort
, it
is e
ssen
tial t
hat
th
e fo
llo
win
g tw
o c
on
diti
on
sare
sa
tisfie
d;
1.T
her
e m
ust
be
som
e a
ct o
r o
mis
sio
n o
n th
e p
art o
f th
e d
efen
dan
t, an
d
2.T
he
act
or
om
issi
on
sh
ould
res
ult
in le
gal d
ama
ge (
inju
ria),
i.e.
vio
latio
n o
f a
lega
l rig
ht
vest
ed in
th
e pl
ain
tiff.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
32
1. A
ct o
r om
issi
on
In o
rder
to
ma
ke a
per
son
liab
le fo
r a
tort
, h
e m
us
t h
ave
don
e so
me
act
wh
ich
h
e w
as n
ot
exp
ecte
d t
o d
o, o
r, h
e m
ust
hav
e o
mitt
ed t
o d
o s
om
eth
ing
wh
ich
he
was
su
pp
ose
d to
do
.
E.g
. A
co
mm
its t
he
act
of t
resp
ass
or
pub
lish
es a
sta
tem
ent
def
am
ing
ano
ther
p
erso
n, o
r w
ron
gfu
lly d
etai
ns
anot
her
per
son
; h
e ca
n b
e m
ade
liab
le fo
r tr
esp
ass,
def
am
atio
n o
r fa
lse
imp
riso
nm
ent,
as
the
case
ma
y b
e.
On
e m
ust
no
te t
hat
the
wro
ngf
ul a
ct o
r a
wro
ngf
ul o
mis
sio
n m
ust
be
on
e re
cogn
ized
by
law.
If th
ere
is a
mer
e m
ora
l or
soci
al w
ron
g, t
her
e c
ann
ot b
e a
liab
ility
for
the
sam
e.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
33
Gla
sgow
Cor
pora
tion
v. T
aylo
r, (
192
2)
1 A
.C.
44
If a
corp
ora
tion,
wh
ich
mai
nta
ins
a p
ubl
ic p
ark,
fails t
o p
ut p
rop
er fe
nci
ng
to
keep
th
e ch
ildre
n aw
ay
fro
m a
po
iso
nou
s tr
ee a
nd
a ch
ild p
luck
s an
d e
ats
the
fru
its o
f th
e p
ois
ono
us
tree
and
die
s, t
he
Co
rpo
rat
ion
wo
uld
be
liab
le fo
r su
ch
om
issi
on
.
Mun
icip
al C
orpo
ratio
n of
Del
hiv.
Sub
haga
wan
ti, A
IR 1
96
6 S
C 1
750
Mu
nic
ipal
Co
rpo
ratio
n, h
avin
g co
ntr
ol o
f a c
lock
to
wer
in t
he
hea
rt o
f th
e ci
ty
do
es n
ot
keep
it in
pro
per
rep
airs
an
d th
e fa
llin
g o
f th
e sa
me
resu
lts in
the
dea
th o
f a n
um
ber
of p
erso
ns,
th
e C
orp
ora
tion
wo
uld
be
liabl
e fo
r its
om
issi
on
to
tak
e ca
re in
th
e m
atte
r.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
34
2. L
egal
Dam
age
In o
rder
to
be
succ
essf
ul i
n a
n a
ctio
n fo
r to
rt, t
he
pla
intif
f has
to
pro
ve t
hat
th
ere
has
bee
n a
le
gal d
amag
eca
use
d t
o h
im .
In o
ther
wo
rds,
un
less
th
ere
has
bee
n v
iola
tion
of
a le
gal r
igh
t, t
her
e ca
n b
e n
o ac
tion
un
der
law
of t
ort
s.
Th
is m
akes
it n
eces
sary
to
dis
cuss
th
e fo
llow
ing
two
max
ims:
a.In
juria
Sin
e D
amn
o
b.D
am
nu
m S
ine
Inju
ria
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
35
a. In
juria
Sin
e D
amnu
m
Inju
riam
ean
s in
frin
gem
ent
of a
rig
ht
con
ferr
ed b
y la
w o
n t
he
pla
intif
for
an
un
auth
oris
ed in
terf
eren
ce,
ho
wso
ever
triv
ial,
with
th
e pl
ain
tiff’s
rig
ht.
Dam
num
me
ans
sub
stan
tial h
arm
, lo
ss o
r d
amag
e in
res
pec
t o
f mo
ney
, co
mfo
rt,
hea
lth o
r th
e lik
e.
