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Key results of the1997 National Nutrition Survey

NZ Food: NZ People

‘...are more likely to choose lower fat dairy products’

‘35 percent of energy came from...’

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‘The vegetable guideline was met by...’

NZ Food: NZ PeopleKey results of the 1997

National Nutrition Survey

David Russell

Winsome Parnell

Noela Wilson

and the principal investigators of the 1997National Nutrition Survey:

Otago University Jim Faed

Elaine Ferguson

Peter Herbison

Caroline Horwath

Ted Nye

Papaarangi Reid

Rob Walker

Barry Wilson

Auckland University Colin Tukuitonga

Produced by theLINZ® Activity & Health Research Unit

University of Otagofor the

Ministry of Health.

Published in August 1999by the Ministry of Health

PO Box 5013Wellington, New Zealand

© 1999 Ministry of Health

ISBN 0-478-23572-0 (Document)ISBN 0-478-23573-9 (Internet)

This document is available on the Ministry of Health’s Web site:http://www.moh.govt.nz

iAcknowledgements

Acknowledgements

The National Nutrition Survey was funded by the Ministry of Health with ‘in kind’ support of theUniversity of Otago who conducted the Survey through its LINZ® Activity & Health ResearchUnit.

This survey would not have been completed without the dedication of the project staff who workedlong hours to meet the very tight deadlines, firstly for the development of the survey’s uniqueLINZ® Electronic Dietary Data Acquisition System (LEDDAS©), secondly in monitoring the qualityof the survey data to provide timely feedback to field staff and thirdly, analysing the data andpreparing this report. Throughout this demanding project our field staff consistently demonstratedtheir reliability and professionalism.

The valuable assistance of our NZ Måori and Pacific people support staff is also gratefullyacknowledged.

The importance of the planning, development and ongoing input into this survey by the Ministryof Health and its National Nutrition Survey Technical Advisory Committee (NNSTAC) isrecognised.

On technical matters, we are particularly grateful to our colleagues in Statistics New Zealand whoconducted the associated 1996/97 Health Survey and to Crop & Food Research Ltd, PalmerstonNorth who provided the nutrient database. Closer to home, the ongoing advice of our consultantswas essential to the success of the survey as inevitable issues were resolved in a timely fashion.Special thanks are due to Dr George Beaton for his help with the nutrient analysis which hasproduced the first probability analysis to determine dietary inadequacy in a national population.Alicia Carriquiry and Kevin Dodd at the Iowa State University, Des Moines, also providedinvaluable assistance with these nutrient analyses.

However, our most important acknowledgment is reserved for the nearly 5,000 New Zealanderswho welcomed us into their homes and made the 1997 National Nutrition Survey possible.

Suggested citationRussell DG, Parnell WR, Wilson NC et al. 1999. NZ Food: NZ People. Key results of the 1997 National Nutrition Survey. Ministry of Health:Wellington.

ii NZ Food: NZ People

Foreword

This report and the results of the National Nutrition Survey mark the outcome of four years ofdevelopment, field work and analysis, brought about by a successful collaboration between manyGovernment and non-Government agencies.

The report provides definitive information on the nutritional status of adult New Zealanders. Forthe first time, detailed food and nutrient information on the Måori population and indicative datafor the Pacific people of New Zealand are presented. The use of certain methods and analysespresented in this report lead the world in their application to surveys of this kind. Examples includethe fully computerised data entry system for collecting information from survey participants, andthe probability analyses undertaken to determine nutrient inadequacy in the population.

Up-to-date knowledge about the food and nutrient intakes and nutritional status of New Zealandersis critical in achieving the Government’s goal of improving the health of New Zealanders. TheNational Nutrition Survey represents a major investment in nutrition information, by theGovernment, at a time of rapid change in the food supply of New Zealand.

Ultimately, this report will help achieve the medium-term health policy goals as set out in TheGovernment’s Medium-Term Strategy for Health and Disability Support Services 1999. One of the 12policy goals is to place a greater emphasis on population health approaches by, among othermeasures, promoting healthier lifestyles and diets.

Hon. Tuariki DelamereAssociate Minister of Health

iiiContents

Contents

Acknowledgements i

Foreword ii

List of Tables iv

List of Figures vi

Executive Summary 1

Introduction 4

Section A Nutrients 9

Section B Dietary Sources 59

Section C Dietary Supplements 79

Section D Eating Patterns 89

Section E Frequently Eaten Foods 125

Section F Health 163

Section G Have We Changed? 177

References 187

Explanatory Notes 189

Appendix A Survey Methodology 195

Appendix B Technical Notes 199

Appendix C Glossary of Terms 211

Appendix D Pacific People and Community Nutrient Intakes 215

Appendix E Questionnaires 232

iv NZ Food: NZ People

List of Tables

Section A NutrientsA1 Energy and Protein 26A2.1 Total Fat and Cholesterol 28A2.2 Fatty Acids I 30A2.3 Fatty Acids II 32A3.1 Carbohydrate and Starch 34A3.2 Sugars I 36A3.3 Sugars II 38A4 Fibre 40A5 Alcohol 42A6.1 Vitamin A 44A6.2 Vitamins C and E 46A7.1 B Vitamins I 48A7.2 B Vitamins II 50A8.1 Minerals I 52A8.2 Minerals II 54A8.3 Minerals III 56

Section B Dietary SourcesB1 Energy Sources for New Zealand Population 70B2 Total Fat Sources for New Zealand Population 71B3 Available Carbohydrate Sources for New Zealand Population 72B4 Protein Sources for New Zealand Population 73B5 Dietary Fibre Sources for New Zealand Population 74B6 Calcium Sources for New Zealand Population 75B7 Iron Sources for New Zealand Population 76B8 Folate Sources for New Zealand Population 77B9 Alcohol Sources for New Zealand Population 78

Section C Dietary SupplementsC1 Vitamin and Mineral Supplement Use in the Last Year 84C2 Other Dietary Supplement Use in the Last Year 86

Section D Eating PatternsD1 Type of Diet 104D2 Dietary Changes Attempted Currently 106D3 Direction of Current Dietary Changes 108D4 Intended Dietary Changes 110D5 Direction of Intended Dietary Changes 112D6.1 Difficulties Involved in Eating More Fruits 113D6.2 Difficulties Involved in Eating More Vegetables 114

vList of Tables

D6.3 Difficulties Involved in Eating More Breads and Cereals 115D6.4 Difficulties Involved in Eating Less High Fat Foods 116D7.1 Food Preparation I 118D7.2 Food Preparation II 120D8 Household Food Security Over the Last Year 122

Section E Frequently Eaten FoodsE1 Dairy Foods 138E2.1 Breads and Cereals I 140E2.2 Breads and Cereals II 142E3.1 Meat and Fish I 144E3.2 Meat and Fish II 146E4.1 Vegetables I 148E4.2 Vegetables II 150E4.3 Vegetables III 152E5 Fruits 154E6 Beverages 156E7.1 Miscellaneous Food I 158E7.2 Miscellaneous Food II 160

Section F HealthF1 Body Size 170F2 Blood Pressure 172F3 Blood Analyses 174

Section G Have We Changed?G1.1 Frequency of Choice of Type of Food Consumed 180G1.2 Energy I 181G1.3 Energy II 182G2.1 Body Size I 184G2.2 Body Size II 185G2.3 Cholesterol 186

Explanatory NotesI Number of Respondents 192II Effect of Sample Size on Accuracy of Estimated Proportions 194

Appendix BI Analytical Techniques for Nutrients 202II Food Groups 204III Estimated Average Requirements (EAR) per day used in the Probability Analysis 207

Appendix D Pacific People and CommunitiesD1 Unadjusted Energy and Protein 216D2.1 Unadjusted Total Fat and Cholesterol 217D2.2 Unadjusted Fatty Acids I 218

vi NZ Food: NZ People

D2.3 Unadjusted Fatty Acids II 219D3.1 Unadjusted Carbohydrate and Starch 220D3.2 Unadjusted Sugars I 221D3.3 Unadjusted Sugars II 222D4 Unadjusted Fibre 223D5 Unadjusted Alcohol 224D6.1 Unadjusted Vitamin A 225D6.2 Unadjusted Vitamins C and E 226D7.1 Unadjusted B Vitamins I 227D7.2 Unadjusted B Vitamins II 228D8.1 Unadjusted Minerals I 229D8.2 Unadjusted Minerals II 230D8.3 Unadjusted Minerals III 231

List of Figures

Section A NutrientsA1 Fig A. Usual daily median energy intake: by age group and sex 11

Fig B. Usual daily median protein intake: by age group and sex 11A2 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who met the fat guideline (≤ 33 percent):

by age group and sex 12Fig B. Mean percent contribution of fat type to energy: by sex 12

A3 Fig A. Mean percent contribution of carbohydrate to energy: by ethnic group and sex 14Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population who met the carbohydrate guideline

(≥ 50 percent): by age group and sex 14A4 Fig A. Usual daily median dietary fibre intake: by age group and sex 16

Fig B. Usual daily median non-starch polysaccharide intakes: by type and sex 16A5 Fig A. Daily mean alcohol intake: by age group and sex 17

Fig B. Mean percent contribution of alcohol to energy: by age group and sex 17A6 Fig A. Usual daily median ß-carotene intake: by age group and sex 18

Fig B. Usual daily median vitamin C intake: by age group and sex 18A7 Fig A. Usual daily median thiamin intake: by ethnic group and sex 20

Fig B. Usual daily median vitamin B12 intake: by age group and sex 20A8 Fig A. Usual daily median calcium intake: by age group and sex 22

Fig B. Usual daily median zinc intake: by age group and sex 22

Section B Dietary SourcesB1 Fig A. Percent contribution of non-alcoholic beverages to energy intake: by age group and sex 61

Fig B. Percent contribution of fruits to energy intake: by age group and sex 61B2 Fig A. Percent contribution of butter and margarine to total fat intake: by age group and sex 62

Fig B. Percent contribution of bread-based dishes to total fat intake: by age group and sex 62B3 Fig A. Percent contribution of non-alcoholic beverages to carbohydrate intake: by age group

and sex 63Fig B. Percent contribution of breakfast cereals to carbohydrate intake: by age group and sex 63

B4 Fig A. Percent contribution to protein intake: by food groups and sex 64Fig B. Percent contribution of bread-based dishes to protein intake: by age group and sex 64

viiList of Figures

B5 Fig A. Percent contribution to dietary fibre intake: by food groups and sex 65Fig B. Percent contribution of fruits to dietary fibre intake: by age group and sex 65

B6 Fig A. Percent contribution to calcium intake: by food groups and sex 66Fig B. Percent contribution of milk to calcium intake: by age group and sex 66

B7 Fig A. Percent contribution to iron intake: by food groups and sex 67Fig B. Percent contribution of breakfast cereals to iron intake: by age group and sex 67

B8 Fig A. Percent contribution to folate intake: by food groups and sex 68Fig B. Percent contribution of non-alcoholic beverages to folate intake: by age group and sex 68

B9 Fig A. Percent contribution of wine to alcohol intake: by age group and sex 69Fig B. Percent contribution of beer to alcohol intake: by age group and sex 69

Section C Dietary SupplementsC1 Fig A. Proportion of population who were regular users of vitamin/mineral supplements:

by ethnic group and sex 80Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed vitamin C supplements:

by age group and sex 80C2 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who were regular users of other dietary

supplements: by age group and sex 82Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed other dietary supplements:

by type of supplement and sex 82

Section D Eating PatternsD1 Fig A. Proportion of population who ate a regular diet: by ethnic group and sex 91

Fig B. Proportion of population who avoided meats except chicken: by ethnic group and sex 91D2 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who were currently attempting a dietary change:

by age group and sex 92Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population who were currently attempting a dietary change:

by type of change and sex 92D3 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population attempting current dietary change and the

direction of change: by type and sex 93Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population attempting change to fat type eaten 93

D4 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population intending to change diet in the future:by age group and sex 94

Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population intending to change diet in the future:by type and sex 94

D5 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population intending to make dietary change and the directionof change: by type and sex 95

Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population intending to change type of fat eaten 95D6 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who had difficulties with eating more fruits:

by type and sex 96Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population happy with fat intake: by age group and sex 96

D7 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who cooked meat or chicken in fat or oil:by age group and sex 98

Fig B. Proportion of population who always or often removed chicken skin: by ethnicgroup and sex 98

D8 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who can afford to eat properly only sometimes:by NZDep96 quartile and sex 100

Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population who use food grants/banks sometimes:by NZDep96 quartile and sex 100

viii NZ Food: NZ People

Section E Frequently Eaten FoodsE1 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed yoghurt at least once per week:

by age group and sex 127Fig B. Proportion of population who usually chose standard milk: by ethnic group and sex 127

E2 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who met the breads and cereals guideline(6+ servings per day): by age group and sex 128

Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed cooked porridge at least onceper week: by age group and sex 128

E3 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed luncheon meat at least once perweek: by age group and sex 130

Fig B. Proportion of population who consumed shellfish at least once per week: by ethnicgroup and sex 130

E4 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who met the vegetables guideline(3+ servings per day): by age group and sex 131

Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed hot chips at least once per week:by age group and sex 131

E5 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who met the fruits guideline(2+ servings per day): by age group and sex 133

Fig B. Proportion of population who consumed kiwifruit at least once per week: by ethnicgroup and sex 133

E6 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed tea at least three timesper week: by age group and sex 134

Fig B. Proportion of population who consumed white wine at least once per week: by ethnicgroup and sex 134

E7 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed tomato sauce at least onceper week: by age group and sex 136

Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed chocolate at least onceper week: by age group and sex 136

Section F HealthF1 Fig A. Mean body weight: by age group and sex 164

Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population with a waist:hip ratio excess: by age groupand sex 164

F2 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population with hypertension: by age group and sex 166Fig B. Proportion of population with high blood pressure: by ethnic group and sex 166

F3 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population with total serum cholesterol > 6.5 mmol/L:by age group and sex 167

Fig B. Proportion of population who met the National Heart Foundation lipid guideline: by ethnicgroup and sex 167

Section G Have We Changed?G1 Fig A. Mean contribution of fat to energy: by sex and survey 179

Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population who consumed selected food at least onceper week: by survey 179

G2 Fig A. Proportion of New Zealand population who were obese: by sex and survey 183Fig B. Proportion of New Zealand population with total serum cholesterol > 6.5 mmol/L:

by sex and survey 183

1Executive Summary

Executive SummaryOverviewThis report represents an overview of the 1997 New Zealand National Nutrition Survey (NNS97).This survey provides information on food and nutrient intakes, dietary habits and nutrition-relatedclinical measures of New Zealanders. NNS97 was based on a nationally representative sample of4,636 New Zealanders living in selected households and aged 15 years or above.

The survey data were collected in the homes of respondents and included: a 24 hour diet recall; aself-administered qualitative food frequency questionnaire which estimated the frequency of intakeof foods over the preceding 12 months and included questions on food preparation habits; questionson dietary supplements, barriers to dietary change and self assessment of household food security;physical measurements including weight, height, three circumferences, two skinfolds and elbowbreadth; blood pressure; and a blood sample for determining of cholesterol and iron status.

Key ResultsNutrients• The usual daily median energy intake was 11,631 kJ for males and 7,701 kJ for females.

• Thirty-five percent of energy came from fat in the diet of both males and females. Youngermales were less likely to have met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline forpercent energy from fat (≤ 33 percent) than younger females.

• Saturated fat was the predominant type of dietary fat contributing 15 percent of energy in bothmales and females. Monounsaturated fat provided 12 percent and 11 percent of energy in malesand females respectively, with 5 percent of energy from polyunsaturated fat in both sexes.

• Males 45–64 years were the least likely to have met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991)guideline for percent energy from carbohydrate (≥ 50 percent).

• The usual daily median intake of dietary fibre was 23 g/day in males and 18 g/day in femalescompared with the 25–30 g/day recommended by the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991).

• For males, alcohol intake was highest in those 45–64 years (daily mean 26g); and for females inthose 19–24 years (daily mean 13g).

• Dietary intakes of thiamin, niacin, vitamin B6, vitamin B12 and vitamin E for the New Zealandadult population, appear to be satisfactory.

• Those living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas (most deprived) are at a greater risk of inadequateintake of vitamin A, riboflavin and folate than those in less deprived areas.

• Younger females compared to older females (45+ years) are more likely to have inadequateintakes of riboflavin and folate.

• Dietary intakes of phosphorus, magnesium, zinc, potassium, manganese and copper appear tobe satisfactory.

• Females have a low risk of inadequate iron intake when consideration is given to both dietaryintake and biochemical iron status.

• Estimates of inadequate intake of dietary calcium among females varied across age groupsfrom 21 percent to 37 percent and for males 15–18 years it was 33 percent.

2 NZ Food: NZ People

Dietary sources• Bread, of all food groups, provided the largest proportion (11 percent) of energy in the

adult New Zealand diet.

• Non-alcoholic beverages contributed approximately 10 percent of the energy intake in young adults15–24 years.

• Butter and margarine contributed 16 percent to total fat intake in the adult New Zealand diet.

• Bread, vegetables, fruits, potatoes and kumara and breakfast cereals provided three-quarters of thedietary fibre intake for adult New Zealanders.

• Milk and cheese together supplied almost half the calcium intake of the adult New Zealandpopulation.

• Almost one-third of iron from dietary sources in the adult New Zealand diet was estimated tobe the highly bioavailable haem iron.

• Vegetables, bread and breakfast cereals contributed about 40 percent of the dietary sources of folatein the adult New Zealand diet.

Dietary supplements• Half the adult New Zealand population consumed a vitamin and/or mineral supplement over

the previous year; 23 percent less than once a week and 28 percent at least once a week.

• Almost one-third of the adult New Zealand population consumed dietary supplements (otherthan vitamins and/or minerals) over the previous year; 12 percent less than once a week and 17percent at least once a week.

Eating patterns• Ninety-four percent of the adult New Zealand population consumed a regular (omnivorous)

diet.

• One-third of adult New Zealanders were currently trying to make dietary changes, with morefemales (39 percent) than males (28 percent) attempting change.

• Trying to alter the consumption of high fat foods was the most popular type of dietary change (22percent) in the adult New Zealand population, followed by trying to change the amount offruits eaten (14 percent).

• Over one-fifth of the adult New Zealand population intended to make dietary change in thenext six months, with fruits (11 percent) and high fat foods (9 percent) the most popular areasfor changes.

• Almost one-half of the adult New Zealand population (47 percent) was happy with fat intake and32 percent felt it would be hard to eat less high fat foods because they taste good.

• Excess fat was trimmed off red meat always or often by 67 percent of those who ate red meat,while 42 percent of those who ate chicken removed the skin always or often.

• Concern about household food security was more frequently expressed by individuals living inNZDep96 quartile IV areas (most deprived) compared with those living in NZDep96 quartile Iareas (least deprived).

3Executive Summary

Frequently eaten foods• Females more frequently chose lower fat dairy products than males.

• Only about one in five of the New Zealand adult population reached the New Zealand NutritionTaskforce (1991) guideline of at least six servings of breads and cereals per day.

• About two-thirds of the New Zealand adult population met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce(1991) guideline of at least three servings of vegetables per day.

• Almost half of the New Zealand adult population met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce(1991) guideline of at least two servings of fruit per day.

• Males were almost twice as likely as females to be eating less than one serving of fruit per day.

• Over half of males drank beer at least once a week, while almost one-quarter of females drankwhite wine at least once a week.

Health• Seventeen percent of the adult New Zealand population (15 percent males, 19 percent females)

were considered obese. An additional 35 percent were considered overweight (40 percent males,30 percent females).

• About 22 percent of males and 18 percent of females had high blood pressure (those takinghypertensive medication plus those with a systolic pressure ≥ 160 mmHg and a diastolic pressure≥ 95 mmHg).

• The mean total serum cholesterol of both males and females was 5.7 mmol/L. Twenty-threepercent of the adult New Zealand population had total cholesterol levels higher than 6.5 mmol/L.

• Low iron stores, iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia affected 6 percent, 3 percent and 2percent of females, respectively.

Have we changed? (1989 to 1997)• Percent contribution to energy from fat has fallen from 37.5 percent to 35 percent.

• Mean body weight has increased by 3.2 kg. Associated with this increase was an increase inobesity levels from 11 percent to 17 percent.

• Mean total serum cholesterol has decreased from 5.9 mmol/L to 5.7 mmol/L. This was reflectedin the proportion of the adult New Zealand population with a serum cholesterol greater than6.5 mmol/L, decreasing from 30 percent to 23 percent.


Introduction

BackgroundThe 1997 New Zealand National Nutrition Survey (NNS97) was a voluntary cross-sectionalpopulation survey which provides information on food and nutrient intakes, dietary habits andnutrition-related clinical measures on a representative sample of 4,636 New Zealanders living inselected households and aged 15 years or above. Data were collected over the 12-month periodDecember 1996 to November 1997. NNS97 is the most comprehensive food and nutrition surveyever undertaken on the New Zealand population. It is possible to link NNS97 data with 1996/97Health Survey data (Ministry of Health 1999) to provide information on health status, factorsaffecting health status and health services utilisation as respondents in the NNS97 had completedthe 1996/97 Health Survey, although these analyses do not form part of this report.

Survey ObjectivesAs determined by the Ministry of Health, the objectives of the National Nutrition Survey were to:

1. ensure participation of NZ Måori at all levels through appropriate consultation, resourceallocation and the development of culturally appropriate practices for collection anddissemination of data;

2. monitor food and nutrient intakes against the Food and Nutrition Guidelines for HealthyNew Zealanders, compare nutrient intakes with the Recommended Dietary Intakes (RDIs)and assist in future revision of RDIs;

3. provide baseline data on the nutritional status and food security of the population, whichwould become a basis for comparisons with future surveys;

4. assess changes over time in dietary habits and provide a basis of comparison with futureregular surveys;

5. assist with the ongoing development of, and monitor the impact of New Zealand’s nutritionpolicy; monitor health goals and targets for nutrition and diet-related diseases; assist in therevision of future health goals and targets;

6. assist in the development of food policy and regulations related to food composition andsafety; assist in the provision of information related to food production, manufacture and sales;

7. provide data on nutrient and food intakes, that are suitable for risk assessment required forsetting and reviewing national and international regulatory food policies (such as fortificationand contaminant monitoring);

8. provide information on the inter-relationship of health, social, economic and nutritionvariables in selected population subgroups for policy development, including health promotion;

9. provide a basis for nutrition education and other strategies to improve nutrition, and to providea means of measurement for existing nutrition programmes;

10. facilitate the development of nutritional status and dietary intake indicators which could beused for more regular surveillance;

11. provide this much needed information to external users such as dietitians, nutritionists, thefood industry and NZ Måori health providers.

5Introduction

Personnel

NNS97 was funded by the Ministry of Health and conducted by the University of Otago throughits LINZ® Activity & Health Research Unit.

Project Director Professor David Russell, University of Otago

Project Coordinator Dr Noela Wilson, University of Otago

Nutrition Manager Mrs Winsome Parnell July 1996 – December 1996, June 1998 – August 1999Ms Sarah Zino January 1997 – May 1998

Principal Investigators Dr Jim Faed, Pathology, University of OtagoDr Elaine Ferguson, Human Nutrition, University of OtagoMr Peter Herbison, Preventive & Social Medicine, University of OtagoDr Caroline Horwath, Human Nutrition, University of OtagoDr Ted Nye, Medicine, University of OtagoMrs Winsome Parnell, Human Nutrition, University of OtagoDr Papaarangi Reid, Wellington School of Medicine, and Director of the TeRopu Rangahau Hauora a Eru PomareDr Colin Tukuitonga, Måori & Pacific Health, University of AucklandAssociate Professor Rob Walker, Medicine, University of OtagoDr Barry Wilson, Physical Education, University of Otago

Consultants Mr Len Cook, Government Statistician, Statistics New ZealandProfessor Rosalind Gibson, Human Nutrition, University of OtagoMs Penny Field, Human Nutrition, University of OtagoProfessor David Skegg, Preventive & Social Medicine, University of OtagoProfessor Murray Tilyard, General Practice, University of OtagoDr Wayne Sutherland, Medicine, University of OtagoMs Druis Barrett, President of the Måori Women’s Welfare LeagueProfessor Mason Durie, Måori Studies, Massey UniversityDr Michael Marfell-Jones, Tai Poutini PolytechnicDr Ian Morison, Biochemistry, University of Otago, and Southern CommunityLaboratoriesDr Murray Skeaff, Human Nutrition, University of Otago

Project Office Charles Blakey, Computer ScientistRachel Bolch, Food Composition NutritionistMaureen Foster, LINZ® SecretarySonya Gowans, Research NutritionistMichelle Hurdle, Field SecretaryIanthe Jones, Coding NutritionistLouise Mainvil, Senior NutritionistJoanne McKenzie, BiostatisticianCarol Murdoch, Research AssistantAntony O’Hagan, Computing AssistantFrances Okey, Project SecretaryJoanne Swanson, Research Assistant


Maori Support

Ms Leah Couch, Wellington Mr Kaio Rivers, AucklandMrs Inez Kingi, Rotorua Mrs Maisie Taylor, NorthlandMrs Makuini McKerchar, Invercargill Mrs Makere Wano, New PlymouthMrs Hiki Pihema, Gisborne Mr Tom Webb, Gisborne

Pacific People Support

Dr Sitaleki Finau, Auckland Mrs Metua Faasisila, AucklandDr Debbie Ryan, Auckland Mr Henry Tuia, Wellington

National Nutrition Survey Technical Advisory Committee (NNSTAC)

The Ministry of Health received advice on the planning and development of the survey from thisCommittee:

Members

Glennys AdamsWendy AitkenBirnie AllenAdrienne BellJoanne BlackmanGeorge BlakeJosephine BrayDiana BrooksBobbi CampbellDiana ClearMaureen CliffordJennifer ColemanNicole CoupeRuth EdwardsEseta FinauGavin FoulshamKaren FukofukaPatricia Gould

Jean GraceRochelle GredigVera GreinerMelissa HackellRita HarderErika HarmanRosalind HerbisonRebecca HerderJudith JackDarron JayetJan JenkinsonKathryn JollyDineke KleynDorin KumarDeidre LatellChristina MacfarlaneMaetel MarshallCarol Murdoch

Jane OwersElaine PrakashMary ReidJacqueline RoySusan SchwartfegerVivienne ShepherdWendy SlatterSusan SmithSharyn StilwellJoanne SwansonMele TalamahinaKathryn TaylorAmanda TomlinsonLara TurnerJulia WestJulie WestKarin Wilkinson

Field Staff

Professor Jim Mann (Chair)Dr Barry BormanProfessor Rosalind GibsonDr Hunaara Kaa

Judith Ka’aiMakuini McKercharWinsome ParnellDr Robert Scragg

Susan SharpeDr Murray SkeaffDr Boyd SwinburnPatsy Watson

Ministry of Health Officials

Helen Wyn (Manager)Robert Quigley (Coordinator)Dr Gillian DurhamElizabeth AitkenDonnell AlexanderMaraea Bellamy

Mark ClementsLib CoubroughJill CoulsonMichele GriggJane McLennanDr Arbutus Mitikulena

Gail PowellJenny ReidTim RochfordMichelle Vanderlanh SmithCarolyn WattsHeather Wilson

7Introduction

This ReportThis report provides a ‘snapshot’ of the nutritional and health status of New Zealanders in 1997.Its purpose is to show the range of data available from NNS97 and to highlight the most significant findings.Only a limited number of independent variables have been selected for analysis for example, agegroup, sex, ethnicity etc. No account has been taken of the possible interaction between thesevariables for example, the relationship between age and NZDep96 quartile. It is acknowledgedthat these interactions may exist and, further, may be important for definitive interpretation of thedata. This report provides preliminary results only and further analyses may explore these andother more complex issues.

The seven sections covered by this report are subdivided into topics. Each topic is presented as abrief description of the major findings. This information encapsulates the tabulated data on thetopic which appears at the end of each section. The tables provide demographically related findingsfor each topic.

The seven sections are:

A Nutrients

B Dietary Sources

C Dietary Supplements

D Eating Patterns

E Frequently Eaten Foods

F Health

G Have We Changed?

A brief description of the methodology is provided in Appendix A.

This publication can be downloaded from the Ministry of Health Web Site: http://www.moh.govt.nz

Further InformationThe objectives of this report are to provide both an introduction to, and a systematic overview ofthe data; to answer basic questions; and to illustrate the potential for exploring more complexquestions.

Further analyses by the principal investigators are ongoing. Details of these analyses will bepublished in professional and scholarly journals in the fields of public health, medicine, nutrition,dietetics and epidemiology.

Details of the methodologies are included in the publication Food Comes First: Methodologies for theNational Nutrition Survey of New Zealand (Quigley and Watts 1997). Food Comes First may be down-loaded from the Ministry of Health’s Web Site at http://www.moh.govt.nz

Further enquiries about the availability of data should be made to the LINZ® Activity & HealthResearch Unit at the University of Otago or the Ministry of Health. The Ministry of Health has alsomade the unit record data available to other major New Zealand universities and Måori HealthResearch Units on CD-ROM for the purpose of research on nutritional matters. Following guidancefrom Statistics New Zealand these universities and Måori Health Research Units must meet strictconditions to protect the confidentiality of respondents. Other applicants requesting access to theunit record data may contact the Ministry of Health.

9Nutrients

Section ANutrientsIntroductionNew Zealanders obtain the energy and nutrients they require from a wide variety of foods andbeverages, and less frequently, from dietary supplements. The adequacy of energy and nutrientintake is important in examining the wider issue of nutritional status. (Nutritional status of a groupor individual also requires an assessment of anthropometric, biochemical and clinical parameters.)The intake of energy and 40 nutrients from food and beverages only is presented here, by sex, age,ethnicity, NZDep96 quartile and place of residence. Further, the adequacy of intake of somenutrients is presented in the light of published standards or recommended levels of intake.

Respondents were asked about their food consumption during the previous day only; this willnot reflect what they ‘usually’ eat. Thus, on any given day an individual may have an unusuallylow or unusually high intake of a particular nutrient. Therefore, the nutrient intakes presented inthis section have been adjusted to account for the effect of day-to-day variation in food intake.

Under-reporting food, and consequently nutrient intake, is widespread in dietary studies. Theseproblems are not unique to the 24 hour diet recall methodology. This limitation should be recognisedwhen interpreting the nutrient data. For further discussion of under-reporting refer to Appendix B.

The day to day variation in nutrient intake was estimated by repeating the 24 hour diet recall on asub-sample and adjusting the nutrient intakes reported using the C-SIDE programme to estimatethe distribution of ‘usual’ intakes in the population. While other national surveys of a similarnature such as NHANES III (Briefel et al 1995) and the Australian Nutrition Survey (AustralianBureau of Statistics 1998) have conducted repeat recalls, the data were not adjusted to estimate‘usual’ intake using the C-SIDE programme. The data for the NNS97 are the first national surveydata adjusted for intra-individual variation using C-SIDE to be published. Nutrient ratios (forexample, percent energy from fat) presented in this section were not adjusted for intra-individualvariation as the only methods that have been developed for ratios use multiple day repeats.

The bases for determination of adequate intakes were:

a. Recommended levels of nutrient intakes from food formulated by the United Kingdom Panelon Dietary Reference Values (UK DRV) of the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy(UK Department of Health 1991);

b. Targets/guidelines from the report of the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (Department ofHealth 1991).

Vitamin E, copper, manganese, selenium and potassium intakes could not be evaluated by formalprobability analyses as the UK DRV does not provide suitable estimates of mean requirements forthese nutrients. For some, it is possible to offer qualitative judgments about whether there is likelyto be a problem of inadequate intakes that might be a cause of public health concern. Intakes ofthiamin, riboflavin and vitamin B6 were not evaluated by probability analysis since requirementsare expressed as a ratio to energy or, in the case of B6, to protein intake. C-SIDE could not beapplied to ratios in the estimation of usual intakes and it was decided to defer these analysespending further development of C-SIDE.

Repeat 24 hour diet recalls were not completed in provincial areas and the number of Pacificpeople who participated in the survey was small. This meant a reliable estimate of usual intakeusing the C-SIDE programme was unable to be made for either. Intakes for these two groups,which were not adjusted for intra-individual variation, are included in Appendix D.


Key PointsEnergy and Protein• The usual daily median energy intake was 11,631 kJ for males and 7,701 kJ for females.

• Sixteen percent of energy for females and 15 percent for males was obtained from protein.

Fats• Thirty-five percent of energy came from fat in the diet of both males and females. Younger

males were less likely to have met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline forpercent energy from fat (≤ 33 percent) than younger females.

• Saturated fat was the predominant type of dietary fat contributing 15 percent of energy in bothmales and females. Monounsaturated fat provided 12 percent and 11 percent of energy in malesand females respectively, with 5 percent of energy from polyunsaturated fat in both sexes.

Carbohydrates• Carbohydrate provided 45 percent of energy for males and 47 percent for females.

• Males 45–64 years were least likely to have met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991)guideline for percent energy from carbohydrate (≥ 50 percent).

• Sucrose was the predominant sugar for both males (62 g/day) and females (45 g/day).

Dietary fibre• The usual daily median intake of dietary fibre was 23 g/day in males and 18 g/day in females

compared with the 25–30 g/day recommended by the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991).

Alcohol• For males, alcohol intake was highest in those 45–64 years (daily mean 26g); and for females in

those 19–24 years (daily mean 13g).

Vitamins• Retinol provided just under half the daily median vitamin A intake with the remainder coming

from carotenoids. The prevalence of estimated inadequate vitamin A intake for the New Zealandpopulation was low (1.9 percent).

• Usual daily median vitamin E intakes were 11.2 mg in males and 8.6 mg in females.

B-vitamins• Some females may have an inadequate intake of riboflavin. In particular, females 15-18 years,

NZ Måori females and females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas.

• Vitamin B12 intake appeared adequate for the New Zealand population.

Minerals• Estimates of inadequate intake of calcium among females varied across age groups from 21

percent to 37 percent and for males 15–18 years it was 33 percent.

• Females have a low risk of inadequate iron intake when consideration is given to both dietaryintake and biochemical iron status.

• Intakes of zinc appeared adequate for most groups of the New Zealand population.

11Nutrients

A1Energy and Protein Table A1

EnergyThe usual daily median energy intake for males (11,631 kJ) was higher than for females (7,701 kJ).Those aged 19–24 years reported the highest energy intake for both sexes (males 13,037 kJ, females8,783 kJ) thereafter decreasing gradually with age (Figure A).

Given that males on average have a greater proportion of lean body mass and greater averagebody weight than females, as a group they consume more food to maintain their bodies and meettheir requirements for exercise. Thus, not only is their daily mean energy intake above females,but most nutrients will be taken in greater amounts: both the nutrients supplying energy(macronutrients) and vitamins and minerals.

No clear trend in energy intake between the NZDep96 quartiles was evident although femalesliving in NZDep96 quartile IV areas showed a wider variation in energy intake (lower at the 10thand higher at the 90th percentile) than females living in NZDep96 quartile I areas. Females livingin NZDep96 quartile IV areas may have both higher and lower energy intakes, or there may begreater intra-subject variation.

In females 15–24 years, NZ Måori had higher median energy intakes (9,789 kJ) than NZ European& Others (8,426 kJ).

ProteinThe usual daily median protein intake for males was 105 g and 71 g for females. Both males andfemales 65+ years had the lowest intakes (Figure B). However, the percent energy from protein inthe diet was similar for both sexes (15 percent males, 16 percent females) and did not vary markedlywith age or NZDep96 quartile.

Given that the dietary intakes observed were almost double the Reference Nutrient Intake (fromthe UK DRV) for both males and females it can be concluded that the dietary protein intakes fromfood of New Zealanders are high.

Mean percent energy from protein increased in females with age (14 percent 15–18 years, 17 percent65+ years), but did not vary with NZDep96 quartiles.

Usual daily energy intake

Age group (years)

6

8

10

12

14

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64 65

+

Med

ian

(kJx

103 )

Usual daily protein intake

Age group (years)

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64 65

+

Med

ian

(g)

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

Figure A Figure B

malefemale

malefemale


A2Fats Tables A2.1, A2.2, A2.3

Total fatThe usual daily median fat intake was 110 g for males and 72 g for females. As with protein, thelowest intake was among males and females 65+ years. Fat contributed the same amount to energyintake of both males and females (median 35 percent).

There was little variation among age groups and NZDep96 quartiles for mean percent energyfrom fat. However, in females, NZ Måori had a higher mean percent energy from fat (36 percent)compared to NZ European & Others females (34 percent) and the trend was similar, although notsignificant, for males (37 percent, 35 percent respectively).

More females (43 percent) than males (37 percent) met the 1991 New Zealand Nutrition Taskforceguideline for contribution of total fat to energy 1. Males 15–18 years were the least likely (31 percent)to meet this guideline across age and sex groups (Figure A).

It should be noted that the percent of energy from fat has not been adjusted for intra-individualvariation. Thus, the percent of those meeting the guideline may have been overestimated as thesedata will include some low percentages of energy from fat which have not been adjusted to reflectthe proportion of energy ‘usually’ contributed by dietary fat.

CholesterolThe usual daily median cholesterol intake, which reflects total fat intake, was 359 mg for malesand 243 mg for females. The highest consumption was for males 25–44 years (395 mg). Intake wassimilar across all NZDep96 quartiles. In females 25–44 years, NZ Måori had higher dietarycholesterol intakes (315 mg) than NZ European & Others (255 mg).

Types of Fat 2

In the New Zealand population saturated fat was the major contributor to the usual daily medianfat intake at 38 g, compared to 30 g of monounsaturated fat and 12 g of polyunsaturated fat.

Met fat guideline (≤33%)

Age group (years)

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64 65

+

NZ

popu

latio

n

Fat type

Category

Cont

ribut

ion

to e

nerg

y

malefemale

30%

34%

38%

42%

46%

50%

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%

16%

Saturated Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated

Figure A Figure B

malefemale

1 ≤ 33 percent energy from fat.2 Note: Total fat values do not equal the sum of the fatty acid subtotals because total fat is the sum of many lipid fractions, whereas

the subtotals represent only the sum of fatty acids (Quigley et al 1995).

13Nutrients

For the three types of fat, saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated, intake for males washigher than for females: 47 g vs 30 g, 37 g vs 24 g and 15 g vs 10 g respectively. This reflects thehigher total fat intakes among males. However, the percent contribution to energy from thesethree fat types was similar across age and sex. Mean percent energy from saturated fat was 15percent (males and females) from monounsaturated fat (12 percent for males and 11 percent forfemales) and for polyunsaturated fat 5 percent (males and females) (Figure B). For all groups, thepercent energy from polyunsaturated fat is below the level recommended by the New ZealandNutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline of 6-10 percent.

Neither the usual daily median intakes of the three fat types nor the mean percent contribution toenergy from the fat categories appear to be related to the NZDep96 quartile. Saturated andmonounsaturated fat intake was higher for NZ Måori females (36 g, 28 g) compared to NZ European& Others (30 g, 23 g).


A3Carbohydrates Tables A3.1, A3.2, A3.3

CarbohydrateFor the New Zealand population the usual daily median intake of carbohydrate was over 40 percenthigher for males (305 g) than females (214 g). For both sexes the intake of carbohydrate was greatestin the younger groups (15–24 years) and decreased with age, reflecting the pattern of energy intakewith age.

The mean contribution to daily energy from carbohydrate was higher in females (47 percent) thanin males (45 percent). There was variation across age groups but no consistent pattern emerged.Among males, NZ Måori had a lower mean contribution to daily energy from carbohydrate (42percent) than NZ European & Others (45 percent) (Figure A).

Overall, 36 percent of New Zealanders met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guidelinefor carbohydrate intake 3 (females 40 percent, males 31 percent). Males 45–64 years were leastlikely (24 percent) and females 15–18 years (63 percent) were most likely of all New Zealanders tomeet the guideline (Figure B). The amount of carbohydrate consumed and the mean percentcontribution to energy intake showed little variability across NZDep96 quartiles (45 percent – 48percent). However, males living in NZDep96 quartile I areas were least likely (26 percent) to meetthe guideline for percentage energy from carbohydrate compared to those living in quartile IVareas (36 percent). In males 45+ years, NZ Måori were less likely than NZ European & Others tomeet the guideline for carbohydrate intake (14 percent, 29 percent).

StarchStarch was the largest single contributor to carbohydrate intake, contributing just over half theusual daily median intake. Intake was higher for males (172 g) than females (112 g), parallelingcarbohydrate intake. Among males it was lowest in the 65+ years group (138 g) and lower forfemales 45+ years (100 g and 104 g).

SugarsTotal sugar intake, from all sources (usual daily median intake) was 114 g (131 g males, 99 gfemales). For both sexes, intake declined with age but was not affected by NZDep96 quartile. The

Met carbohydrate guideline (≥50%)Percent contribution of carbohydrate to energy

Ethnic group

Mea

n

Age group (years)

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64 65

+

NZ

popu

latio

n

malefemale

Figure A Figure B

42%

44%

46%

48%

NZ Maori NZ European & Others

malefemale

25%

35%

45%

55%

65%

3 ≥ 50 percent energy from carbohydrate.

15Nutrients

most significant sugar contributing to intake was sucrose (62 g males, 45 g females), followed byfructose, glucose, lactose and maltose. Sucrose intake, in parallel with total sugar, dropped formales and females in the groups 25 years and over but particularly for females. Fructose andglucose intakes declined with age in a similar way but to a lesser extent. Males from NZDep96quartile IV areas had a lower intake of glucose and fructose compared with the other quartiles,accounting for their lower total sugar intake.


A4Dietary Fibre Table A4

The usual daily median intake of dietary fibre in the New Zealand population was 20 g, with 11 ginsoluble non-starch polysaccharides and 10 g soluble non-starch polysaccharides. Dietary fibreintakes were higher for males than for females across all age groups largely because of their higherenergy intake (Figure A). This was evident for both insoluble and soluble non-starchpolysaccharides (Figure B). Across age groups dietary fibre intake was similar. However, females65+ years had higher insoluble non-starch polysaccharides (10.4 g) than females 15–18 years (8.2 g).Males 15–18 years compared to males 65+ years had higher soluble non-starch polysaccharides(12.0 g, 10.0 g).

Dietary fibre intake for both sexes was higher for individuals living in NZDep96 quartile I areas(males 24.4 g, females 18.6 g) compared with those living in quartile IV areas (males 21.7 g, females16.6 g). This difference was most pronounced in insoluble non-starch polysaccharides (males 12.6 g,10.9 g; females 9.9 g, 8.6 g).

There were no ethnic differences in dietary fibre intake, however NZ Måori males had lowerinsoluble non-starch polysaccharides (10.8 g) than NZ European & Others (12.3 g).

For males the usual daily median intake of dietary fibre (23 g) was closer to the New ZealandNutrition Taskforce (1991) guideline 4 than the intake for females (18 g). For both sexes, solublefibre comprised more than the ‘approximately one-quarter of total dietary fibre’ recommended bythe Taskforce.

Usual daily dietary fibre intake

Age group (years)

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64 65

+

Med

ian

(g)

Usual daily non-starch polysaccharide intakes

Non-starch polysaccharides

Med

ian

(g)

malefemale

Figure A Figure B

malefemale

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

Insoluble Soluble0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

4 25-30 g per day.

17Nutrients

A5Alcohol Table A5

Alcohol was consumed by only some individuals on the day of recall. Therefore, the medianintakes of alcohol (0 g) do not provide information which is useful. The levels of 90th percentiles ofintake and mean intakes do provide useful information on the alcohol intakes of New Zealanders.

Unlike other nutrients, the intake data could not be adjusted for intra-individual variation sinceon any particular day zero consumption would not be uncommon. In addition, because of theextreme non-normality of the data no statistical tests were undertaken.

For the population as a whole the daily mean intake was 14 g. Intake was higher for males (20 g)than females (8 g).