Sin
em
ean
s w
itho
ut.
Inju
ria S
ine
Dam
no m
eans
vio
latio
n of
a le
gal r
ight
with
out c
ausi
ng a
ny
harm
, los
s or
dam
age
to th
e pl
aint
iff.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
36
Th
ere
are
two
kin
dsof t
ort
s:
1.th
ose
tort
s w
hic
h a
re a
ctio
nab
le p
er s
e, i.
e. a
ctio
nab
le w
itho
ut th
e p
roo
f of
any
da
mag
e o
r lo
ss.
E.g
. T
resp
ass
to la
nd is
act
ion
able
eve
n th
ough
no
dam
age
h
as b
een
cau
sed
as
a re
sult
of t
he
tres
pas
s;
2.th
e to
rts
wh
ich
are
act
ion
able
on
ly o
n t
he
pro
of o
f s
om
e d
am
age
cau
sed
by
an a
ct.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
37
Illus
trat
ions
If a
clai
man
t is
wro
ngf
ully
det
ain
ed a
gain
st h
is w
ill,
he
will
hav
e a
clai
m fo
r su
bst
antia
l dam
age
s fo
r w
ron
gfu
l im
pris
on
men
t ev
en
if n
o c
on
sequ
entia
l lo
ss
was
su
ffere
d u
pon
the
det
entio
n.
If a
ten
ant
mak
es
imp
rove
men
ts t
o t
he
pro
per
ty le
ased
with
ou
t th
e rig
ht
to d
o so
, th
e te
nan
t co
mm
its t
he
tort
of w
aste
an
d is
lia
ble
for
dam
age
s e
ven
th
ough
th
e p
rem
ises
ma
y b
e im
pro
ved
and
ren
der
ed m
ore
val
uab
le b
y th
e al
tera
tion
s.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
38
Ash
byv.
Whi
te,
(17
03)
2 Lo
rd R
aym
93
8;
(17
03)
1 S
m.
L.C
. 1
3th
ed
.,
253
Th
e p
lain
tiff
wa
s a
qu
alifi
ed v
ote
r at
a P
arlia
men
tar
y el
ectio
n.T
he
def
end
ant,
a
retu
rnin
g o
ffice
r w
ron
gfu
lly r
efu
sed
to
take
pla
in
tiff’s
vo
te.
Th
e P
lain
tiff
suffe
red
no
dam
age
as t
he
can
did
ate
for
wh
om
he
wan
ted
to
vo
te w
on
the
elec
tion
in s
pite
of t
hat
. T
he
def
en
dan
t was
hel
d l
iab
le.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
39
Bhi
m S
ingh
v. S
tate
of J
. & K
.AIR
19
86
SC
49
4
Th
e p
etiti
on
er, a
n M
.L.A
. o
f Ja
mm
u &
Kas
hm
ir, w
as w
ron
gfu
lly d
etai
ned
by
the
polic
e w
hile
he
was
go
ing
to a
tten
d th
e A
sse
mb
ly
sess
ion
. F
urt
her
he
was
n
ot p
rod
uce
d b
efo
re t
he
Mag
istr
ate
with
in t
he
requ
isi
te p
erio
d. A
s a
co
nse
qu
ence
of t
his
, h
e w
as d
epriv
ed o
f his
co
nst
itu
tion
al r
ight
to a
tten
d th
e A
sse
mb
ly s
essi
on
. T
her
e w
as a
lso
vio
latio
n o
f fu
nd
am
enta
l rig
ht
to p
erso
nal
lib
erty
gu
aran
teed
un
der
Art
icle
21
of t
he
Co
nst
itutio
n.
By
the
time
the
pet
ition
was
dec
ided
by
the
Su
pre
me
Co
urt
, B
him
Sin
gh h
ad
bee
n r
elea
sed
, b
ut b
y w
ay
of c
on
seq
uen
tial r
elie
f, ex
em
pla
ry d
am
age
s a
mo
un
ting
to R
s. 5
0,0
00
wer
e a
war
ded
to
him
.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
40
b. D
amno
Sin
e In
juria
It m
ean
s d
amag
e w
hic
h is
no
t co
uple
d w
ith a
n u
nau
tho
rised
inte
rfer
ence
with
th
e p
lain
tiff’s
law
ful r
igh
t.
Glo
uces
ter
Gra
mm
ar S
choo
l Cas
e(14
10
) Y
.B.