For males, mean intake peaked for the 45–64 years group (26 g) and dropped by half in the 65+years group (13 g) (Figure A). A different pattern was seen for females, where the group 19–24years had the highest mean intake (13 g) and thereafter intake fell with increasing age (75+ years,4 g).

NZ Måori males had higher intakes mean (25 g) than NZ European & Others (19 g). Amongfemales, NZ Måori and NZ European & Others had similar intakes (8 g, 9 g respectively).

There appeared to be a trend for daily mean alcohol intake to be higher for individuals living inNZDep96 quartile I areas compared with those living in quartile IV areas (males 23 g, 17 g; females9 g, 6 g).

The mean proportion of energy from alcohol in the New Zealand population (4 percent) rangedfrom 1 percent for males and females 15–18 years to 6 percent for males 45–64 years (Figure B).

Daily alcohol intake

Age group (years)

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

Mea

n (g

)

75+

Percent contribution of alcohol to energy

Age group (years)

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

Mea

n

75+

Figure A Figure B

5

10

15

20

25

30 malefemale

malefemale

0

1%

2%

3%

4%

5%

6%

7%

0%


A6Vitamins Tables A6.1, A6.2

Vitamin AThe usual daily median intake of vitamin A equivalents for the New Zealand population was 939 µgretinol equivalents (RE), 400 µg of which was from retinol and the remainder from carotenoids. Asβ-carotene and retinol are concentrated in a few foods, estimates (even after adjusting for intra-individual variations) have very wide confidence intervals.

The intake from both sources was higher for males (1,076 µg RE) than females (842 µg RE). Therewas major variation among age groups for β-carotene (plant sources of vitamin A) compared to amore constant intake from retinol.

For males, the usual daily median intake of β-carotene in the 65+ years group (4,510 µg) was twicethat of the 19–24 years group (2,267 µg) (Figure A). For females, the highest reported intake wasagain for the 65+ years group (3,363 µg) and lowest in the 19–24 years group (2,014 µg). Thisimpacted on the overall lower vitamin A equivalents intake of males 19-24 years and females 15–24 years.

Patterns of intake were similar for NZ Måori and NZ European & Others.

The estimated prevalence of inadequate intake of vitamin A for the New Zealand population was1.9 percent (2.1 percent males, 1.6 percent females). Higher prevalances were seen in males andfemales 19–24 years (8.3 percent, 6.1 percent respectively) compared to older groups. Thesedifferences were not statistically significant. Individuals from NZDep96 quartile IV areas had ahigher prevalence of inadequate intake (males 8.3 percent, females 5.8 percent) than those fromquartile I and II areas (males 0 percent, females 0 percent – 0.3 percent).

As the requirement for vitamin A is established to cover functional needs and maintain stores, it isunlikely that intake is of concern in the New Zealand population as a whole. However, it is possiblethat there are sub-groups of the population, particularly the socioeconomically disadvantagedand young adults, whose dietary intake of vitamin A is of concern.

Usual daily β-carotene intake

Age group (years)

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64 65

+

Med

ian

(µg)

Usual daily vitamin C intake

Age group (years)

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64 65

+

Med

ian

(mg)

Figure A Figure B

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

5000

malefemale

malefemale

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

19Nutrients

Vitamin CThe usual daily median intake of vitamin C for the New Zealand population was 102 mg (males111 mg, females 95 mg). The highest intakes were reported by males and females 15–18 years (141mg, 109 mg respectively) most likely reflecting their beverage choices (see Section E). Intakes wereconstant across other age groups of females and fell slightly with age for males (Figure B). Intakeswere similar for NZ European & Others and NZ Måori.

Overall, the estimated prevalence of inadequate intakes for the New Zealand population was lessthan one percent. The prevalence was marginally higher in the groups 25–44 years of the NewZealand population (males and females) and among NZ Måori females 15–24 years. However, noappreciable risk of inadequate intake is evident in any group assessed within the New Zealandpopulation, particularly given that the estimated average requirement from the UK DRV is inexcess of the amount needed to prevent scurvy.

Vitamin EThe usual daily median intake of vitamin E for the New Zealand population was 9.7 mg (males11.2 mg, females 8.6 mg). There were no discernible trends in intake with age, NZDep96 quartileor ethnicity for males or females.

Because vitamin E requirements depend on polyunsaturated fatty acid intake (and this can varywidely) the UK DRV do not specify a level of intake. Foods high in polyunsaturated fatty acidsusually, but not always, contain high amounts of vitamin E.

The UK DRV panel concludes ‘Daily intakes of 4 mg and 3 mg α-tocopherol equivalents can beadequate for men and women respectively’ (UK Department of Health 1991, p 129). Given that the10th percentile of usual daily intakes in this study are 7.4 mg for males and 5.6 mg for females, itwould appear that the vitamin E intakes of the New Zealand population are entirely satisfactory.


A7B-Vitamins Tables A7.1, A7.2

ThiaminThe usual daily median intake of thiamin for New Zealanders was 1.4 mg (males 1.7 mg, females1.2 mg). There were no discernible trends in intake for males or females, with NZDep96 quartilesor between NZ Måori and NZ European & Others (Figure A). Males 65+ years had the lowestintake (1.4 mg) compared with other age groups (1.6 mg – 1.8 mg). This may be related to theirlower total energy intake compared with other age groups. Thiamin requirement is closely relatedto energy metabolism and hence energy intake. The UK DRV panel state that absolute intakeshould not fall below 0.4 mg/day in people on very low energy diets. Given the 10th percentile ofusual intakes in this study (males 1.1 mg, females 0.8 mg) it would appear that the intake ofthiamin in the New Zealand population is satisfactory.

RiboflavinThe usual daily median intake of riboflavin for the New Zealand population was 1.8 mg (males2.0 mg, females 1.5 mg). There were no discernible trends in intake with age or NZDep96 quartilefor either males or females.

While the estimated prevalence of inadequate intake for the New Zealand population was 3.4percent, it was higher for females 15–18 years (13.9 percent) compared with females 45+ years (4.0percent – 4.7 percent). Similarly, females living in quartile IV areas had higher levels of inadequateintake (11.6 percent) compared with those from quartile I and II areas (1.8 percent, 2.2 percent)and for NZ Måori females (10.5 percent) compared with NZ European & Others (2.9 percent). Thismay reflect both the type and amounts of particular foods chosen by females, especially youngfemales. As the requirement is based on the intake needed to maintain tissue saturation, it isunlikely that intakes not meeting this requirement would be associated with any functionalimpairment. However, biochemical data would be necessary to support this conclusion.

Niacin equivalentsThe usual daily median intake of niacin equivalents (NE) for the New Zealand population was35 mg (males 43 mg, females 29 mg). The higher level for males reflected both their higher energyand their higher protein intake and therefore higher intakes of niacin from tryptophan. Intakes

Usual daily vitamin B12 intakeUsual daily thiamin intake

Ethnic group

Med

ian

(mg)

Age group (years)

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64 65

+

Med

ian

(µg)

Figure A Figure B


malefemale

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

malefemale

0

21Nutrients

were lower for individuals 65+ years (males 33 mg, females 25 mg) compared with those 19–64years (males 42 mg – 46 mg, females 29 mg – 30 mg). There were no discernible intake trends withNZDep96 quartile. Intakes were similar for NZ European & Others and NZ Måori.

Niacin requirement is related to energy expenditure and hence energy intake. The UK DRV panelhas set a Reference Nutrient Intake of 6.6 mg NE per 1,000 kcal (4,200 kJ) for males and females. Asthe usual daily median intakes for males are approximately 15.5 mg NE per 4,200 kJ and for females15.8 mg NE per 4,200 kJ, the intakes of New Zealanders appear to be entirely adequate.

Vitamin B6The usual daily median intake of vitamin B6 for the New Zealand population was 1.4 mg (males1.7 mg, females 1.2 mg). Males 15–24 years have higher intakes (1.8 mg) than males 65+ years(1.4 mg). Intakes were similar across NZDep96 quartiles. These values are close to the ReferenceNutrient Intake from the UK DRV of 1.4 – 1.5 mg/day for males and 1.2 mg/day for females.These values have assumed a protein intake similar to New Zealand intakes which is significantbecause vitamin B6 requirement is related to protein metabolism. Some vitamin B6 from vegetablesis unavailable but intestinal flora synthesise some absorbable vitamin B6. On balance, it appearsthat intakes of vitamin B6 for the New Zealand population are more than adequate.

Vitamin B12The usual daily median intake of vitamin B12 for the New Zealand population was 4 mg (males5 mg, females 3 mg). Males 19–44 years have higher intakes (5.4 mg – 6.1 mg) than males 65+ years(4.0 mg) (Figure B). Levels varied little across NZDep96 quartiles. The overall estimated prevalenceof inadequate intake was 0.4 percent i.e. negligible risk of deficiency. Since the average requirementhas been calculated at a level to maintain liver stores, this indicates that the vitamin B12 intakesobserved in the population are sufficient to withstand periods of zero intake.

FolateThe usual daily median intake of folate from food for the New Zealand population was 242 µg(males 278 µg, females 212 µg). Intakes varied little across age group. Females living in NZDep96quartile I areas had higher levels of intake (227 µg) compared with those living in quartile IV areas(201 µg).

While the overall estimated prevalence of inadequate intake for the New Zealand population was7.1 percent, the prevalence was consistently higher among females than males (regardless of age).Among females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas there was a higher prevalence of inadequateintake (18.6 percent) compared to those living in quartile I areas (7.6 percent). Also, NZ Måorifemales had a higher prevalence of inadequate intake (23 percent) compared with NZ European &Others (11.5 percent). Females 15–24 years had a higher prevalence of inadequate intake (21.2percent – 22.2 percent) compared with females 45+ years (9.2 percent – 9.8 percent).

Interpretation of folate data must take account of the following. Firstly, the requirement estimateshave been set to maintain liver stores, thus intakes below these requirements will not necessarilybe associated with any functional impairment (this is not the level recommended for peri-conceptualfemales to reduce the risk of neural tube defects). Secondly, as determining folate levels in foods isinherently difficult, it is likely that the folate food composition data used in this survey may leadto an underestimate of folate intakes. In light of this, the prevalence of inadequate intake is likelyto be overestimated.


A8Minerals Tables A8.1, A8.2, A8.3

CalciumThe usual daily median intake of calcium, from food for New Zealanders was 766 mg (males 857mg, females 691 mg). Intake was lowest for males and females 65+ years (751 mg, 636 mgrespectively) (Figure A). Individuals from NZDep96 quartile IV areas (males 781 mg, females632 mg) had lower intakes compared with those from quartile I and II areas (males 885 mg, 922 mg;females 733 mg, 710 mg). NZ Måori males (761 mg) had lower intakes than NZ European & Others(885 mg).

The estimated average requirements from the UK DRV for calcium have been set acknowledgingthe difficulty in establishing true population requirements, largely because of the diversity offunctions of calcium in the body. For the New Zealand population the estimated prevalence ofinadequate intake has been assessed as 20 percent. Higher prevalences were observed amongfemales (25 percent) compared to males (14 percent). The youngest group (15–18 years) has thehighest prevalence of inadequate intake (males 33 percent, females 37 percent). NZ Måori hadhigher prevalences of inadequate intake (males 24 percent, females 34 percent) compared withNZ European & Others (males 11 percent, females 22 percent).

PhosphorusThe usual daily median intake of phosphorus for New Zealanders from foods and beverages was1,477 mg (males 1,761 mg, females 1,247 mg). The highest intakes were among the 19–44 yearsgroups (males 1,848 mg, 1,891 mg; females 1,305 mg, 1,295 mg), and the lowest intakes in the65+ years group (males 1,428 mg, females 1,112 mg). Intakes were higher in females living inNZDep96 quartile I areas (1,303 mg) compared with those living in quartile IV areas (1,188 mg).

These phosphorus intakes are relatively high and the calcium phosphorus (Ca:P) ratio is close to1:2. Neither the intake nor the ratio are in the ranges believed to alter calcium metabolism(P intakes 1.0-1.6 g/day and Ca:P molar ratio 1:3). It is extremely unlikely that there could be anyproblem of inadequate phosphorous intakes in New Zealand.

Usual daily calcium intake

Age group (years)

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64 65

+

Med

ian

(mg)

Usual daily zinc intake

Age group (years)

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64 65

+

Med

ian

(mg)

Figure A Figure B

malefemale

malefemale

600

650

700

750

800

850

900

950

8

10

12

14

16

18

23Nutrients

MagnesiumThe usual daily median intake of magnesium for New Zealanders from foods and beverages was309 mg (males 365 mg, females 265 mg). Intakes were similar across age groups, NZDep96 quartilesand ethnic groups. These values are close to the Reference Nutrient Intake, based on the UK DRVestimated average requirement of 3.4 mg/kg/day, and appear to be adequate.

IronThe usual daily median intake of iron from all food sources for the New Zealand population was12.0 mg (males 14.6 mg, females 9.9 mg). For both sexes, the lowest intakes were for those 65+years. NZ Måori males and females had higher intakes of iron than NZ European & Others by1.2 mg and 0.6 mg respectively.

The estimated prevalence of inadequate intake for males in the New Zealand population was low(1 percent), but higher for females at 26 percent. Females 45+ years included those both menstruatingand non-menstruating and hence with quite different iron requirements. Prevalence of inadequateintake of this group has been calculated assuming that all were not menstruating and this is reflectedin the lower prevalences of inadequacy. The highest prevalence of inadequacy (39 percent – 45percent) was in females 15–44 years (all assumed to be menstruating).

Among males and non-menstruating females estimates of the prevalence of inadequate intake aresimilar to those with low iron stores assessed by biochemical indicators (0 percent males, 6 percentfemales) (see Table F3). However, for menstruating females low iron stores range between fourand seven percent, considerably below the estimated prevalences of inadequate intake. Thisanomaly might be explained by one or more of: estimates of blood loss in menstruationinappropriate for New Zealand females (hence an inappropriately high Estimated AverageRequirement (EAR)); the possibility that food intake is under-reported; a higher percent of dietaryiron is absorbed in New Zealand. Given the picture of biochemical iron status (Table F3), it wouldappear that New Zealand females menstruating or non-menstruating have a low risk of inadequateintake.

ZincThe usual daily median intake of zinc from all food sources for New Zealanders was 11.9 mg(males 14.5 mg, females 9.8 mg). For both sexes, intakes were lowest in the group 65+ years (males11.6 mg, females 8.9 mg) (Figure B). Intakes were similar across NZDep96 quartiles and ethnicgroups.

The estimated prevalence of inadequate intake for the New Zealand population was 1.2 percent.Among males the prevalence was highest in the 65+ years group (4.8 percent) and among 15–18years females (2.4 percent). Females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas had the highest prevalenceof inadequate intake (4.8 percent) compared with those living in quartile I areas (0.2 percent).Given that the EAR for dietary zinc was set to be equivalent to daily losses and a significantproportion of zinc in the New Zealand diet is from animal sources (hence highly bioavailable), itcan be concluded that only a very small proportion of the New Zealand population is at risk ofinadequate intake.

PotassiumThe usual daily median intake of potassium for New Zealanders from all food sources was 3,378mg (males 3,922 mg, females 2,936 mg). There were no apparent trends in intake across age groups,NZDep96 quartiles or ethnic groups. These intakes appear to be adequate in comparison to theReference Nutrient Intake of 3,500 mg/day (UK DRV). It is extremely unlikely that any problemof inadequate intake exists in New Zealand.


SeleniumEstimates of selenium intake derived from dietary intake data are not reliable due to difficulties inestablishing food composition data for selenium. Food composition data in New Zealand cannotbe satisfactorily compiled without knowledge of the origins of flour in all food products as importedflour (or wheat) has higher levels of selenium than the New Zealand grown equivalent. The usualdaily median intakes of males (56 µg), and females (39 µg), are higher than levels reported in asmall selected group of New Zealanders where duplicate diet analysis was used to assess intake(Duffield 1999). The distribution of intakes (10th and 90th percentiles), are not believed to be reliableindicators of variation in intake, given the uncertainties of the data on selenium concentration inNew Zealand foods. These data are insufficient to allow conclusions to be reached on the adequacyof selenium intake of New Zealanders. International agreement has not yet been reached on therequirements for selenium intake.

ManganeseThe usual daily median intake of manganese for New Zealanders was 4,327 mg (males 4,935 mg,females 3,891 mg). Intakes were lowest for the younger two groups (males 4,075 mg, 4,086 mg;females 2,888 mg, 3,168 mg) compared with 5,088 mg to 5,177 mg for males over 25 years and3,914 mg to 4,393 mg for females. Individuals living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas had the lowestintakes (males 4,461 mg, females 3,503 mg) compared to individuals living in quartile I areas(males 5,241 mg, females 4,140 mg). Intakes of NZ Måori were below those of NZ European &Others. However, all intakes were well above the safe intakes designated by the UK DRV of1.4 mg/day, and appear to be entirely satisfactory.

CopperThe usual daily median intake of copper for New Zealanders from all food sources was 1.4 mg(males 1.7 mg, females 1.2 mg). For males, intakes were lower in the 65+ years group. There wereno apparent trends in intake across NZDep96 quartiles or ethnic groups. These intakes appearsatisfactory in light of the Reference Nutrient Intake of 1.2 mg/day (UK DRV).

25Nutrients


Tabl

e A

1EN

ERG

Y A

ND

PRO

TEIN

Ener

gy (k

J)1

Prot

ein

(g)1

Perc

ent e

nerg

y fro

m p

rote

in2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

9884

70.3

6054

9441

1427

290

0.8

5786

130

160.

410

1522

Mal

es15

–18

1243

059

3.0

8103

1207

917

147

110

6.4

6910

715

715

0.7

1014

2219

–24

1324

747

0.0

9347

1303

717

421

110

4.6

7410

814

814

0.5

914

1925

–44

1290

420

6.0

8879

1263

217

263

117

2.3

8011

315

915

0.2

1014

2145

–64

1113

418

2.0

8190

1091

414

345

107

2.7

7510

314

316

0.3

1115

2265

+92

7419

0.0

6952

9161

1174

485

2.4

6183

111

160.

311

1522

Tota

l11

942

110.

082

7011

631

1603

710

91.

473

105

149

150.

410

1521

Fem

ales

15–1

888

6251

2.3

5251

8554

1291

272

4.2

4769

101

140.

59

1419

19–2

491

0228

5.6

6112

8783

1237

978

3.3

5576

104

150.

510

1421

25–4

484

1712

6.3

5647

8175

1144

877

1.3

5375

104

160.

210

1522

45–6

473

8612

5.6

5106

7227

9857

721.

552

7195

170.

211

1623

65+

6579

130.

348

5164

4984

7464

1.7

4661

8317

0.3

1116

23To

tal

7969

81.4

5301

7701

1094

473

0.8

5171

9916

0.4

1015

22N

ZDep

96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

esI

1207

424

0.0

9307

1188

115

124

107

3.2

8010

513

615

0.3

1014

21II

1216

626

4.0

8261

1184

516

487

110

2.9

7410

715

115

0.3

1115

21III

1186

727

2.0

8077

1159

215

983

111

3.6

7210

615

716

0.3

1015

22IV

1162

624

3.0

7520

1122

016

240

108

2.7

6710

315

516

0.3

1015

23Fe

mal

esI

7959

137.

556

8477

9410

436

731.

755

7292

160.

310

1522

II79

7320

4.9

6185

7872

9894

731.

857

7188

160.

310

1522

III78

9314

4.3

5111

7583

1105

074

1.7

5071

101

160.

211

1522

IV80

5514

1.3

4700

7611

1182

574

1.7

4670

107

160.

310

1522

1Us

ual i

ntak

e. T

hese

dat

a w

ere

adju

sted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion

usin

g C-

SIDE

.2

Thes

e da

ta w

ere

not a

djus

ted

for

intra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion,

as

the

only

met

hods

that

hav

e be

en d

evel

oped

for

ratio

s us

e m

ultip

le d

ay r

epea

ts. P

erce

nt e

nerg

y fro

m p

rote

in fo

r ea

chpa

rtici

pant

was

cal

cula

ted

as th

e en

ergy

from

pro

tein

(con

vers

ion

fact

or =

16.

7 kJ

/g) d

ivid

ed b

y th

e to

tal e

nerg

y in

take

.3

Perc

entil

es.

27Nutrients

Tabl

e A

1 co

nt.

ENER

GY

AN

D P

ROTE

INEn

ergy

(kJ)

1Pr

otei

n (g

)1Pe

rcen

t ene

rgy

from

pro

tein

2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

411

912

776.

081

7711

575

1608

699

6.4

6997

132

140.

59

1420

25–4

413

261

759.

086

9312

808

1841

812

97.

978

122

187

160.

511

1524

45+

1088

570

8.0

7436

1079

614

441

120

14.2

7211

017

818

0.9

1016

26To

tal

1228

238

1.0

8250

1193

916

759

117

5.2

7311

017

016

0.4

1015

24Fe

mal

es15

–24

1031

762

8.0

6020

9789

1524

683

6.0

5080

119

130.

48

1319

25–4

490

9331

5.4

5464

8646

1324

082

3.1

5179

116

160.

510

1422

45+

7305

409.

043

7170

8510

520

725.

747

7099

170.

711

1724

Tota

l90

2924

3.8

5259

8545

1336

580

2.6

4977

113

150.

310

1421

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

15–2

413

163

448.

089

9712

994

1753

411

35.

570

110

158

140.

510

1420

25–4

412

900

227.

089

2012

630

1721

111

52.

480

112

155

150.

210

1421

45+

1052

514

7.0

7682

1028

713

659

981.

870

9513

016

0.2

1115

21To

tal

1192

012

3.0

8122

1157

916

186

107

1.4

7310

414

615

0.2

1015

21Fe

mal

es15

–24

8608

333.

756

0284

2611

859

753.

352

7398

150.

49

1421

25–4

483

1712

4.3

5791

8144

1106

676

1.3

5575

100

160.

210

1522

45+

7025

83.3

5099

6904

9107

681.

050

6789

170.

211

1623

Tota

l77

8987

.255

1676

2210

277

720.

953

7194

160.

210

1522

1Us

ual i

ntak

e. T

hese

dat

a w

ere

adju

sted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion

usin

g C-

SIDE

. Cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in th

e in

terp

reta

tion

of th

ese

data

for N

Z M

aori,

due

to th

e lim

ited

num

ber o

fre

peat

24

hour

die

t rec

alls

for t

his

ethn

ic g

roup

.2

Thes

e da

ta w

ere

not a

djus

ted

for

intra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion,

as

the

only

met

hods

that

hav

e be

en d

evel

oped

for

ratio

s us

e m

ultip

le d

ay r

epea

ts. P

erce

nt e

nerg

y fro

m p

rote

in fo

r ea

chpa

rtici

pant

was

cal

cula

ted

as th

e en

ergy

from

pro

tein

(con

vers

ion

fact

or =

16.

7 kJ

/g) d

ivid

ed b

y th

e to

tal e

nerg

y in

take

.3

Perc

entil

es.


Tabl

e A

2.1

TOTA

L FA

T A

ND

CH

OLE

STER

OL

Tota

l fat

(g)1

Perc

ent e

nerg

y fro

m to

tal f

at2

Chol

este

rol (

mg)

1

Mee

ting

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

guide

line4

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

941.

051

8914

335

0.2

2335

4640

%31

95.

117

129

649

6M

ales

15–1

811

86.

471

114

171

351.

423

3545

31%

325

24.1

197

312

472

19–2

412

95.

682

126

178

360.

925

3647

36%

372

24.2

230

356

532

25–4

412

63.

177

121

181

360.

425

3646

33%

420

14.1

240

395

631

45–6

410

42.

268

101

144

350.

523

3546

40%

386

11.9

220

367

576

65+

872.

558

8511

834

0.6

2434

4547

%28

816

.817

827

641

3To

tal

114

1.6

7011

016

335

0.3

2436

4637

%38

111

.722

235

956

8Fe

mal

es15

–18

845.

843

8012

934

1.2

2634

4846

%23

619

.912

722

136

419

–24

844.

547

8012

634

1.0

2034

4647

%26

720

.515

525

239

825

–44

801.

546

7711

735

0.4

2335

4741

%27

87.

415

426

142

345

–64

701.

543

6710

035

0.4

2435

4642

%25

98.

614

824

339

065

+60

1.5

3958

8334

0.5

2333

4547

%23

114

.113

121

335

4To

tal

751.

043

7211

035

0.2

2334

4643

%26

14.

714

724

339

5N

ZDep

96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

esI

114

3.4

7911

115

335

0.6

2435

4537

%36

616

.724

135

450

5II

116

3.5

6911

116

935

0.6

2335

4537

%38

516

.122

736

756

5III

115

3.4

6911

116

435

0.7

2536

4636

%37

820

.922

835

955

3IV

113

2.7

6610

816

636

0.5

2436

4836

%39

614

.820

236

562

7Fe

mal

esI

742.

148

7210

134

0.5

2434

4547

%25

312

.115

224

037

2II

741.

748

7310

334

0.5

2234

4642

%25

77.

517

325

035

1III

751.

843

7111

335

0.5

2235

4741

%25

98.

113

723

740

7IV

771.

939

7112

035

0.4

2335

4641

%27

89.

114

025

544

51

Usua

l int

ake.

The

se d

ata

wer

e ad

just

ed fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n us

ing

C-SI

DE.

2Th

ese

data

wer

e no

t adj

uste

d fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n, a

s th

e on

ly m

etho

ds th

at h

ave

been

dev

elop

ed fo

r rat

ios

use

mul

tiple

day

repe

ats.

Per

cent

ene

rgy

from

fat f

or e

ach

parti

cipa

ntw

as c

alcu

late

d as

the

ener

gy fr

om fa

t (co

nver

sion

fact

or =

37.

7 kJ

/g) d

ivid

ed b

y th

e to

tal e

nerg

y in

take

.3

Perc

entil

es.

4Th

e N

ew Z

eala

nd N

utrit

ion

Task

forc

e (1

991)

gui

delin

e re

com

men

ds fa

t pro

vide

s ≤

33.0

% o

f ene

rgy

inta

ke.

29Nutrients

Tabl

e A

2.1

cont

.TO

TAL

FAT

AN

D C

HO

LEST

ERO

LTo

tal f

at (g

)1Pe

rcen

t ene

rgy

from

tota

l fat

2Ch

oles

tero

l (m

g)1

Mee

ting

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

guide

line4

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

411

28.

372

108

158

361.

526

3647

42%

312

32.5

197

300

442

25–4

413

611

.381

130

200

381.

126

3949

24%

489

37.5

265

459

753

45+

104

7.2

6510

114

936

1.2

2336

4633

%40

742

.623

038

162

3To

tal

122

5.2

7411

617

637

0.8

2538

4732

%41

319

.122

537

964

6Fe

mal

es15

–24

100

7.7

5093

158

351.

321

3548

40%

304

31.5

161

283

471

25–4

491

3.9

4885

139

370.

825

3749

33%

336

17.9

180

315

518

45+

744.

640

7211

037

1.2

2736

4831

%28

824

.815

326

645

0To

tal

903.

046

8413

936

0.6

2436

4934

%31

713

.117

129

549

0N

Z Eu

rope

an &

Oth

ers

Mal

es15

–24

127

5.1

7912

517

936

1.0

2535

4732

%36

022

.620

734

253

425

–44

125

3.4

7612

017

836

0.4

2536

4633

%40

516

.124

638

758

845

+98

1.7

6495

136

350.

423

3545

43%

349

10.0

209

334

508

Tota

l11

41.

769

110

163

350.

324

3545

37%

373

9.7

226

356

542

Fem

ales

15–2

480

4.6

4578

119

341.

022

3446

47%

244

18.0

139

234

363

25–4

478

1.4

4876

111

350.

422

3546

42%

266

7.4

164

255

384

45+

651.

042

6390

340.

323

3445

45%

243

6.5

142

225

369

Tota

l73

1.0

4671

102

340.

323

3446

44%

251

4.5

155

239

363

1Us

ual i

ntak

e. T

hese

dat

a w

ere

adju

sted

for i

ntra

–ind

ivid

ual v

aria

tion

usin

g C-

SIDE

. Cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in th

e in

terp

reta

tion

of th

ese

data

for N

Z M

aori,

due

to th

e lim

ited

num

ber

of re

peat

24

hour

die

t rec

alls

for t

his

ethn

ic g

roup

.2

Thes

e da

ta w

ere

not a

djus

ted

for i

ntra

–ind

ivid

ual v

aria

tion,

as

the

only

met

hods

that

hav

e be

en d

evel

oped

for r

atio

s us

e m

ultip

le d

ay re

peat

s. P

erce

nt e

nerg

y fro

m fa

t for

eac

h pa

rtici

pant

was

cal

cula

ted

as th

e en

ergy

from

fat (

conv

ersi

on fa

ctor

= 3

7.7

kJ/g

) div

ided

by

the

tota

l ene

rgy

inta

ke.

3Pe

rcen

tiles

.4

The

New

Zea

land

Nut

ritio

n Ta

skfo

rce

(199

1) g

uide

line

reco

mm

ends

fat p

rovi

des

≤ 33

.0%

of e

nerg

y in

take

.


Tabl

e A

2.2

FATT

Y A

CID

S I

Satu

rate

d fa

t (g)

1M

onou

nsat

urat

ed fa

t (g)

1Po

lyun

satu

rate

d fa

t (g)

1

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

400.

421

3863

310.

417

3048

130.

27

1221

Mal

es15

–18

513.

930

4876

402.

325

3958

161.

28

1525

19–2

455

2.6

3554

7744

1.9

2843

6017

1.0

1016

2625

–44

541.

331

5280

421.

226

4161

170.

59

1626

45–6

444

1.0

2742

6335

0.8

2334

4815

0.6

814

2365

+37

1.3

2336

5328

0.8

1827

3913

0.5

812

20To

tal

490.

729

4772

380.

623

3755

160.

38

1524

Fem

ales

15–1

836

2.9

1733

5928

1.8

1527

4311

0.8

611

1719

–24

362.

020

3555

281.

715

2642

120.

86

1118

25–4

435

0.7

1933

5326

0.5

1525

3911

0.3

610

1645

–64

290.

716

2844

230.

515

2233

100.

36

1015

65+

250.

715

2537

190.

513

1927

90.

35

814

Tota

l32

0.5

1730

4925

0.4

1424

3710

0.2

610

16N

ZDep

96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

esI

491.

532

4868

381.

226

3751

160.

69

1524

II50

1.6

2948

7339

1.4

2237

5816

0.6

814

25III

481.

728

4671

381.

124

3854

170.

69

1626

IV48

1.3

2646

7439

1.0

2237

5715

0.5

714

24Fe

mal

esI

321.

018

3047

240.

916

2433

100.

38

1013

II32

0.8

1931

4525

0.6

1624

3411

0.4

610

17III

320.

817

3050

250.

714

2438

110.

46

1016

IV34

0.9

1631

5525

0.7

1323

3910

0.2

59

171

Usua

l int

ake.

The

se d

ata

wer

e ad

just

ed fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n us

ing

C-SI

DE.

2Pe

rcen

tiles

.

31Nutrients

Tabl

e A

2.2

cont

.FA

TTY

ACI

DS

ISa

tura

ted

fat (

g)1

Mon

ouns

atur

ated

fat (

g)1

Poly

unsa

tura

ted

fat (

g)1

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

450

4.1

3248

7141

2.6

2539

5813

1.0

712

1925

–44

585.

633

5486

483.

827

4572

191.

89

1730

45+

433.

025

4262

373.

222

3653

151.

98

1423

Tota

l52

2.7

3049

7642

1.8

2541

6216

0.9

815

25Fe

mal

es15

–24

454.

120

4173

342.

417

3253

120.

96

1118

25–4

440

2.0

2037

6330

1.5

1628

4612

0.7

611

1945

+32

2.2

1630

5124

1.6

1323

3610

0.7

610

16To

tal

391.

519

3663

301.

015

2846

120.

46

1118

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

15–2

455

2.2

3253

7843

1.8

2742

6017

1.0

917

2725

–44

541.

532

5280

421.

325

4060

170.

69

1626

45+

420.

826

4060

320.

621

3145

140.

48

1322

Tota

l49

0.7

2847

7338

0.7

2337

5516

0.4

815

25Fe

mal

es15

–24

342.

118

3353

271.

615

2640

110.

86

1118

25–4

434

0.7

2033

5026

0.5

1625

3711

0.3

610

1645

+27

0.5

1626

4021

0.4

1421

3010

0.2

69

15To

tal

310.

518

3046

240.

415

2334

100.

26

1015

1Us

ual i

ntak

e. T

hese

dat

a w

ere

adju

sted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion

usin

g C-

SIDE

. Cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in th

e in

terp

reta

tion

of th

ese

data

for N

Z M

aori,

due

to th

e lim

ited

num

ber o

fre

peat

24

hour

die

t rec

alls

for t

his

ethn

ic g

roup

.2

Perc

entil

es.


Tabl

e A

2.3

FATT

Y A

CID

S II

Perc

ent e

nerg

y fro

m s

atur

ated

fat1

Perc

ent e

nerg

y fro

m m

onou

nsat

urat

ed fa

t1Pe

rcen

t ene

rgy

from

pol

yuns

atur

ated

fat1

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

150.

18

1521

120.

17

1116

50.

12

48

Mal

es15

–18

150.

610

1619

120.

57

1316

50.

42

47

19–2

416

0.5

1016

2212

0.3

812

175

0.2

34

825

–44

150.

29

1522

120.

28

1216

50.

12

48

45–6

415

0.3

914

2112

0.2

711

165

0.1

25

965

+15

0.3

814

2111

0.2

711

155

0.2

25

9To

tal

150.

29

1521

120.

17

1216

50.

12

48

Fem

ales

15–1

814

0.6

815

2012

0.9

811

175

0.3

24

819

–24

150.

58

1522

110.

46

1117

50.

32

49

25–4

415

0.2

815

2212

0.1

711

165

0.1

24

845

–64

150.

38

1421

110.

27

1116

50.

12

58

65+

140.

37

1421

110.

27

1015

50.

22

59

Tota

l15

0.1

815

2111

0.1

711

165

0.1

24

8N

ZDep

96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

esI

150.

39

1521

120.

27

1215

50.

22

48

II15

0.3

915

2212

0.2

712

165

0.2

25

8III

150.

39

1522

120.

28

1216

50.

22

59

IV15

0.3

916

2212

0.2

812

175

0.1

24

8Fe

mal

esI

150.

38

1421

110.

27

1116

50.

12

48

II15

0.3

815

2111

0.2

711

165

0.1

24

8III

150.

38

1422

120.

37

1217

50.

12

48

IV15

0.2

915

2211

0.2

711

165

0.1

24

81

Thes

e da

ta w

ere

not a

djus

ted

for

intra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion,

as

the

only

met

hods

that

hav

e be

en d

evel

oped

for

ratio

s us

e m

ultip

le d

ay r

epea

ts.

Perc

ent e

nerg

y fro

m fa

t for

eac

h pa

rtici

pant

was

cal

cula

ted

as th

e en

ergy

from

fat (

conv

ersi

on fa

ctor

= 3

7.7

kJ/g

) div

ided

by

the

tota

l ene

rgy

inta

ke.

2Pe

rcen

tiles

.

33Nutrients

Tabl

e A

2.3

cont

.FA

TTY

ACI

DS

IIPe

rcen

t ene

rgy

from

sat

urat

ed fa

t1Pe

rcen

t ene

rgy

from

mon

ouns

atur

ated

fat1

Perc

ent e

nerg

y fro

m p

olyu

nsat

urat

ed fa

t1

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

416

0.8

916

2313

0.6

813

174

0.3

24

725

–44

160.

510

1622

130.

49

1318

50.

32

59

45+

150.

78

1523

120.

58

1217

50.

42

410

Tota

l15

0.4

916

2213

0.3

813

175

0.2

24

8Fe

mal

es15

–24

160.

86

1624

120.

66

1218

40.

22

47

25–4

416

0.4

1016

2212

0.4

712

175

0.2

24

945

+16

0.7

915

2312

0.5

712

165

0.4

25

10To

tal

160.

49

1523

120.

37

1217

50.

22

49

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

15–2

415

0.5

1015

2112

0.3

712

165

0.2

24

825

–44

150.

39

1622

120.

28

1216

50.

12

48

45+

150.

29

1421

110.

27

1116

50.

12

59

Tota

l15

0.2

915

2112

0.1

712

165

0.1

25

8Fe

mal

es15

–24

140.

58

1420

110.

66

1116

50.

32

49

25–4

415

0.2

815

2212

0.2

711

165

0.1

24

845

+14

0.2

814

2111

0.1

711

165

0.1

25

8To

tal

150.

28

1521

110.

17

1116

50.

12

48

1Th

ese

data

wer

e no

t adj

uste

d fo

r in

tra-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n, a

s th

e on

ly m

etho

ds th

at h

ave

been

dev

elop

ed fo

r ra

tios

use

mul

tiple

day

rep

eats

.Pe

rcen

t ene

rgy

from

fat f

or e

ach

parti

cipa

nt w

as c

alcu

late

d as

the

ener

gy fr

om fa

t (co

nver

sion

fact

or =

37.

7 kJ

/g) d

ivid

ed b

y th

e to

tal e

nerg

y in

take

.2

Perc

entil

es.


Tabl

e A

3.1

CARB

OH

YDRA

TE A

ND

STA

RCH

Carb

ohyd

rate

(g)1

Perc

ent e

nerg

y fro

m c

arbo

hydr

ate2

Star

ch (g

)1

Mee

ting

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

guide

line 4

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

267

2.0

163

255

385

460.

733

4658

36%

145

2.8

8913

820

9M

ales

15–1

835

115

.622

734

348

449

1.7

3848

6143

%18

910

.111

918

326

819

–24

362

14.9

239

356

492

461.

134

4561

36%

192

8.2

136

190

250

25–4

433

85.

622

833

145

745

0.5

3245

5831

%18

83.

513

218

525

045

–64

283

5.4

198

275

378

430.

530

4256

24%

164

3.8

123

162

209

65+

252

5.0

183

247

328

460.

634

4757

36%

140

3.1

107

138

175

Tota

l31

53.

521

030

543

445

0.9

3245

5831

%17

61.

912

417

223

2Fe

mal

es15

–18

264

14.3

163

257

377

511.

237

5262

63%

130

7.6

8212

318

919

–24

255

6.7

173

245

347

481.

235

4964

47%

122

3.9

8011

816

825

–44

229

3.3

152

223

315

460.

434

4659

35%

123

2.3

8012

016

945

–64

202

3.8

136

198

272

470.

435

4758

34%

107

2.2

7010

414

765

+18

94.

213

618

424

848

0.6

3649

6046

%10

22.

471

100

135

Tota

l22

22.

214

621

430

647

0.8

3547

5940

%11

61.

475

112

161

NZD

ep96

Qua

rtile

sM

ales

I32

16.

122

331

143

445

0.6

3245

5526

%17

93.

312

617

523

7II

323

6.9

212

314

445

450.

732

4560

33%

180

3.8

123

176

242

III31

39.

022

230

641

145

0.9

3245

5730

%17

55.

111

917

123

4IV

305

7.2

188

294

436

450.

630

4558

36%

170

4.8

118

167

226

Fem

ales

I22

23.

615

821

629

348

0.6

3648

5942

%11

62.

779

112

156

II22

16.

216

821

727

847

0.6

3447

5939

%11

52.

985

114

147

III21

73.

714

121

230

047

0.5

3447

5938

%11

42.

577

112

155

IV22

64.

312

821

333

547

0.5

3547

6140

%11

93.

067

112

179

1Us

ual i

ntak

e. T

hese

dat

a w

ere

adju

sted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion

usin

g C-

SIDE

.2

Thes

e da

ta w

ere

not a

djus

ted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion,

as

the

only

met

hods

that

hav

e be

en d

evel

oped

for r

atio

s us

e m

ultip

le d

ay re

peat

s. P

erce

nt e

nerg

yfro

m c

arbo

hydr

ate

for e

ach

parti

cipa

nt w

as c

alcu

late

d as

the

ener

gy fr

om c

arbo

hydr

ate

(con

vers

ion

fact

or =

16.

7 kJ

/g) d

ivid

ed b

y th

e to

tal e

nerg

y in

take

.3

Perc

entil

es.

4Th

e N

ew Z

eala

nd N

utrit

ion

Task

forc

e (1

991)

gui

delin

e re

com

men

ds c

arbo

hydr

ate

prov

ides

≥ 5

0.0%

of e

nerg

y in

take

.

35Nutrients

Tabl

e A

3.1

cont

.CA

RBO

HYD

RATE

AN

D S

TARC

HCa

rboh

ydra

te (g

)1Pe

rcen

t ene

rgy

from

car

bohy

drat

e2St

arch

(g)1

Mee

ting

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

guide

line 4

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

432

826

.820

431

546

745

1.7

3344

5834

%16

916

.011

216

622

925

–44

317

13.7

207

310

437

421.

525

4354

25%

186

9.1

126

183

251

45+

259

17.9

157

257

357

401.

624

4153

14%

143

11.6

9813

919

4To

tal

305

11.2

196

296

427

420.

928

4355

25%

170

6.3

114

166

230

Fem

ales

15–2

429

118

.017

028

242

550

1.4

3650

6547

%14

311

.478

134

219

25–4

424

38.

814

623

435

246

0.8

3345

5735

%13

15.

777

123

194

45+

189

12.3

116

183

271

451.

333

4556

36%

107

7.3

6310

115

7To

tal

247

7.8

142

235

364

470.

733

4659

39%

129

4.9

7412

119

5N

Z Eu

rope

an &

Oth

ers

Mal

es15

–24

367

12.5

245

362

496

481.

236

4761

40%

197

7.6

132

194

265

25–4

434

26.

523

633

346

345

0.5

3245

5832

%18

94.

013

318

524

945

+27

54.

319

026

537

044

0.4

3245

5729

%15

72.

911

215

320

5To

tal

318

3.5

207

307

441

450.

432

4558

32%

176

2.1

119

172

239

Fem

ales

15–2

424

58.

716

523

933

349

1.1

3550

6153

%11

74.

480

115

157

25–4

422

73.

615

522

130

546

0.5

3446

5934

%12

02.

282

118

160

45+

196

2.7

139

193

258

470.

436

4758

38%

104

1.6

7210

213

8To

tal

216

2.4

152

211

286

470.

335

4759

39%

112

1.4

7711

014

91

Usua

l int

ake.

The

se d

ata

wer

e ad

just

ed fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n us

ing

C-SI

DE. C

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

the

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

thes

e da

ta fo

r NZ

Mao

ri, d

ueto

the

limite

d nu

mbe

r of r

epea

t 24

hour

die

t rec

alls

for t

his

ethn

ic g

roup

.2

Thes

e da

ta w

ere

not a

djus

ted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion,

as

the

only

met

hods

that

hav

e be

en d

evel

oped

for r

atio

s us

e m

ultip

le d

ay re

peat

s. P

erce

nt e

nerg

y fro

mca

rboh

ydra

te fo

r eac

h pa

rtici

pant

was

cal

cula

ted

as th

e en

ergy

from

car

bohy

drat

e (c

onve

rsio

n fa

ctor

= 1

6.7

kJ/g

) div

ided

by

the

tota

l ene

rgy

inta

ke.

3Pe

rcen

tiles

.4

The

New

Zea

land

Nut

ritio

n Ta

skfo

rce

(199

1) g

uide

line

reco

mm

ends

car

bohy

drat

e pr

ovid

es ≥

50.

0% o

f ene

rgy

inta

ke.


Tabl

e A

3.2

SUG

ARS

ITo

tal s

ugar

s (g

)1Gl

ucos

e (g

)1Fr

ucto

se (g

)1

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

122

1.2

6311

419

021

0.3

920

3523

0.3

1021

38M

ales

15–1

816

07.

096

154

234

271.

912

2645

291.

913

2747

19–2

416

99.

588

162

259

312.

013

2853

322.

513

2955

25–4

414

93.

583

143

224

240.

611

2340

260.

712

2443

45–6

411

83.

363

111

182

210.

79

1936

220.