Hill
11
Hen
, 4 o
f 47
, P.2
1,
36
Th
e d
efen
dan
t, a
sch
oo
lmas
ter,
se
t u
p a
rival
sch
oo
l to
that
of t
he
pla
intif
fs.
Bec
ause
of t
he
com
pet
itio
n, t
he
plai
ntif
fs h
ad t
o r
edu
ce th
eir
fees
fro
m 4
0
pen
ce t
o 1
2 p
ence
per
sch
ola
r p
er q
uar
ter.
Th
us
cla
imed
th
e co
mp
ensa
tion
for
the
loss
cau
sed
. It
was
hel
d t
hat
the
pla
intif
fs h
ad
no
rem
edy
for
the
loss
thu
s su
ffere
d b
y th
em.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
41
Mog
ul S
team
ship
Co.
v. M
cGre
gor
Gow
and
Co.
(18
93
) A
.C.
25
A n
um
ber
of s
tea
msh
ip c
om
pan
ies
com
bin
ed t
oge
ther
and
dro
ve t
he p
lain
tiff
com
pan
y o
ut
of t
he
tea-
carr
yin
g tr
ade
by
offe
ring
red
uce
d fr
eigh
t. T
he
Ho
use
o
f Lo
rds
hel
d th
at t
he
pla
intif
f ha
d n
o c
ause
of a
ctio
n a
s th
e d
efen
dan
ts h
ad b
y la
wfu
l mea
ns
act
ed t
o p
rote
ct a
nd e
xten
d t
hei
r tr
ade
and
incr
ease
th
eir
pro
fits.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
42
Ush
aben
v. B
hagy
alax
mi C
hitr
a M
andi
r, A
IR 1
97
8 G
uj.
13
Th
e p
lain
tiff c
on
ten
ded
that
th
e fil
m “
Jai S
anto
shi
Maa
”h
urt
th
e re
ligio
us
feel
ings
of t
he
pla
intif
f in
so
far
as G
od
des
ses
Sa
rasw
ati,
Laxm
i, an
d P
arva
ti w
ere
dep
icte
d a
s je
alo
us
and
wer
e r
idic
ule
d a
nd
thu
s su
ed fo
r a
per
man
ent
inju
nct
ion
aga
inst
th
e d
efen
dan
ts to
res
trai
n th
em
fro
m e
xhib
itin
g th
e fil
m.
It w
as o
bse
rved
th
at h
urt
to
rel
igio
us
feel
ings
had
no
t bee
n r
eco
gniz
ed a
s a
lega
l wro
ng.
Mo
reo
ver,
no
per
son
has
a le
gal r
igh
t to
en
forc
e h
is r
elig
iou
s vi
ew
s o
n a
no
ther
or
to r
estr
ain
ano
ther
fro
m d
oin
g a
law
ful a
ct,m
ere
ly
bec
ause
it d
id n
ot
fit in
with
th
e te
net
s o
f his
pa
rtic
ula
r re
ligio
n.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
43
Ubi
Jus
Ibi R
emed
ium
Th
e la
w o
f to
rts
is s
aid
to
be
a d
evel
op
men
t o
f th
e m
axim
‘ub
i ju
s ib
i re
med
ium
’.
It m
ean
s th
at whe
re th
ere
is a
rig
ht th
ere
is r
em
edy.
In o
ther
wo
rds,
wh
enev
er t
he
righ
t is
vio
late
d th
e p
erso
n w
ho
se r
igh
t h
as b
een
in
frin
ged
has
rem
edy
agai
nst
th
e p
erso
n w
ho
has
vio
late
d it
.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
44
A t
ort
is a
civ
il w
ron
g fo
r w
hic
h th
e re
med
y is
an
ac
tion
for
unliq
uid
ated
d
amag
e, t
hu
s th
e m
ain
rem
edy
for
tort
is a
n a
ctio
n
for
dam
age.
Th
is p
rinci
ple
exp
lain
s ab
out
the
righ
t o
f an
inju
red
per
son
to d
ama
ge w
hic
h
brin
gs s
uch
wro
ngf
ul a
ct w
ithin
the
cate
gory
of t
or
ts.
It sh
ould
ho
wev
er b
e n
ote
d th
at
the
max
im d
oes
not m
ean
that
ther
e is
lega
l re
med
y fo
r ev
ery
mor
al o
r po
litic
wro
ng.
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
45
Qu
estio
ns,
If a
ny…
29-0
6-2
008
C J
Ra
wa
nda
le,
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
sso
r E
ma
il: c
jraw
and
ale
@liv
e.in
46
Th
ank
YO
U!