89

2038

65+

112

3.2

6510

716

620

0.8

918

3321

1.0

1019

35To

tal

139

2.1

7413

121

524

0.5

1022

4025

0.5

1123

43Fe

mal

es15

–18

134

8.7

7112

720

823

1.9

1121

3824

2.2

1123

4019

–24

131

5.2

7212

719

422

1.2

1021

3522

1.3

1021

3625

–44

106

2.3

5710

016

319

0.6

817

3120

0.7

919

3445

–64

942.

355

9113

718

0.6

917

2919

0.6

918

3065

+87

2.4

5284

125

160.

69

1625

180.

610

1727

Tota

l10

51.

458

9916

019

0.3

918

3120

0.4

919

33N

ZDep

96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

esI

141

3.9

8313

520

726

0.9

1425

4028

0.9

1427

43II

143

4.7

7513

522

125

1.0

1123

4327

1.2

1024

47III

138

5.2

9113

319

123

1.0

1222

3524

1.0

1323

37IV

135

3.8

5912

222

621

0.9

718

3922

0.9

719

40Fe

mal

esI

106

2.6

6310

215

420

0.6

1119

3021

0.7

1020

34II

106

3.8

7410

314

020

0.8

1119

3121

0.9

1220

32III

103

2.6

5398

159

180.

68

1730

190.

78

1832

IV10

62.

748

9617

617

0.5

716

2919

0.6

817

311

Usua

l int

ake.

The

se d

ata

wer

e ad

just

ed fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n us

ing

C-SI

DE.

2Pe

rcen

tiles

.

37Nutrients

Tabl

e A

3.2

cont

.SU

GA

RS I

Tota

l sug

ars

(g)1

Gluc

ose

(g)1

Fruc

tose

(g)1

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

416

015

.288

146

249

252.

910

2343

273.

410

2547

25–4

412

98.

079

121

192

201.

59

1932

222.

110

2135

45+

113

10.7

5710

617

820

2.4

718

3522

2.4

721

39To

tal

135

6.5

7812

321

321

1.2

920

3623

1.5

922

40Fe

mal

es15

–24

151

10.5

7614

323

722

2.2

920

3823

2.2

921

4025

–44

113

5.8

5510

418

118

1.1

716

3120

1.2

718

3545

+82

10.2

3876

135

141.

96

1324

162.

27

1428

Tota

l11

75.

053

108

192

181.

07

1632

201.

17

1835

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

15–2

416

97.

998

163

247

311.

714

2951

321.

815

3053

25–4

415

43.

985

147

231

260.

712

2441

270.

812

2544

45+

117

2.6

6411

017

921

0.6

919

3622

0.6

920

37To

tal

141

2.4

7613

321

624

0.5

1122

4126

0.5

1123

44Fe

mal

es15

–24

126

5.4

7112

218

722

1.1

1121

3423

1.3

1122

3625

–44

107

2.8

6110

115

919

0.7

918

3121

0.8

919

3445

+92

1.6

5689

132

180.

49

1728

190.

510

1829

Tota

l10

31.

662

9915

019

0.4

1018

3020

0.4

1019

321

Usua

l int

ake.

The

se d

ata

wer

e ad

just

ed fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n us

ing

C-SI

DE. C

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

the

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

thes

e da

ta fo

r NZ

Mao

ri, d

ue to

the

limite

d nu

mbe

r of

repe

at 2

4 ho

ur d

iet r

ecal

ls fo

r thi

s et

hnic

gro

up.

2Pe

rcen

tiles

.


Tabl

e A

3.3

SUG

ARS

IISu

cros

e (g

)1La

ctos

e (g

)1M

alto

se (g

)1

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

591.

225

5310

115

0.2

513

264.

00.

061.

93.

66.

5M

ales

15–1

882

4.5

4277

128

192.

06

1735

4.9

0.52

2.3

4.6

8.0

19–2

483

5.8

3977

136

171.

55

1532

5.2

0.31

2.6

4.9

8.1

25–4

477

2.5

3571

125

170.

66

1529

5.5

0.20

2.7

5.0

8.9

45–6

455

1.9

2550

9215

0.6

513

275.

00.

162.

54.

77.

965

+53

2.2

2649

8514

0.7

613

244.

10.

232.

13.

76.

4To

tal

691.

331

6211

516

0.4

614

295.

10.

102.

54.

78.

2Fe

mal

es15

–18

695.

332

6311

315

1.5

413

283.

90.

341.

93.

56.

319

–24

693.

832

6511

115

1.2

513

263.

40.

271.

83.

15.

325

–44

501.

223

4682

140.

45

1325

3.2

0.14

1.7

3.0

5.1

45–6

442

1.5

2140

6712

0.4

411

222.

80.

101.

62.

74.

265

+37

1.4

1935

5713

0.6

512

222.

80.

211.

42.

54.

5To

tal

490.

823

4581

140.

35

1224

3.1

0.08

1.6

2.8

4.9

NZD

ep96

Qua

rtile

sM

ales

I67

2.5

3161

109

150.

76

1426

5.1

0.23

3.6

5.0

6.6

II69

2.8

2861

120

170.

77

1628

5.4

0.21

2.6

5.0

8.6

III70

3.5

4267

103

160.

87

1527

4.8

0.24

2.3

4.5

7.8

IV71

2.3

2663

126

160.

84

1332

5.1

0.24

2.0

4.5

9.0

Fem

ales

I48

1.9

2645

7413

0.6

513

233.

20.

211.

62.

95.

1II

481.

931

4666

140.

75

1224

3.1

0.12

1.9

2.9

4.4

III49

1.8

2245

8014

0.6

412

243.

00.

141.

92.

84.

3IV

531.

818

4697

140.

75

1225

3.2

0.13

1.4

2.9

5.3

1Us

ual i

ntak

e. T

hese

dat

a w

ere

adju

sted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion

usin

g C-

SIDE

.2

Perc

entil

es.

39Nutrients

Tabl

e A

3.3

cont

.SU

GA

RS II

Sucr

ose

(g)1

Lact

ose

(g)1

Mal

tose

(g)1

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

489

8.6

4181

149

162.

25

1429

5.0

0.74

2.0

4.6

8.5

25–4

468

5.3

3263

110

151.

36

1327

5.6

0.68

2.4

4.9

9.5

45+

556.

520

5094

121.

63

1024

5.0

0.70

2.1

4.5

8.6

Tota

l71

3.9

3365

117

150.

95

1327

5.4

0.40

2.3

5.0

8.9

Fem

ales

15–2

484

7.6

3777

140

172.

64

1434

4.1

0.55

1.6

3.7

7.1

25–4

457

3.7

2250

9915

1.5

513

293.

70.

411.

83.

36.

245

+40

6.4

1435

7210

1.2

49

183.

30.

421.

73.

15.

2To

tal

613.

322

5310

915

1.4

413

283.

70.

511.

73.

46.

2N

Z Eu

rope

an &

Oth

ers

Mal

es15

–24

814.

841

7612

619

1.7

717

355.

10.

322.

54.

88.

225

–44

782.

836

7312

817

0.7

715

305.

40.

192.

95.

08.

645

+55

1.6

2449

9215

0.5

613

274.

70.

132.

44.

37.

4To

tal

691.

531

6211

517

0.4

715

295.

10.

102.

54.

78.

1Fe

mal

es15

–24

643.

730

6010

214

1.1

513

263.

40.

291.

93.

25.

325

–44

491.

425

4678

140.

55

1324

3.1

0.11

1.7

2.9

4.8

45+

401.

421

3861

130.

45

1222

2.8

0.11

1.5

2.5

4.4

Tota

l47

0.9

2445

7414

0.3

513

243.

00.

071.

72.

84.

61

Usua

l int

ake.

The

se d

ata

wer

e ad

just

ed fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n us

ing

C-SI

DE. C

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

the

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

thes

e da

ta fo

r NZ

Mao

ri, d

ue to

the

limite

d nu

mbe

r of

repe

at 2

4 ho

ur d

iet r

ecal

ls fo

r thi

s et

hnic

gro

up.

2Pe

rcen

tiles

.


Tabl

e A

4FI

BRE

Diet

ary

fibre

(g)1

Inso

lubl

e no

n-st

arch

pol

ysac

char

ides

(g)1

Solu

ble

non-

star

ch p

olys

acch

arid

es (g

)1

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

210.

213

2030

110.

16

1116

100.

16

1014

Mal

es15

–18

251.

314

2436

120.

86

1219

120.

67

1218

19–2

423

1.1

1523

3312

0.6

711

1711

0.7

811

1625

–44

250.

517

2434

130.

38

1218

120.

28

1216

45–6

424

0.7

1523

3313

0.5

812

1911

0.2

811

1565

+22

0.6

1622

3012

0.3

812

1710

0.2

710

13To

tal

240.

316

2333

130.

28

1218

120.

18

1116

Fem

ales

15–1

817

1.0

1016

248

0.5

58

128

0.5

58

1219

–24

170.

610

1725

90.

35

813

80.

35

812

25–4

418

0.3

1118

2610

0.2

69

149

0.1

68

1245

–64

190.

412

1826

100.

26

1015

90.

26

812

65+

190.

513

1926

110.

37

1015

80.

26

811

Tota

l18

0.2

1218

2610

0.1

69

149

0.1

68

12N

ZDep

96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

esI

250.

617

2435

130.

48

1320

120.

38

1216

II25

0.7

1724

3413

0.4

813

1812

0.3

812

16III

230.

716

2331

120.

48

1217

110.

48

1115

IV22

0.6

1522

3011

0.4

711

1611

0.3

811

15Fe

mal

esI

190.

512

1927

100.

36

1015

90.

26

912

II18

0.4

1218

2510

0.2

610

149

0.2

69

11III

180.

412

1725

90.

36

914

80.

26

811

IV17

0.3

1017

259

0.2

59

138

0.1

58

121

Usua

l int

ake.

The

se d

ata

wer

e ad

just

ed fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n us

ing

C-SI

DE.

2Pe

rcen

tiles

.

41Nutrients

Tabl

e A

4 co

nt.

FIB

REDi

etar

y fib

re (g

)1In

solu

ble

non-

star

ch p

olys

acch

arid

es (g

)1So

lubl

e no

n-st

arch

pol

ysac

char

ides

(g)1

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

421

1.8

1320

2910

0.9

610

1511

0.8

711

1425

–44

241.

615

2433

120.

77

1217

121.

28

1217

45+

201.

613

2029

110.

97

1015

100.

77

1014

Tota

l22

1.0

1422

3311

0.5

711

1611

1.4

711

16Fe

mal

es15

–24

181.

29

1727

90.

64

813

90.

75

914

25–4

419

0.7

1118

2810

0.4

59

159

0.3

59

1345

+15

1.0

914

238

0.7

58

137

0.4

57

11To

tal

180.

610

1727

90.

35

914

90.

35

813

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

15–2

425

1.1

1525

3513

0.7

712

1912

0.5

812

1725

–44

250.

517

2434

130.

38

1218

120.

28

1216

45+

240.

515

2333

130.

48

1219

110.

27

1115

Tota

l24

0.3

1624

3513

0.2

812

1912

0.1

811

16Fe

mal

es15

–24

160.

610

1623

80.

35

812

80.

35

811

25–4

418

0.4

1218

2610

0.2

69

149

0.2

68

1245

+19

0.3

1319

2610

0.2

710

159

0.1

68

12To

tal

180.

212

1825

100.

16

914

80.

16

812

1Us

ual i

ntak

e. T

hese

dat

a w

ere

adju

sted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion

usin

g C-

SIDE

. Cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in th

e in

terp

reta

tion

of th

ese

data

for N

Z M

aori,

due

to th

e lim

ited

num

ber o

fre

peat

24

hour

die

t rec

alls

for t

his

ethn

ic g

roup

.2

Perc

entil

es.


Tabl

e A

5A

LCO

HO

LAl

coho

l (g)

1Pe

rcen

t ene

rgy

from

alc

ohol

2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

140.

70

046

40.

20

03

Mal

es15

–18

73.

20

014

10.

80

03

19–2

418

4.4

00

784

1.0

00

1625

–44

212.

00

066

40.

40

014

45–6

426

2.4

00

806

0.6

00

2065

–74

131.

60

041

40.

50

012

75+

112.

70

043

40.

80

016

Tota

l20

1.2

00

665

0.3

00

16Fe

mal

es15

–18

31.

50

00

10.

30

00

19–2

413

2.8

00

464

0.8

00

1525

–44

111.

70

036

30.

40

013

45–6

47

0.7

00

232

0.2

00

965

–74

50.

90

018

20.

40

011

75+

40.

80

015

20.

30

06

Tota

l8

0.8

00

283

0.2

00

10N

ZDep

96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

es I

232.

50

079

50.

70

018

II20

2.2

00

575

0.4

00

14III

182.

80

071

40.

60

016

IV17

2.4

00

564

0.5

00

15Fe

mal

esI

91.

10

035

30.

40

011

II10

2.4

00

313

0.6

00

11III

71.

10

025

20.

30

010

IV6

0.9

00

172

0.3

00

81

Thes

e da

ta w

ere

not a

djus

ted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion,

bec

ause

inta

ke c

lust

ers

at ze

ro.

2Th

ese

data

wer

e no

t adj

uste

d fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n, a

s th

e on

ly m

etho

ds th

at h

ave

been

dev

elop

ed fo

r rat

ios

use

mul

tiple

day

repe

ats.

Per

cent

ene

rgy

from

alc

ohol

for e

ach

parti

cipa

nt w

as c

alcu

late

d as

the

ener

gy fr

om a

lcoh

ol (c

onve

rsio

n fa

ctor

= 2

9.3

kJ/g

)di

vide

d by

the

tota

l ene

rgy

inta

ke.

3Pe

rcen

tiles

.

43Nutrients

Tabl

e A

5 co

nt.

ALC

OH

OL

Alco

hol (

g)1

Perc

ent e

nerg

y fro

m a

lcoh

ol2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

420

7.9

00

955

2.3

00

2325

–44

247.

20

066

40.

90

09

45+

338.

40

013

77

1.7

00

30To

tal

254.

50

080

50.

90

022

Fem

ales

15–2

410

3.6

00

432

0.7

00

1125

–44

82.

20

020

20.

60

07

45+

62.

10

019

20.

70

07

Tota

l8

1.6

00

202

0.4

00

7N

Z Eu

rope

an &

Oth

ers

Mal

es15

–24

123.

40

045

20.

70

09

25–4

420

2.0

00

654

0.4

00

1445

+21

1.9

00

696

0.5

00

17To

tal

191.

30

063

40.

30

015

Fem

ales

15–2

49

2.3

00

403

0.7

00

925

–44

112.

10

039

30.

50

013

45+

60.

50

021

20.

20

09

Tota

l9

0.9

00

303

0.2

00

111

Thes

e da

ta w

ere

not a

djus

ted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion,

bec

ause

inta

ke c

lust

ers

at ze

ro.

2Th

ese

data

wer

e no

t adj

uste

d fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n, a

s th

e on

ly m

etho

ds th

at h

ave

been

dev

elop

ed fo

r rat

ios

use

mul

tiple

day

repe

ats.

Per

cent

ene

rgy

from

alc

ohol

for e

ach

parti

cipa

nt w

as c

alcu

late

d as

the

ener

gy fr

om a

lcoh

ol (c

onve

rsio

n fa

ctor

= 2

9.3

kJ/g

)di

vide

d by

the

tota

l ene

rgy

inta

ke.

3Pe

rcen

tiles

.


Tabl

e A

6.1

VIT

AM

IN A

Vita

min

A e

quiv

alen

ts (µ

g RE

)1, 2

Retin

ol (µ

g)1

β-ca

rote

ne (µ

g)1,

2

Inad

equa

te

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

inta

ke (%

) 4M

ean

SEM

10th

350

th 3

90th

3M

ean

SEM

10th

350

th 3

90th

3

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

1065

26.9

580

939

1646

1.9

524

100.

522

340

080

433

8979

.814

2829

8758

69M

ales

15–1

811

1011

8.3

572

1026

1771

6.0

505

54.9

268

469

786

3935

653.

710

2630

6580

0619

–24

926

64.8

523

882

1389

8.3

476

31.6

272

454

711

2702

324.

494

222

6749

9825

–44

1280

87.1

698

1105

2027

1.3

682

80.3

313

508

1092

3785

236.

814

5731

8768

5645

–64

1332

197.

874

612

0820

540.

954

534

.129

449

384

236

3417

7.6

1611

3254

6147

65+

1279

86.9

769

1199

1892

0.7

442

52.9

261

412

652

5056

373.

320

1045

1088

37To

tal

1233

56.1

669

1076

1939

2.1

638

66.0

295

485

1033

3745

121.

713

6731

7768

46Fe

mal

es15

–18

750

59.8

475

725

1060

3.7

342

27.9

145

318

566

2496

296.

313

1223

4038

8819

–24

737

40.7

443

698

1079

6.1

364

23.0

177

337

579

2232

224.

110

2820

1437

1125

–44

875

34.7

562

827

1248

0.7

406

26.9

200

349

603

2825

157.

415

7026

4443

1445

–64

993

48.6

556

902

1531

1.5

428

105.

519

031

971

135

5716

5.6

1644

3244

5878

65+

1149

166.

964

910

4817

731.

642

393

.218

631

964

235

9024

4.0

1992

3363

5511

Tota

l90

018

.954

184

212

841.

640

823

.718

533

460

530

3376

.415

4228

0048

31N

ZDep

96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

esI

1195

65.4

887

1168

1538

0.0

554

44.9

307

494

863

2977

163.

319

3028

7541

62II

1119

63.5

792

1072

1505

0.0

521

28.0

296

475

790

3588

278.

219

6133

2555

45III

1357

246.

160

910

7324

474.

367

215

6.2

333

518

1154

3641

249.

511

5330

4369

31IV

1374

143.

752

810

4324

228.

370

411

1.8

280

479

1130

3929

302.

386

928

9183

02Fe

mal

esI

884

53.5

657

840

1144

0.0

401

113.

619

732

454

931

1314

6.0

1988

2993

4395

II88

332

.661

185

811

880.

335

812

.521

233

752

829

9417

2.8

2100

2910

4000

III91

837

.453

284

513

921.

941

033

.816

932

868

030

8918

5.0

1480

2817

5049

IV92

554

.845

682

115

135.

843

738

.918

235

073

928

7015

6.3

1234

2549

4926

1Us

ual i

ntak

e. T

hese

dat

a w

ere

adju

sted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion

usin

g C-

SIDE

. As

this

nut

rient

is c

once

ntra

ted

in re

lativ

ely

few

food

s, o

ne d

ay in

take

dis

tribu

tions

are

hig

hly

skew

ed. T

here

fore

, the

se e

stim

ates

of u

sual

inta

kes

have

larg

e st

anda

rd e

rror

s.2

For c

onve

rsio

n fa

ctor

s to

vita

min

B e

quiv

alen

ts, s

ee A

ppen

dix

B, T

able

I: A

naly

tical

tech

niqu

es fo

r nut

rient

s.3

Perc

entil

es.

4Ca

lcul

ated

by

prob

abili

ty a

naly

sis

(App

endi

x B)

.

45Nutrients

1Us

ual i

ntak

e. T

hese

dat

a w

ere

adju

sted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion

usin

g C-

SIDE

. As

this

nut

rient

is c

once

ntra

ted

in re

lativ

ely

few

food

s, o

ne d

ayin

take

dis

tribu

tions

are

hig

hly

skew

ed. T

here

fore

, the

se e

stim

ates

of u

sual

inta

kes

have

larg

e st

anda

rd e

rror

s. C

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

the

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

thes

e da

ta fo

r NZ

Mao

ri, d

ue to

the

limite

d nu

mbe

r of r

epea

t 24

hour

die

t rec

alls

for t

his

ethn

ic g

roup

.2

For c

onve

rsio

n fa

ctor

s to

vita

min

A e

quiv

alen

ts, s

ee A

ppen

dix

B, T

able

I: A

naly

tical

tech

niqu

es fo

r nut

rient

s.3

Perc

entil

es.

4Ca

lcul

ated

by

prob

abili

ty a

naly

sis

(App

endi

x B)

.

Tabl

e A

6.1

cont

. V

ITA

MIN

AVi

tam

in A

equ

ival

ents

(µg

RE)1,

2Re

tinol

(µg)

1β-

caro

tene

(µg)

1, 2

Inad

equa

te

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

inta

ke (%

) 4M

ean

SEM

10th

350

th 3

90th

3M

ean

SEM

10th

350

th 3

90th

3

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

410

4519

0.9

530

925

1701

7.7

464

56.0

272

432

694

4010

1509

.290

826

5984

0625

–44

1174

108.

972

411

0917

120.

653

737

.033

151

976

737

8685

2.4

1568

3310

6670

45+

1319

189.

673

812

4519

931.

752

478

.327

050

179

758

0721

63.2

1932

4721

1096

4To

tal

1283

112.

666

411

3820

722.

150

723

.031

048

673

044

8556

5.2

1298

3478

8835

Fem

ales

15–2

491

685

.949

885

814

064.

045

545

.718

639

479

727

9545

1.6

1219

2498

4744

25–4

491

953

.755

086

813

511.

644

030

.722

941

667

728

7829

3.3

1365

2611

4742

45+

901

82.5

548

853

1313

1.5

373

29.9

193

353

579

3216

735.

616

4529

4651

52To

tal

913

39.6

523

861

1368

2.7

432

20.5

202

398

696

2971

252.

913

8626

7849

22N

Z Eu

rope

an &

Oth

ers

Mal

es15

–24

1002

63.1

550

952

1520

6.9

490

32.0

262

460

759

3075

300.

810

8726

2656

6525

–44

1268

87.4

704

1100

1994

1.1

694

92.8

321

512

1119

3568

187.

514

4931

2362

6945

+13

7426

7.4

792

1263

2080

0.5

744

245.

428

249

012

2940

5617

3.7

1793

3653

6851

Tota

l12

3861

.471

210

9319

011.

168

696

.928

348

311

2836

9011

8.8

1573

3294

6332

Fem

ales

15–2

470

037

.346

267

896

84.

233

419

.616

032

152

221

8724

8.5

1108

2027

3474

25–4

488

040

.357

183

512

450.

743

152

.321

234

268

428

6617

4.3

1519

2659

4481

45+

1031

49.5

595

937

1569

0.6

453

94.4

188

321

645

3592

170.

419

8733

7254

94To

tal

907

19.0

567

841

1320

0.8

405

27.1

199

332

588

3083

82.5

1559

2846

4920


Tabl

e A

6.2

VIT

AM

INS

C A

ND

E V

itam

in C

(mg)

1Vi

tam

in E

(mg

)1

Inad

equa

te

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

inta

ke (%

) 3M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

114

2.1

5110

219

10.

810

.20.

116.

29.

714

.9M

ales

15–1

815

515

.965

141

264

0.3

11.0

0.74

6.4

10.6

16.2

19–2

413

79.

860

124

230

0.5

11.8

0.52

7.3

11.5

16.6

25–4

412

44.

553

109

211

0.9

12.4

0.29

7.6

11.8

17.8

45–6

411

44.

758

106

179

0.2

11.5

0.36

7.7

11.1

15.8

65+

102

4.4

5095

163

0.7

10.8

0.32

7.1

10.4

15.0

Tota

l12

22.

656

111

202

0.5

11.7

0.18

7.4

11.2

16.7

Fem

ales

15–1

812

012

.752

109

202

0.9

8.9

1.28

5.1

8.8

12.7

19–2

410

88.

245

9618

41.

18.

70.

505.

28.

312

.825

–44

105

5.1

4592

180

1.3

9.0

0.19

5.6

8.6

12.8

45–6

410

54.

152

9816

80.

68.

90.

215.

98.

512

.465

+10

14.

451

9416

10.

58.

50.

305.

98.

111

.5To

tal

105

2.7

4895

176

0.9

8.8

0.13

5.6

8.4

12.5

NZD

ep96

Qua

rtile

sM

ales

I13

46.

180

128

196

0.0

11.7

0.31

7.6

11.3

16.5

II11

55.

147

100

200

1.6

11.9

0.30

7.0

11.3

17.5

III11

86.

452

106

198

0.9

12.0

0.37

7.5

11.6

16.9

IV12

05.

250

107

207

1.2

11.5

0.32

7.4

11.0

16.1

Fem

ales

I10

25.

451

9516

30.

69.

10.

326.

08.

712

.8II

113

7.4

5310

018

50.

58.

90.

246.

78.

811

.3III

983.

953

9115

10.

28.

70.

245.

78.

312

.3IV

109

4.1

4797

186

1.3

8.5

0.18

5.0

8.0

12.6

1Us

ual i

ntak

e. T

hese

dat

a w

ere

adju

sted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion

usin

g C-

SIDE

.2

Perc

entil

es.

3Ca

lcul

ated

by

prob

abili

ty a

naly

sis

(App

endi

x B)

.

47Nutrients

Tabl

e A

6.2

cont

. V

ITA

MIN

S C

AN

D E

Vita

min

C (m

g)1

Vita

min

E (m

g )1

Inad

equa

te

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

inta

ke (%

) 3M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

413

518

.253

116

241

0.7

9.6

0.65

5.9

9.0

14.0

25–4

415

719

.161

135

278

0.6

13.5

0.95

8.4

13.0

19.2

45+

133

20.3

5912

022

50.

611

.70.

997.

211

.316

.8To

tal

142

10.2

5712

524

80.

611

.80.

487.

211

.317

.1Fe

mal

es15

–24

125

15.0

4510

822

62.

18.

30.

525.

18.

111

.825

–44

105

7.1

4793

180

1.1

9.7

0.51

5.5

9.1

14.6

45+

9510

.445

8715

51.

18.

60.

585.

68.

311

.8To

tal

109

6.2

4698

188

1.4

9.0

0.28

5.4

8.6

13.2

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

15–2

414

99.

970

138

244

0.2

12.0

0.59

7.4

11.7

17.0

25–4

411

84.

855

107

195

0.6

12.1

0.29

7.5

11.7

17.2

45+

108

3.7

5210

017

50.

611

.20.

267.

010

.716

.1To

tal

119

2.8

5710

919

50.

411

.70.

187.

011

.117

.1Fe

mal

es15

–24

108

7.4

4897

181

0.9

8.8

0.47

5.1

8.4

13.0

25–4

410

56.

146

9218

01.

18.

70.

205.

88.

512

.045

+10

43.

751

9616

90.

68.

80.

195.

88.

412

.2To

tal

105

3.3

4894

175

0.9

8.8

0.14

5.8

8.4

12.2

1Us

ual i

ntak

e. T

hese

dat

a w

ere

adju

sted

for

intr

a-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n us

ing

C-SI

DE. C

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

the

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

thes

e da

ta fo

r NZ

Mao

ri, d

ue to

the

limite

d nu

mbe

r of r

epea

t 24

hour

die

t rec

alls

for t

his

ethn

ic g

roup

.

2Pe

rcen

tiles

.3

Calc

ulat

ed b

y pr

obab

ility

ana

lysi

s (A

ppen

dix

B).


Tabl

e A

7.1

B V

ITA

MIN

S I

Thia

min

(mg)

1Ri

bofla

vin

(mg)

1N

iaci

n eq

uiva

lent

s (m

g N

E)1

Inad

equa

te

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

inta

ke (%

) 3M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

1.5

0.01

0.9

1.4

2.1

1.8

0.02

1.1

1.8

2.6

3.4

360.

323

3552

Mal

es15

–18

1.8

0.09

1.1

1.7

2.6

2.1

0.14

1.3

2.1

3.1

3.2

432.

528

4260

19–2

41.

80.

071.

21.

72.

42.

20.

091.

42.

13.

00.

745

2.0

3144

6025

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1.8

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0.05

1.5

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934

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70.

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00.

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343

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041.

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21.

82.

42.

134

0.9

2533

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tal

1.7

0.02

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0.02

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630

4360

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ales

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81.

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110.

81.

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313

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0.04

0.8

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1.7

1.6

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1.0

1.5

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5.6

311.

421

3041

25–4

41.

20.

020.

81.

21.

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60.

031.

01.

62.

35.

031

0.6

2130

4245

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1.2

0.03

0.8

1.2

1.7

1.6

0.05

1.0

1.5

2.2

4.7

290.

621

2938

65+

1.2

0.03

0.8

1.2

1.6

1.5

0.06

1.0

1.5

2.2

4.0

250.

718

2533

Tota

l1.

20.

010.

81.

21.

71.

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021.

01.

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25.

629

0.4

2029

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96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

esI

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0.05

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441.

435

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11.

72.

62.

20.

061.

82.

22.

60.

044

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3043

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428

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041.

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62.

22.

00.

051.

21.

93.

14.

944

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2742

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mal

esI

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2.2

300.

723

2937

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20.

030.

91.

21.

51.

60.

041.

21.

62.

11.

829

0.8

2429

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1.2

0.02

0.8

1.2

1.6

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290.

720

2940

IV1.

20.

020.

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l int

ake.

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r int

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dual

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iatio

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rcen

tiles

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ulat

ed b

y pr

obab

ility

ana

lysi

s (A

ppen

dix

B).

49Nutrients

Tabl

e A

7.1

cont

.B

VIT

AM

INS

ITh

iam

in (m

g)1

Ribo

flavi

n (m

g)1

Nia

cin

equi

vale

nts

(mg

NE)

1

Inad

equa

te

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

inta

ke (%

) 3M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

41.

50.

161.

01.

52.

21.

90.

151.

31.

82.

61.

339

2.9

2738

5325

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1.9

0.22

1.1

1.8

2.9

2.2

0.13

1.3

2.1

3.1

1.6

513.

133

4973

45+

1.5

0.08

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1.4

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0.27

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1.7

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474.

130

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70.

141.

11.

62.

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00.

071.

31.

92.

81.

547

1.7

3045

65Fe

mal

es15

–24

1.4

0.11

0.7

1.3

2.2

1.7

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2.8

11.6

322.

420

3146

25–4

41.

30.

050.

81.

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91.

60.

090.

91.

52.

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832

1.6

2031

4645

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10.

240.

71.

11.

61.

40.

090.

81.

31.

914

.428

1.7

1827

38To

tal

1.3

0.05

0.7

1.2

1.9

1.6

0.07

0.9

1.5

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10.5

311.

020

3044

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

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21.

82.

62.

20.

111.

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6225

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0.03

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0.03

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1.6

2.2

2.0

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1.9

2.7

1.3

400.

728

3852

Tota

l1.

70.

021.

11.

72.

42.

10.

031.

52.

12.

90.

743

0.6

2942

59Fe

mal

es15

–24

1.2

0.04

0.8

1.2

1.6

1.5

0.06

0.9

1.5

2.2

8.2

291.

320

2939

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41.

20.

020.

81.

21.

71.

60.

031.

11.

62.

23.

131

0.5

2230

4145

+1.

20.

020.

91.

21.

61.

60.

041.

11.

52.

23.

527

0.5

2027

36To

tal

1.2

0.02

0.8

1.2

1.6

1.6

0.02

1.1

1.6

2.2

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290.

421

2838

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ual i

ntak

e. T

hese

dat

a w

ere

adju

sted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion

usin

g C-

SIDE

. Cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in th

e in

terp

reta

tion

of th

ese

data

for N

Z M

aori,

due

to th

e lim

ited

num

ber o

fre

peat

24

hour

die

t rec

alls

for t

his

ethn

ic g

roup

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Perc

entil

es.

3Ca

lcul

ated

by

prob

abili

ty a

naly

sis

(App

endi

x B)

.


Tabl

e A

7.2

B V

ITA

MIN

S II

Vita

min

B6

(mg)

1Vi

tam

in B

12 (µ

g)1

Fola

te (µ

g)1

Inad

equa

teIn

adeq

uate

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

inta

ke (%

) 3M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2in

take

(%) 3

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

1.5

0.01

0.9

1.4

2.1

4.9

0.21

2.4

4.2

8.2

0.4

251

2.4

160

242

354

7.1

Mal

es15

–18

1.8

0.10

1.3

1.8

2.4

4.9

0.38

3.0

4.7

7.0

0.0

280

13.6

189

277

376

2.8

19–2

41.

80.

101.

31.

82.

45.

70.

463.

25.

48.

60.

128

117

.218

227

239

03.

425

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1.8

0.04

1.3

1.7

2.4

6.6

0.38

4.0

6.1

9.9

0.0

295

6.1

201

286

400

1.6

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41.

70.

041.

21.

62.

26.

30.

582.

85.

010

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128

65.

520

227

838

10.

865

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50.

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01.

42.

04.

50.

392.

44.

07.

20.

326

27.

419

325

633

91.

0To

tal

1.7

0.02

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1.7

2.3

6.0

0.30

3.0

5.2

9.7

0.0

286

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200

278

381

1.3

Fem

ales

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0.64

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202

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125

195

290

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41.

30.

030.

81.

31.

93.

90.

142.

13.

56.

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622

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714

121

330

713

.445

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1.3

0.03

0.8

1.3

1.8

4.1

0.35

2.1

3.5

6.7

0.6

228

5.1

151

222

313

9.8

65+

1.2

0.05

0.8

1.2

1.8

3.9

0.61

1.8

2.9

6.4

1.3

227

7.2

152

217

313

9.2

Tota

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30.

020.

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21.

83.

90.

122.

13.

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622

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221

230

613

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96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

esI

1.7

0.04

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1.7

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0.0

290

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224

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360

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70.

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21.

72.

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70.

273.

65.

38.

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029

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520

328

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0.05

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279

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182

270

385

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70.

051.

31.

72.

16.

30.

412.

65.

111

.00.

627

78.

718

926

837

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mal

esI

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1.9

4.2

0.34

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3.8

6.5

0.0

234

7.0

157

227

320

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30.

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91.

31.

73.

50.

152.

03.

25.

51.

122

26.

114

621

630

511

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0.03

0.7

1.2

1.9

3.7

0.17

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3.3

5.6

0.5

212

4.6

134

203

299

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21.

94.

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182.

13.

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60.

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51Nutrients

Tabl

e A

7.2

cont

.B

VIT

AM

INS

IIVi

tam

in B

6 (m

g)1

Vita

min

B12

(µg)

1Fo

late

(µg)

1

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equa

teIn

adeq

uate

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

inta

ke (%

) 3M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2in

take

(%) 3

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

41.

60.

161.

11.

62.

15.

00.

493.

14.

97.

10.

123

321

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422

632

18.

725

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1.8

0.13

1.2

1.7

2.4

8.6

1.70

3.9

7.4

14.8

0.0

298

24.9

187

283

424

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45+

1.6

0.09

1.1

1.5

2.0

7.9

1.29

3.8

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198

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62.

27.

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723.

56.

412

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028

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337

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3Fe

mal

es15

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0.6

1.2

1.9

4.0

0.27

2.3

3.9

5.8

0.6

206

17.4

105

194

324

28.6

25–4

41.

40.

070.

81.

32.

14.

60.

372.

64.

46.

90.

321

57.

912

820

731

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412.

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619

812

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219

628

026

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tal

1.3

0.05

0.7

1.2

1.9

4.3

0.22

2.5

4.1

6.4

0.2

208

7.7

119

198

309

23.0

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

15–2

41.

90.

101.

41.

92.

55.

40.

543.

05.

28.

20.

229

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129

140

11.

725

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1.8

0.04

1.3

1.7

2.4

6.6

0.49

4.1

6.2

9.7

0.0

298

6.5

211

290

394

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0.03

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1.6

2.2

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281

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272

382

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70.

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21.

72.

35.

80.

233.

15.

19.

10.

029

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828

239

31.

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mal

es15

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0.06

0.7

1.2

1.7

4.0

0.60

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3.7

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200

7.9

131

197

271

18.7

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41.

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31.

83.

70.

172.

23.

45.

60.

322

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614

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711

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030.

81.

21.

83.

90.

262.

03.

36.

50.

623

04.

615

122

231

89.

5To

tal

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0.02

0.8

1.2

1.8

3.8

0.13

2.2

3.4

5.7

0.2

222

3.0

146

215

307

11.5

1Us

ual i

ntak

e. T

hese

dat

a w

ere

adju

sted

for

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-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion

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g C-

SIDE

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tion

shou

ld b

e ex

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sed

in th

ein

terp

reta

tion

of th

ese

data

for N

Z M

aori,

due

to th

e lim

ited

num

ber o

f rep

eat 2

4 ho

ur d

iet r

ecal

ls fo

r thi

s et

hnic

gro

up.

2Pe

rcen

tiles

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Calc

ulat

ed b

y pr

obab

ility

ana

lysi

s (A

ppen

dix

B).


Tabl

e A

8.1

MIN

ERA

LS I

Calc

ium

(mg)

1Ph

osph

orus

(mg)

1M

agne

sium

(mg)

1

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equa

te

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

inta

ke (%

) 3M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

819

10.3

445

766

1257

2015

3711

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214

7721

7932

32.

821

030

945

2M

ales

15–1

895

775

.251

189

414

7433

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91.5

1183

1779

2521

362

17.6

240

356

493

19–2

493

850

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387

514

5412

1889

81.1

1280

1848

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385

15.4

273

380

505

25–4

495

920

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690

814

359

1929

30.0

1373

1891

2533

398

7.1

293

388

513

45–6

486

421

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180

913

1514

1757

38.1

1250

1712

2320

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8.9

287

367

473

65+

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2237

54.

927

336

549

0Fe

mal

es15

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783

56.6

371

740

1258

3712

9170

.381

812

4118

3426

513

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725

437

819

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760

40.7

419

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1157

2213

6664

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513

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0427

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318

226

137

425

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759

18.1

436

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2113

3421

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512

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719

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539

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712

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6723

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018

627

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830

1151

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1112

1530

251

6.3

178

241

337

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l73

512

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969

111

1225

1288

13.8

865

1247

1761

275

2.7

183

265

378

NZD

ep96

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rtile

sM

ales

I91

528

.459

088

512

79#

1817

40.4

1385

1794

2281

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8.2

276

378

514

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830

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892

212

92#

1872

45.4

1371

1834

2424

385

8.7

296

378

481

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733

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486

214

25#

1803

47.7

1214

1758

2445

370

10.9

265

362

485

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824

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678

113

55#

1731

40.8

1099

1667

2442

358

16.3

264

352

457

Fem

ales

I76

219

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673

310

94#

1337

33.9

930

1303

1790

289

5.0

189

279

400

II74

126

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671

010

77#

1295

30.9

933

1270

1689

273

6.6

199

267

356

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221

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168

311

34#

1271

24.4

855

1227

1742

275

6.1

198

267

362

IV69

421

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263

211

12#

1242

24.5

786

1188

1764

262

4.4

161

249

378

#N

ZDep

96 Q

uarti

les

cons

ist o

f a ra

nge

of a

ge g

roup

s. A

s th

e re

quire

men

ts d

iffer

for e

ach

age

grou

p, a

n ov

eral

l fig

ure

coul

d no

t be

calc

ulat

ed.

1Us

ual i

ntak

e. T

hese

dat

a w

ere

adju

sted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion

usin

g C-

SIDE

.2

Perc

entil

es.

3Ca

lcul

ated

by

prob

abili

ty a

naly

sis

(App

endi

x B)

.

53Nutrients

Tabl

e A

8.1

cont

.M

INER

ALS

ICa

lciu

m (m

g)1

Phos

phor

us (m

g)1

Mag

nesi

um (m

g)1

Inad

equa

te

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

inta

ke (%

) 3M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–1

8443

*19

–244

27 *

15–2

482

281

.648

275

112

3415

7010

3.8

1147

1537

2034

325

21.4

236

319

423

25–4

489

152

.450

484

113

4112

1963

112.

912

8419

3626

4037

417

.526

136

849

245

+69

848

.737

964

810

8031

1682

141.

911

1216

0823

3534

118

.025

233

643

6To

tal

814

39.0

467

761

1224

2417

6155

.111

9116

9624

0835

110

.125

334

545

5 F

emal

es15

–184

40 *

19–2

4428

15–2

482

682

.535

172

214

2914

1510

3.4

765

1331

2174

270

18.9

157

253

404

25–4

474

356

.239

668

411

5326

1391

54.9

845

1344

1998

283

14.7

168

275

405

45+

567

49.4

315

512

890

5311

3269

.368

911

0116

1423

818

.814

423

034

2To

tal

732

43.6

364

658

1183

3413

3944

.478

912

7219

7526

88.

715

725

639

2N

Z Eu

rope

an &

Oth

ers

Mal

es15

–184

25

19–2

449

15–2

410

0858

.853

395

415

4319

5088

.112

5219

1926

8539

316

.426

938

952

325

–44

990

23.3

586

938

1455

619

4233

.114

1719

0525

1239

76.

629

738

851

045

+86

123

.649

281

012

9513

1662

30.8

1170

1628

2191

351

6.9

253

340

462

Tota

l93

616

.052

988

514

0811

1821

21.7

1261

1776

2440

377

4.7

262

365

506

Fem

ales

15–1

8432

19–2

4418

15–2

477

837

.741

774

211

9113

3758

.289

512

9818

2926

66.

718

025

736

325

–44

781

21.1

471

745

1131

1613

3823

.593

413

0517

8228

44.

919

527

638

445

+71

314

.340

667

810

6425

1228

17.4

859

1195

1638

269

3.9

185

261

363

Tota

l74

913

.244

271

610

9622

1289

14.7

906

1256

1712

275

2.9

187

266

372

*Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.1

Usua

l int

ake.

The

se d

ata

wer

e ad

just

ed fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n us

ing

C-SI

DE. C

autio

nsh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

the

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

thes

e da

ta fo

r NZ

Mao

ri, d

ue to

the

limite

d nu

mbe

rof

repe

at 2

4 ho

ur d

iet r

ecal

ls fo

r thi

s et

hnic

gro

up.

2Pe

rcen

tiles

.

3Ca

lcul

ated

by

prob

abili

ty a

naly

sis

(App

endi

x B)

.4

The

15–2

4 yea

rs g

roup

was

subd

ivid

ed fo

r ina

dequ

ate

inta

ke, a

s the

cal

cium

requ

irem

ents

diffe

r for

the

15–1

8 an

d 19

–24

year

s gr

oups

(ref

er T

able

III,

Appe

ndix

B).


Tabl

e A

8.2

MIN

ERA

LS II

Iron

(mg)

1Zi

nc (m

g)1

Pota

ssiu

m (m

g)1

Inad

equa

teIn

adeq

uate

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

inta

ke (%

) 3M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2in

take

(%) 4

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

12.6

0.12

7.8

12.0

18.2

1412

.60.

137.

911

.918

.21.

234

7226

.223

6533

7847

02M

ales

15–1

815

.20.

899.

614

.721

.56

15.8

1.01

9.5

15.2

23.0

3.1

3874

220.

327

0338

3750

9319

–24

15.4

0.63

11.1

15.3

19.8

015

.20.

6410

.515

.020

.11.

039

5416

2.4

2936

3915

5025

25–4

416

.10.

3811

.015

.521

.90

16.7

0.48

11.2

15.9

23.2

0.2

4180

71.3

3068

4116

5378

45–6

414

.60.

4710

.114

.119

.60

14.5

0.31

10.1

14.0

19.4

0.5

3945

63.1

3043

3896

4912

65+

12.5

0.35

9.1

12.2

16.4

112

.10.

408.

211

.616

.64.

835

4296

.026

5834

8245

03To

tal

15.1

0.22

10.3

14.6

20.4

115

.20.

2410

14.5

21.4

1.1

3978

46.2

2983

3922

5048

Fem

ales

15–1

810

.40.

636.

710

.114

.545

10.2

0.69

6.7

9.8

14.3

2.4

2854

155.

918

6127

7839

5519

–24

10.8

0.55

6.9

10.4

15.3

3910

.60.

587.

310

.314

.40.

930

3611

8.1

2126

2964

4036

25–4

410

.50.

186.

810

.114

.642

10.7

0.21

7.1

10.1

14.8

1.6

3045

51.8

2101

2975

4075

45–6

410

.30.

217.

010

.113

.92

10.0

0.24

7.1

9.7

13.2

1.1

3054

57.3

2181

3009

3986

65+

9.6

0.38

6.7

9.2

12.8

39.

20.

316.

78.

912

.11.

328

5170

.520

6027

8337

21To

tal

10.3

0.11

6.8

9.9

14.2

2610

.20.

137.

19.

813

.81.

330

0030

.720

9929

3639

79N

ZDep

96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

esI

15.0

0.58

11.6

14.8

18.7

#14

.90.

4810

.814

.419

.80.

240

6211

4.5

2993

3994

5226

II15

.20.

3810

.414

.820

.5#

15.4

0.52

10.4

14.8

21.1

0.5

4010

90.7

2902

3919

5243

III15

.60.

5611

.015

.220

.8#

15.1

0.56

10.2

14.5

20.8

0.9

3935

101.

628

7638

7250

79IV

14.6

0.39

9.7

14.1

20.2

#15

.50.

469.

314

.422

.92.

738

9793

.532

3938

8045

77Fe

mal

esI

10.7

0.31

7.5

10.2

14.3

#10

.10.

247.

69.

912

.80.

230

5564

.222

4530

0139

33II

10.3

0.24

7.7

10.2

13.1

#10

.20.

278.

410

.112

.10.

030

3075

.823

2630

0037

74III

10.1

0.25

6.7

9.7

13.8

#10

.10.

326.

99.

613

.81.

529

5463

.820

5728

8339

43IV

10.2

0.19

6.0

9.7

14.9

#10

.50.

286.

39.

815

.54.

829

5249

.419

1328

6641

04#

NZD

ep96

Qua

rtile

s co

nsis

t of a

rang

e of

age

gro

ups.

As

the

requ

irem

ents

diff

er fo

r eac

h ag

e gr

oup,

an

over

all f

igur

e co

uld

not b

e ca

lcul

ated

.1

Usua

l int

ake.

The

se d

ata

wer

e ad

just

ed fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n us

ing

C-SI

DE.

2Pe

rcen

tiles

.3

Calc

ulat

ed b

y pr

obab

ility

ana

lysi

s (A

ppen

dix

B). I

t was

ass

umed

all

fem

ales

45+

yea

rs w

ere

not m

enst

ruat

ing.

4Ca

lcul

ated

by

prob

abili

ty a

naly

sis

(App

endi

x B)

.

55Nutrients

Tabl

e A

8.2

cont

.M

INER

ALS

II Ir

on (m

g)1

Zinc

(mg)

1Po

tass

ium

(mg)

1

Inad

equa

teIn

adeq

uate

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

inta

ke (%

) 3M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2in

take

(%) 4

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–1

857*

19–2

450*

15–2

414

.20.

949.

613

.919

.313

.90.

899.

013

.519

.23.

034

3422

6.5

2660

3406

4242

25–4

417

.91.

3111

.317

.125

.70

18.5

1.46

11.0

17.2

27.7

0.6

4285

282.

430

1441

9156

8645

+15

.01.

1610

.714

.819

.40

14.5

0.98

9.5

14.0

20.1

2.0

3696

214.

626

6236

3648

07To

tal

16.

30.

8311

.115

.722

.11

16.1

0.72

9.8

15.2

23.5

1.7

3885

142.

228

6038

1450

02Fe

mal

es15

–185

45*

19–2

4536

15–2

411

.20.

776.

310

.916

.511

.60.

917.

211

.416

.42.

729

2922

8.2

1763

2809

4240

25–4

411

.00.

386.

410

.616

.140

11.0

0.71

6.9

10.6

15.7

2.9

3219

123.

420

7031

0445

0645

+10

.62.

016.

310

.215

.66

10.4

0.89

6.6

10.0

14.8

4.3

2752

213.

917

8926

8138

08To

tal

10.9

0.35

6.2

10.5

16.1

3211

.10.

456.

810

.716

.03.

230

2399

.319

1429

1942

60N

Z Eu

rope

an &

Oth

ers

Mal

es15

–185

419

–245

015

–24

15.7

0.79

10.7

15.5

21.0

15.9

0.81

10.2

15.4

22.2

1.8

4106

176.

429

6740

7752

8025

–44

15.8

0.37

10.9

15.4

21.3

016

.30.

4911

.215

.622

.10.

241

5772

.930

6540

9153

3445

+13

.90.

319.

513

.418

.91

13.6

0.26

9.0

13.0

18.9

2.4

3830

62.4

2864

3763

4881

Tota

l 1

5.0

0.23

9.9

14.5

20.7

115

.00.

249.

814

.321

.21.

540

0549

.028

7539

3252

31Fe

mal

es15

–185

4519

–245

4215

–24

10.4

0.59

6.6

10.1

14.7

10.1

0.55

7.2

9.8

13.5

1.0

2943

106.

720

7128

9438

7925

–44

10.4

0.20

7.1

10.1

14.0

4110

.40.

217.

510

.113

.60.

630

3055

.521

4229

7439

8945

+9.

90.

167.

09.

613

.22

9.6

0.15

7.1

9.3

12.3

0.7

2981

44.0

2135

2921

3900

Tota

l10

.20.

137.

19.

913

.624

10.0

0.14

7.5

9.8

12.7

0.3

2993

34.0

2131

2938

3925

* Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.1

Usua

l int

ake.

The

se d

ata

wer

e ad

just

ed fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n us

ing

C-SI

DE. C

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

the

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

thes

e da

ta fo

r NZ

Mao

ri, d

ue to

the

limite

d nu

mbe

r of

repe

at 2

4 ho

ur d

iet r

ecal

ls fo

r thi

s et

hnic

gro

up.

2Pe

rcen

tiles

.3

Calc

ulat

ed b

y pr

obab

ility

ana

lysi

s (A

ppen

dix

B). I

t was

ass

umed

all

fem

ales

45+

yea

rs w

ere

not m

enst

ruat

ing.

4Ca

lcul

ated

by

prob

abili

ty a

naly

sis

(App

endi

x B)

.5

The

15–2

4 ye

ars

grou

p w

as s

ubdi

vide

d, a

s th

e iro

n re

quire

men

ts d

iffer

for t

he 1

5–18

and

19–

24 y

ears

gro

ups

(refe

r Tab

le II

I, Ap

pend

ix B

).


Tabl

e A

8.3

MIN

ERA

LS II

ISe

leni

um (µ

g)1,

2M

anga

nese

(µg)

1Co

pper

(mg)

1

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

521.

328

4782

4599

44.7

2508

4327

7026

1.5

0.02

1.0

1.4

2.2

Mal

es15

–18

554.

631

5183

4597

367.

920

8740

8676

981.

70.

081.

21.

72.

219

–24

564.

734

5383

4368

314.

023

8540

7567

241.

80.

071.

31.

72.

225

–44

652.

643

6292

5295

117.

431

7650

8876

691.

90.

061.

31.

82.

645

–64

644.

534

5610

154

6615

2.3

3057

5177

8234

1.8

0.36

1.2

1.7

2.4

65+

462.

429

4368

5231

140.

534

3251

0471

971.

40.

031.

11.

41.

8To

tal

601.

836

5691

5162

73.4

2943

4935

7644

1.8

0.03

1.3

1.7

2.4

Fem

ales

15–1

835

2.5

2333

5030

5520

5.0

1700

2888

4626

1.2

0.08

0.8

1.2

1.7

19–2

444

3.9

2841

6333

8419

7.8

1777

3168

5325

1.3

0.06

0.8

1.2

1.8

25–4

447

3.3

2541

7640

9372

.022

8339

1461

351.

30.

020.

81.

21.

845

–64

462.

525

4171

4326

108.

425

2341

7063

331.

30.

030.

91.

21.

865

+38

2.6

2436

5645

6312

6.2

2962

4393

6322

1.2

0.05

0.8

1.1

1.8

Tota

l44

1.1

2539

6840

7154

.722

9338

9160

701.

30.

020.

81.

21.

8N

ZDep

96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

esI

562.

045

5669

5551

130.

632

0252

4182

831.

80.

051.

21.

72.

4II

602.

737

5688

5399

199.

442

6453

3766

141.

80.

041.

31.

72.

3III

695.

838

6210

748

9217

3.6

2899

4701

7136

1.8

0.08

1.2

1.7

2.6

IV59

3.4

2952

9646

9612

0.5

2530

4461

7167

1.7

0.06

1.4

1.7

2.1

Fem

ales

I46

3.3

3144

6543

3714

9.7

2451

4140

6483

1.4

0.04

0.9

1.3

1.9

II39

1.3

2737

5442

0811

7.1

2395

4039

6223

1.3

0.03

1.0

1.2

1.6

III43

2.3

2237

6939

7710

6.1

2318

3832

5825

1.2

0.03

0.9

1.2

1.7

IV47

4.1

2340

7837

0060

.620

2735

0356

111.

20.

030.

71.

11.

81

Usua

l int

ake.

The

se d

ata

wer

e ad

just

ed fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n us

ing

C-SI

DE.

2Th

ese

data

are

unr

elia

ble,

ple

ase

refe

r to

the

text

.3

Perc

entil

es.

57Nutrients

Tabl

e A

8.3

cont

.M

INER

ALS

III

Sele

nium

(µg)

1,2

Man

gane

se (µ

g)1

Copp

er (m

g)1

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

447

6.3

2844

7033

0532

1.6

1773

3149

5040

1.6

0.10

1.2

1.6

2.1

25–4

468

5.9

3964

102

4682

260.

124

9947

2366

251.

70.

201.

21.

62.

345

+61

6.0

3557

9347

2237

2.2

2641

4423

7181

1.5

0.13

1.1

1.4

1.9

Tota

l67

8.2

3458

109

4216

189.

323

4640

2063

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60.

091.

21.

62.

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mal

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–24

362.

921

3554

2965

215.

214

5927

8047

111.

30.

110.

71.

21.

925

–44

494.

828

4674

4190

189.

920

6638

8567

091.

30.

080.

81.

22.

045

+43

3.5

2741

6337

8329

4.1

2062

3617

5720

1.1

0.11

0.7

1.0

1.5

Tota

l48

5.0

2643

7637

3012

6.1

1852

3476

5938

1.2

0.05

0.7

1.2

1.9

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

15–2

456

4.8

3453

8347

9933

3.2

2477

4401

7594

1.8

0.06

1.3

1.8

2.3

25–4

464

2.4

4261

8954

4614

0.2

3236

5223

7945

2.0

0.06

1.4

1.9

2.7

45+

552.

132

5085

5470

135.

431

4351

9681

501.

60.

051.

11.

52.

2To

tal

591.

735

5587

5333

83.8

3025

5032

8041

1.8

0.04

1.2

1.7

2.5

Fem

ales

15–2

442

3.2

2839

5933

1716

9.0

1777

3187

5034

1.3

0.05

0.8

1.2

1.8

25–4

444

3.4

2539

7041

0786

.123

4039

4360

851.

30.

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91.

21.

845

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1.8

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9587

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9243

3063

881.

30.

030.

91.

21.

8To

tal

421.

425

3865

4149

62.8

2403

3984

6100

1.3

0.02

0.9

1.2

1.8

1 Usu

al in

take

. The

se d

ata

wer

e ad

just

ed fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n us

ing

C-SI

DE. C

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

the

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

thes

e da

ta fo

r NZ

Mao

ri, d

ue to

the

limite

d nu

mbe

r of

repe

at 2

4 ho

ur d

iet r

ecal

ls fo

r thi

s et

hnic

gro

up.

2Th

ese

data

are

unr

elia

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ple

ase

refe

r to

the

text

.3

Perc

entil

es.

59Dietary Sources

Section BDietary SourcesIntroductionIn the context of nutrition education it is often useful to either encourage or discourage theconsumption of groups of foods because they are important sources of nutrients. For example,milk is an excellent source of calcium so the consumption of this group would be encouraged toaugment calcium intake. Therefore, food items have been assigned into food groups on the basisof their role as a dietary source of a nutrient or nutrients (see Appendix B). This section providesan insight into the groups of foods which are sources of selected nutrients for the New Zealandpopulation. As food choices differ with sex and age (see Section E), the contribution of each foodgroup to nutrient intake is presented for these variables.

It should be noted that the data presented in this section are percentages of nutrient intake obtainedfrom the various dietary sources. They do not indicate the bioavailability of nutrients from thedietary sources.

Details of the food groups used and the types of foods included within each food group arepresented in Appendix B (Table 2). This should be studied prior to reading this section.

Key PointsEnergy• Bread, of all food groups, provided the largest proportion (11 percent) of energy in the New

Zealand diet.

• Non-alcoholic beverages contributed approximately 10 percent of the energy intake in young adults15–24 years.

Total fat• Butter and margarine contributed 16 percent to total fat intake in the New Zealand diet.

Carbohydrate• Bread, non-alcoholic beverages and potatoes and kumara contributed 40 percent of carbohydrate

intake of the New Zealand population.

Protein• Animal products (beef and veal, poultry, fish/seafood, milk) and bread accounted for about half the

dietary sources of protein in the New Zealand population.

Dietary fibre• Bread, vegetables, fruits, potatoes and kumara and breakfast cereals provided three-quarters of the

dietary fibre intake for New Zealanders.

Calcium• Milk and cheese together supplied almost half the calcium intake of the New Zealand population.


Iron• Almost one-third of iron from dietary sources in the New Zealand diet was estimated to be the

highly bioavailable haeme iron.

Folate• Vegetables, bread and breakfast cereals contributed over 40 percent of the dietary sources of folate

in the New Zealand diet.

Alcohol• The predominant source of alcohol for females was wine (65 percent), while beer was the

predominant source for males (69 percent).

61Dietary Sources

B1Energy Table B1

Bread (not including bread-based dishes) was the principal source of energy for the New Zealandpopulation as a whole (11 percent) for all ages and sexes. Potatoes and kumara contributed 7 percent,butter and margarine 6 percent, and milk, alcoholic beverages, cakes and muffins, non-alcoholic beveragesand sugar/sweets each contributed 5 percent. Bread was the largest source of energy for males andfemales of all age groups, except for males 19–24 years for whom bread, potatoes and kumara, non-alcoholic beverages and bread-based dishes all contributed equally at about 9 percent. The contributionof other food sources varied according to age and sex.

For males, bread (11 percent), potatoes and kumara (8 percent), butter and margarine (6 percent) andalcoholic beverages (6 percent) were the highest sources of energy. Among females, bread (12 percent),potatoes and kumara (7 percent) and butter and margarine, milk, cakes and muffins and fruits (all 6percent) were important sources of energy. There were some age differences in important sourcesof energy. For young (15–24 years) males and females non-alcoholic beverages provided 8 percent–10 percent of energy, but this dropped to 2 percent or less in males and females 65+ years (FigureA). Fruits provided about twice the proportion of energy in older males and females than youngermales and females (Figure B). The largest contribution of alcoholic beverages to energy intake was inmales 45–64 years (9 percent), while females 15–18 years obtained the smallest percentage of energyfrom alcoholic beverages (1 percent).

Non-alcoholic beverages

Age group (years)

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

Cont

ribut

ion

to e

nerg

y in

take

75+

Fruits

Age group (years)

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

Cont

ribut

ion

to e

nerg

y in

take

75+

Figure A Figure B

malefemale

malefemale

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

0% 0%


B2Total Fat Table B2

Butter and margarine (16 percent) made the largest contribution to total fat intake in the populationas a whole and for all age groups and both sexes. The contribution from butter and margarineincreased with age in both sexes although the magnitude of the increase was greater in females. Inthe 15–18 years group 12 percent of total fat (males 13 percent, females 11 percent) came frombutter and margarine, increasing to 21 percent and 25 percent for males and females respectively inthe 75+ years group (Figure A).

Potatoes and kumara, beef and veal, milk and cakes and muffins each provided 6 percent of total fat,followed by pies and pasties, bread-based dishes and sausages and processed meats, at 5 percent.

Across age and sex groups, young males 19–24 years had the highest total fat intake from potatoesand kumara (10 percent), pies and pasties (9 percent) and bread-based dishes (11 percent) (Figure B).Older females 75+ years, had the highest total fat intake from milk (9 percent).

Butter and margarine

Age group (years)

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

Cont

ribut

ion

to to

tal f

at in

take

75+

Bread-based dishes

Age group (years)

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

Cont

ribut

ion

to to

tal f

at in

take

75+

Figure A Figure B

malefemale

malefemale

11%

14%

17%

20%

23%

26%

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

63Dietary Sources

B3Carbohydrate Table B3

The principal sources of carbohydrate were bread (20 percent), non-alcoholic beverages (10 percent),potatoes and kumara (10 percent), sugar/sweets (9 percent) and fruits (8 percent). In the 15–24 yearsgroups non-alcoholic beverages provided slightly more (18 percent males) or an equivalent proportion(17 percent – 18 percent females) of carbohydrate as bread. Bread emerged as the predominantsource of carbohydrate in males and females 25+ years (20 percent – 24 percent) with a concomitantdecrease in the contribution of non-alcoholic beverages (Figure A). The decrease in carbohydratefrom non-alcoholic beverages with age was counterbalanced by an increase in fruits and breakfastcereals as carbohydrate sources (Figure B). The proportion of carbohydrate from cakes and muffins,and sugar/sweets increased with age in males, while carbohydrate from bread was greatest in oldergroups. Grains and pasta (5 percent) although not a major source, and bread-based dishes (3 percent),contributed a greater percentage of carbohydrate in younger groups. Fruits was consistently amore important source of carbohydrate for females (10 percent) than males (7 percent), whilepotatoes and kumara contributed a larger percentage for males (11 percent, 9 percent respectively).


Age group (years)

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

Cont

ribut

ion

to c

arbo

hydr

ate

inta

ke

75+

Breakfast cereals

Age group (years)

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

Cont

ribut

ion

to c

arbo

hydr

ate

inta

ke

75+

Figure A Figure B

malefemale

malefemale

0%

4%

8%

12%

16%

20%

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%


B4Protein Table B4

Animal products (beef and veal, milk, poultry and fish/seafood) and bread were the principal dietarysources of protein contributing about half of the total (Figure A). Beef and veal was generally thelargest contributor to protein intake, providing 12 percent in females and 15 percent in males. Thebread and milk groups also supplied a substantial portion of dietary protein, 10 percent and 9percent respectively in males, and 11 percent from both groups in females. Poultry and fish/seafoodsupplied 7 percent–8 percent of protein for males and females. Deviations from this pattern wereseen in young females (15–18 years) where bread (12 percent) was the highest contributor to proteinintake, followed by milk (10 percent), beef and veal (9 percent), and bread-based dishes (8 percent);and in males 19–24 years 13 percent of protein was obtained from bread-based dishes. Poultry (10percent), milk (9 percent) and bread (9 percent) were the next largest contributors.

Although there were few age-related trends in the major sources of protein the relative importanceof bread-based dishes as a source of protein was higher in the younger groups (Figure B). Whilegrains and pasta were not a major source for the population (3 percent), intakes were higher inyounger groups (5 percent, 15–18 years) compared with older groups (1 percent, 75+ years).

Bread-based dishes

Age group (years)

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

Cont

ribut

ion

to p

rote

in in

take

75+

Protein

Food group

Cont

ribut

ion

to in

take

Figure A Figure B

malefemale

malefemale

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%

16%

Beef &veal

Bread Milk Poultry Fish/seafood

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%

65Dietary Sources

B5Dietary Fibre Table B5

There were five major sources of dietary fibre: bread, vegetables, fruits, potatoes and kumara andbreakfast cereals (Figure A). Together these sources provided three-quarters of dietary fibre intake.Vegetables, including potatoes and kumara, were the greatest source of fibre (28 percent). For femalesthe main sources of dietary fibre were bread (22 percent), vegetables (18 percent), fruits (16 percent),potatoes and kumara (10 percent) and breakfast cereals (10 percent). For males, the major sourceswere bread (22 percent), vegetables (16 percent), potatoes and kumara (13 percent), breakfast cereals(12 percent) and fruits (10 percent). The proportion of fibre from fruits increased with age in bothsexes to 20 percent for females and 17 percent for males in the 75+ years group (Figure B). However,fruits was consistently a more important source of dietary fibre for females (16 percent) comparedwith males (10 percent). Breakfast cereals contributed about twice the proportion of dietary fibre inmales 15–24 years (12 percent and 15 percent) compared to females of the same age (6 percent).The lowest contribution by vegetables to dietary fibre intake was in males 15–24 years (13 percentand 10 percent).

Age group (years)

Figure A Figure B

Fruits

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

Cont

ribut

ion

to d

ieta

ry fi

bre

inta

ke

75+

Dietary fibre

Food group

Cont

ribut

ion

to in

take

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

Bread Vegetables Fruits Potatoes &kumara

Breakfastcereals

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

malefemale

malefemale


B6Calcium Table B6

Almost half of the population’s calcium intake was from milk and cheese (37 percent, 11 percentrespectively) (Figure A). Other sources of calcium, although relatively small, were bread (6 percent),vegetables, non-alcoholic beverages and dairy products (all 5 percent). The predominance of milk as asource of calcium increased with age in females (Figure B). For males, the percentage of calciumfrom milk decreased with age until 25–44 years and increased in older groups (Figure B). Thepercentage of calcium from cheese was fairly constant at about 11 percent across all age groups,except in the 75+ years group where there was a notable decrease to 6 percent and 7 percent inmales and females respectively.

Overall, milk was a greater source of calcium for females (39 percent) than for males (36 percent)with the exception of the 15–18 years group (males 38 percent, females 31 percent). However, inthe groups 19–24 and 65–74 years the proportion of calcium from milk was similar between sexes.Dairy products contributed a slightly larger proportion of calcium intake in females (6 percent)than in males (4 percent). Conversely, more calcium was obtained from bread-based dishes in males(4 percent) than in females (2 percent). The latter was largely explained by a large contribution ofbread-based dishes to the diet of 19–24 years males. The proportion of calcium obtained from vegetablesincreased with age (3 percent–4 percent to 7 percent–8 percent) while the contribution to calciumof non-alcoholic beverages was inversely related to age in both sexes (7 percent to 2 percent–3 percent).

While grains and pasta were not a significant source of calcium in the population (2 percent), thecontribution to calcium was higher in the younger groups (4 percent–5 percent, 15–18 years) thanin the older groups (1 percent or less in 75+ years).

Age group (years)

Figure A Figure B

Milk

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

Cont

ribut

ion

to c

alci

um in

take

75+

Calcium

Food group

Cont

ribut

ion

to in

take

malefemale

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

Milk Cheese

malefemale

30%

34%

38%

42%

46%

67Dietary Sources

B7Iron Table B7

Bread and beef and veal provided the greatest proportions of iron intake, followed by breakfastcereals, vegetables and potatoes and kumara. Together these contributed about half of the iron intake(Figure A).

For both males and females almost one-third of the iron comes from groups which include meatand fish (males 33 percent, females 29 percent); 23 percent from all the meat groups combined(males 24 percent, females 22 percent); 4 percent from bread-based dishes, which include meat (males5 percent, females 3 percent); and 4 percent from fish/seafood. Therefore, just under one-third of thedietary iron intake would be haem iron (highly bioavailable) and two-thirds non-haem iron (lessbioavailable).

For females, bread (13 percent) was the single greatest dietary source of iron, supplying an increasingproportion with age (12 percent 15–18 years, 16 percent 75+ years). Beef and veal was ranked secondfor females (11 percent). Conversely, for males, beef and veal was generally the largest dietarysource of iron (14 percent) followed by bread (12 percent). Exceptions were 19–24 years males forwhom breakfast cereals and bread-based dishes made the most substantial contribution to iron intake(both 12 percent), and for males 75+ years for whom breakfast cereals (15 percent) and bread (14percent) made the greatest contributions. Breakfast cereals also provided a larger percentage of ironintake for males in the younger groups (15–24 years) than for females (Figure B).

Non-alcoholic beverages supplied 7 percent of dietary iron for females and 8 percent for males anddeclined with age to 75+ years (males 3 percent, females 4 percent). On the other hand, fruitssupplied 6 percent of the dietary iron for males 75+ years, declining to 2 percent in the 15-18 yearsgroup.

Age group (years)

Figure A Figure B

Breakfast cereals

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

Cont

ribut

ion

to ir

on in

take

75+

Iron

Food group

Cont

ribut

ion

to in

take

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%

16%

Bread Beef &veal

Breakfastcereals

Vegetables Potatoes &kumara

malefemale

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%

16%

malefemale


B8Folate Table B8

The principal dietary sources of folate were vegetables (18 percent), bread (13 percent) and breakfastcereals (11 percent). Additional sources included fruits and potatoes and kumara (Figure A). Formales 15–24 years, breakfast cereals were the largest contributor to folate intake (16 percent) followedby vegetables and bread contributing similar proportions (about 12 percent each). For all other agegroups (both sexes) vegetables were the main dietary source of folate. For females, in comparisonwith males, a larger proportion of folate came from vegetables (20 percent, 17 percent respectively)and fruits (10 percent, 6 percent) with less from potatoes and kumara (6 percent, 9 percent).Consequently, the proportion of folate from vegetables, together with potatoes and kumara, wasequivalent in males and females (26 percent). There were no major age-related patterns in folatesources although the percentage from non-alcoholic beverages increased with age in both sexes (FigureB). This was most likely due to the presence of fruit juices in this food group. The latter is incontrast to the negative association seen between the contribution of non-alcoholic beverages andage for other nutrients presented (e.g. carbohydrate) and indicated a change in type of non-alcoholicbeverages as a dietary source of folate with age.

Vegetables as a source of folate had the lowest contribution in males 15–24 years (12 percent and 13percent) and females 15–18 years (15 percent). For other age groups vegetables contributed from 18percent – 24 percent to folate intake. Bread-based dishes contributed higher amounts of folate (3percent – 6 percent) in the 15–24 years groups, declining to 1 percent or less in the 75+ yearsgroups.

Age group (years)

Figure A Figure B


0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

Cont

ribut

ion

to fo

late

inta

ke

75+

Folate

Food group

Cont

ribut

ion

to in

take

malefemale

malefemale

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

Vegetables Bread Breakfastcereals

Fruits Potatoes &kumara

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

69Dietary Sources

B9Alcohol Table B9

Wine was the predominant source of alcohol for females other than those 15–18 years (Figure A).Among females 15–18 years approximately half the alcohol consumed was beer, one-quarter spiritsand one-fifth wine. In females, the proportion of alcohol from beer decreased with age comparedwith an increasing contribution from spirits. The contribution to alcohol intake of other alcohol 5

generally increased with age, peaking in the 75+ years males and the 65–74 years females.

For males, beer was the predominant source of alcohol, although there was a decrease in thepercentage of alcohol obtained from beer in males and females over 65 years (Figure B). This resultedfrom a greater contribution of wine and spirits to alcohol intake in males 65+ years and the 22percent of alcohol which came from other alcohol in the 75+ years group.

Liqueurs and cocktails were not major sources of alcohol in any age groups although in young malesthese contributed almost 10 percent. Unreported data from the Qualitative Food FrequencyQuestionnaire suggests the contribution of other alcohol to total alcohol intake was most likelyexplained by sherry consumption in the older age groups.

Figure A Figure B

Beer

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

Cont

ribut

ion

to a

lcoh

ol in

take

75+

Age group (years)

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Wine

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

Cont

ribut

ion

to a

lcoh

ol in

take

75+

Age group (years)

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

malefemale

malefemale

5 For example, sherry, cider, alcoholic sodas.


Tabl

e B

lEN

ERG

Y SO

URC

ES F

OR

NEW

ZEA

LAN

D P

OPU

LATI

ON

NZ

Pop’

nM

ale

Fem

ale

Food

Gro

ups

(Age

15+

)Al

l15

–18

19–2

425

–44

45–6

465

–74

75+

All

15–1

819

–24

25–4

445

–64

65–7

475

+Br

ead

(incl

udes

rolls

an

d sp

ecia

lty b

read

s)11

%11

%10

%9%

11%

12%

12%

12%

12%

11%

10%

12%

12%

14%

14%

Pota

toes

and

kum

ara

78

99

77

88

77

77

66

7Bu

tter a

nd m

arga

rine

66

54

56

77

64

45

67

9M

ilk5

56

55

56

66

56

66

68

Alco

holic

bev

erag

es5

62

56

95

54

15

43

22

Cake

s an

d m

uffin

s5

43

45

45

66

64

66

65

Non

-alc

ohol

ic b

ever

ages

55

99

53

21

510

85

32

2Su

gar/s

wee

ts5

55

45

46

55

66

44

34

Beef

and

vea

l4

54

25

56

34

33

44

44

Frui

ts4

32

33

45

66

45

57

88

Brea

d ba

sed

dish

es4

56

94

4<1

33

54

42

<12

Grai

ns a

nd p

asta

33

54

43

11

35

34

22

1Br

eakf

ast c

erea

ls3

34

33

34

63

22

34

45

Bisc

uits

33

32

33

45

42

34

44

4Pi

es a

nd p

astie

s3

33

53

32

23

35

32

21

Poul

try3

34

32

32

23

23

33

22

Saus

ages

& p

roce

ssed

mea

ts3

33

33

22

22

33

22

22

Vege

tabl

es2

22

22

23

33

32

33

33

Fish

/sea

food

22

21

33

32

21

23

33

2Da

iry p

rodu

cts

22

32

22

33

34

32

23

3Ch

eese

22

22

22

21

22

22

22

2Sa

uces

22

11

21

11

22

12

22

1Po

rk2

2<1

22

21

22

22

22

11

Fats

and

oils

22

11

21

21

11

21

21

1Pu

ddin

gs1

1<1

11

12

21

22

11

32

Eggs

and

egg

dis

hes

11

<1<1

<11

21

1<1

<11

22

2La

mb/

mut

ton

11

1<1

1<1

21

<1<1

1<1

1<1

1N

uts

and

seed

s<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

11

<11

<1<1

Soup

s an

d st

ocks

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<11

<1<1

<1<1

<11

<1Sn

ack

food

s<1

<12

1<1

<1<1

<1<1

3<1

<1<1

<10

Othe

r mea

t<1

<1<1

0<1

<1<1

<1<1

0<1

<1<1

<1<1

Diet

ary

supp

lem

ents

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<10

<1<1

<1<1

<1To

tal%

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

71Dietary Sources

Tabl

e B

2TO

TAL

FAT

SOU

RCES

FO

R N

EW Z

EALA

ND

PO

PULA

TIO

NN

Z Po

p’n

Mal

eFe

mal

eFo

od G

roup

s(A

ge 1

5+)

All

15–1

819

–24

25–4

445

–64

65–7

475

+Al

l15

–18

19–2

425

–44

45–6

465

–74

75+

Butte

r and

mar

garin

e16

%16

%13

%12

%15

%18

%20

%21

%16

%11

%13

%14

%18

%21

%25

%Po

tato

es a

nd k

umar

a6

78

107

54

56

88

64

33

Beef

and

vea

l6

66

37

78

45

44

55

65

Milk

65

75

55

67

65

76

66

9Ca

kes

and

muf

fins

65

36

55

56

76

47

77

6Pi

es a

nd p

astie

s5

65

96

53

45

59

54

32

Brea

d ba

sed

dish

es5

68

115

5<1

44

65

43

<12

Saus

ages

& p

roce

ssed

mea

ts5

56

66

45

44

65

35

43

Fats

and

oils

45

44

54

63

43

54

54

3Ch

eese

44

43

44

43

54

55

55

4Po

ultry

44

65

45

32

42

45

43

4Bi

scui

ts3

33

23

34

54

24

44

45

Dairy

pro

duct

s3

34

23

44

74

54

33

44

Fish

/sea

food

33

22

34

42

3<1

23

34

3Sa

uces

32

22

32

22

32

23

43

2Po

rk2

2<1

22

32

32

22

23

22

Eggs

and

egg

dis

hes

22

<12

22

32

21

13

33

3Br

ead

(incl

udes

rolls

and

spe

cial

ty b

read

s)2

22

22

22

22

22

22

22

Nut

s an

d se

eds

22

22

22

2<1

23

22

32

1Gr

ains

and

pas

ta2

24

22

2<1

<12

42

2<1

<11

Suga

r/sw

eets

22

32

2<1

2<1

25

32

11

<1La

mb/

mut

ton

22

2<1

21

33

2<1

21

22

2Pu

ddin

gs2

1<1

21

12

22

22

21

42

Brea

kfas

t cer

eals

11

21

12

23

1<1

<11

22

2Fr

uits

1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

23

12

22

2Ve

geta

bles

1<1

<11

<1<1

<12

12

<11

11

1Sn

ack

food

s<1

<12

2<1

<1<1

<1<1

41

<1<1

<10

Soup

s an

d st

ocks

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<11

<1N

on-a

lcoh

olic

bev

erag

es<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Othe

r mea

t<1

<1<1

0<1

<1<1

<1<1

0<1

<1<1

<1<1

Alco

holic

bev

erag

es<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Diet

ary

supp

lem

ents

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<

1<1

0<1

<1<1

<1<1

Tota

l%10

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

0


Tabl

e B

3A

VAIL

AB

LE C

ARB

OH

YDRA

TE S

OU

RCES

FO

R N

EW Z

EALA

ND

PO

PULA

TIO

NN

Z Po

p’n

Mal

eFe

mal

eFo

od G

roup

s(A

ge 1

5+)

All

15–1

819

–24

25–4

445

–64

65–7

475

+Al

l15

–18

19–2

425

–44

45–6

465

–74

75+

Brea

d (in

clud

es ro

lls

and

spec

ialty

bre

ads)

20%

20%

16%

16%

21%

23%

21%

20%

21%

18%

18%

21%

22%

24%

24%

Non

-alc

ohol

ic b

ever

ages

1010

1818

106

32

1018

1710

64

4Po

tato

es a

nd k

umar

a10

1112

1010

1112

129

89

99

1011

Suga

r/sw

eets

99

87

109

1211

88

108

86

7Fr

uits

87

45

68

911

107

99

1314

14Ca

kes

and

muf

fins

65

34

56

67

66

47

86

5Br

eakf

ast c

erea

ls5

56

54

57

95

33

55

67

Grai

ns a

nd p

asta

55

76

63

22

56

56

33

2M

ilk4

44

54

44

44

34

45

56

Bisc

uits

44

32

44

56

42

44

55

5Ve

geta

bles

43

22

33

54

43

34

54

4Br

ead

base

d di

shes

34

56

44

<12

34

33

2<1

1Da

iry p

rodu

cts

22

31

22

22

23

22

22

2Al

coho

lic b

ever

ages

23

12

24

22

<1<1

21

<1<1

<1Pi

es a

nd p

astie

s2

22

32

21

<11

12

21

<l<l

Pudd

ings

22

<12

22

22

21

21

14

2Sa

uces

11

11

11

11

11

12

11

1Fi

sh/s

eafo

od<1

1<1

<11

11

<1<1

<1<1

11

<l<l

Soup

s an

d st

ocks

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

12

<1<1

<1<1

12

<1Sn

ack

food

s<1

<12

1<1

<1<1

<1<1

3<1

<1<1

<10

Saus

ages

& p

roce

ssed

mea

ts<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Poul

try<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Beef

and

vea

l<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Pork

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1N

uts

and

seed

s<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Eggs

and

egg

dis

hes

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1Di

etar

y su

pple

men

ts<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

0<1

<1<1

<l<1

Lam

b/m

utto

n<1

<1<1

0<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Chee

se<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Butte

r and

mar

garin

e<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Othe

r mea

t<1

<1<1

0<1

<1<1

<1<1

00

<1<1

<1<1

Fats

and

oils

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1To

tal%

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

73Dietary Sources

Tabl

e B

4PR

OTE

IN S

OU

RCES

FO

R N

EW Z

EALA

ND

PO

PULA

TIO

NN

Z Po

p’n

Mal

eFe

mal

eFo

od G

roup

s(A

ge 1

5+)

All

15–1

819

–24

25–4

445

–64

65–7

475

+Al

l15

–18

19–2

425

–44

45–6

465

–74

75+

Beef

and

vea

l14

%15

%14

%8%

16%

15%

17%

13%

12%

9%12

%12

%13

%14

%13

%Br

ead

(incl

udes

rolls

an

d sp

ecia

lty b

read

s)11

109

910

1111

1211

1210

1111

1313

Milk

109

109

89

1111

1110

1011

1213

14Po

ultry

77

910

68

56

85

89

86

7Fi

sh/s

eafo

od7

74

46

88

67

48

77

76

Brea

d ba

sed

dish

es5

69

135

4<1

34

85

42

<12

Pork

55

25

57

35

56

45

54

3Po

tato

es a

nd k

umar

a4

45

44

45

54

44

43

44

Saus

ages

& p

roce

ssed

mea

ts4

45

55

33

33

54

23

22

Chee

se4

33

34

33

24

44

44

43

Vege

tabl

es3

32

23

34

44

34

34

45

Lam

b/m

utto

n3

34

14

26

33

14

23

23

Grai

ns a

nd p

asta

33

54

32

11

35

33

22

1Br

eakf

ast c

erea

ls3

34

32

34

63

21

33

45

Pies

and

pas

ties

33

36

32

22

23

52

21

<1Ca

kes

and

muf

fins

32

13

22

23

33

23

33

2Eg

gs a

nd e

gg d

ishe

s2

2<1

22

23

22

11

33

33

Non

-alc

ohol

ic b

ever

ages

21

21

11

11

22

22

22

2Da

iry p

rodu

cts

21

21

11

21

23

22

22

2Bi

scui

ts1

11

<11

11

21

<11

12

12

Frui

ts1

<1<1

<1<1

<11

12

12

12

22

Sauc

es1

11

11

<1<1

11

1<1

11

11

Nut

s an

d se

eds

<1<1

11

<1<1

1<1

<11

1<1

<1<1

<1Al

coho

lic b

ever

ages

<11

<11

12

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1So

ups

and

stoc

ks<1

<1<1

<1<1

<11

2<1

<1<1

<1<1

2<1

Suga

r/sw

eets

<1<1

1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<12

<1<1

<1<1

<1Pu

ddin

gs<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

2<1

2<1

<1<1

1<1

Othe

r mea

t<1

<1<1

0<1

<1<1

<1<1

0<1

<1<1

2<1

Snac

k fo

ods

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<11

<1<1

<1<1

0Bu

tter a

nd m

arga

rine

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1Di

etar

y su

pple

men

ts<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

0<1

<1<1

<1<1

Fats

and

oil

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1To

tal%

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100


Tabl

e B

5D

IETA

RY F

IBRE

SO

URC

ES F

OR

NEW

ZEA

LAN

D P

OPU

LATI

ON

NZ

Pop’

nM

ale

Fem

ale

Food

Gro

ups

(Age

15+

)Al

l15

–18

19–2

425

–44

45–6

465

–74

75+

All

15–1

819

–24

25–4

445

–64

65–7

475

+Br

ead

(incl

udes

rolls

an

d sp

ecia

lty b

read

s)22

%22

%18

%18

%22

%25

%22

%21

%22

%22

%20

%22

%21

%23

%23

%Ve

geta

bles

1716

1310

1717

2217

1815

1816

2019

20Fr

uits

1310

78

1011

1217

1614

1615

1720

20Po

tato

es a

nd k

umar

a11

1316

1512

1213

1210

1112

109

910

Brea

kfas

t cer

eals

1112

1512

1112

1114

106

610

1010

13Gr

ains

and

pas

ta4

46

65

32

24

65

52

31

Cake

s an

d m

uffin

s4

32

33

43

44

43

45

42

Brea

d ba

sed

dish

es3

44

64

4<1

22

44

32

<11

Non

-alc

ohol

ic b

ever

ages

33

23

33

21

32

23

32

1Bi

scui

ts2

22

12

22

32

13

33

22

Pies

and

pas

ties

22

24

22

1<1

12

22

<1<1

<1So

ups

and

stoc

ks1

1<1

1<1

12

21

<1<1

12

21

Saus

ages

& p

roce

ssed

mea

ts1

12

32

<1<1

1<1

11

<11

<1<1

Sauc

es<1

<l1

11

<l<l

<l<1

1<1

1<1

<1<1

Nut

s an

d se

eds

<1<l

<11

<l<l

<l<l

<11

1<1

1<1

<1Pu

ddin

gs<1

<l<1

1<l

<l1

<l<1

<1<1

<1<1

2<1

Snac

k fo

ods

<l<1

22

<1<1

<1<1

<14

<1<1

<1<1

0Su

gar/s

wee

ts<l

<l1

<1<l

<l<l

<l<1

2<1

<1<1

<1<1

Fish

/sea

food

<l<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1Be

ef a

nd v

eal

<1<l

1<1

<l<l

<l<l

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1Po

ultry

<1<1

2<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1Da

iry p

rodu

cts

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<l1

<1<1

<1<1

<1Po

rk<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<l<l

<l0

Eggs

and

egg

dis

hes

<l<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1M

ilk<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Lam

b/m

utto

n<1

<l<1

0<l

<l<l

<l<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Alco

holic

bev

erag

es<1

<l0

<1<l

<l<l

0<l

00

<l0

0<l

Diet

ary

supp

lem

ents

<1<l

0<1

00

00

<l0

<l0

<l0

0Ot

her m

eat

<1<l

<10

<l<l

<l0

<10

0<1

<10

<1Ch

eese

<l<l

00

0<l

0<l

<l0

<l<l

<l<l

0Bu

tter a

nd m

arga

rine

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

0Fa

ts a

nd o

il0

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

Tota

l%10

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

0

75Dietary Sources

Tabl

e B

6CA

LCIU

M S

OU

RCES

FO

R N

EW Z

EALA

ND

PO

PULA

TIO

NN

Z Po

p’n

Mal

eFe

mal

eFo

od G

roup

s(A

ge 1

5+)

All

15–1

819

–24

25–4

445

–64

65–7

475

+Al

l15

–18

19–2

425

–44

45–6

465

–74

75+

Milk

37%

36%

38%

37%

34%

36%

42%

38%

39%

31%

36%

38%

40%

42%

45%

Chee

se11

1110

1013

119

611

1111

1110

107

Brea

d (in

clud

es ro

lls

and

spec

ialty

bre

ads)

66

56

77

66

66

56

66

6Ve

geta

bles

55

43

56

88

54

45

67

7N

on-a

lcoh

olic

bev

erag

es5

57

75

42

25

77

65

33

Dairy

pro

duct

s5

46

35

45

46

75

55

66

Brea

d ba

sed

dish

es3

45

84

3<1

32

53

32

<11

Cake

s an

d m

uffin

s3

32

23

32

33

23

33

32

Fish

/sea

food

33

11

34

32

31

42

32

2Po

tato

es a

nd k

umar

a2

32

23

32

32

23

22

22

Frui

ts2

22

12

22

33

23

23

45

Brea

kfas

t cer

eals

22

32

22

36

22

<12

23

4Gr

ains

and

pas

ta2

25

32

2<1

<12

42

2<1

<11

Sauc

es2

2<1

<12

11

22

2<1

22

21

Suga

r/sw

eets

22

22

21

2<1

13

21

1<1

<1Eg

gs a

nd e

gg d

ishe

s2

2<1

11

25

11

<1<1

22

22

Pudd

ings

11

<11

<11

14

24

21

<12

2Al

coho

lic b

ever

ages

12

<11

12

<1<1

<1<1

1<1

<1<1

<1Bi

scui

ts1

<11

<11

<1<l

11

<11

1<1

<1<1

Pies

and

pas

ties

11

12

1<1

<1<1

<1<1

2<1

<1<1

<1So

ups

and

stoc

ks<1

<1<1

<1<1

<11

1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Saus

ages

& p

roce

ssed

mea

ts<1

<1<1

1<1

<1<l

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Poul

try<1

<11

<1<1

<1<l

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Beef

and

vea

l<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Butte

r and

mar

garin

e<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Snac

k fo

ods

<1<1

1<1

<1<1

<l<1

<12

<1<1

<1<1

0Po

rk<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Nut

s an

d Se

eds

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1La

mb/

mut

ton

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1Di

etar

y su

pple

men

ts<1

<10

<1<1

<1<l

<1<1

0<1

<1<l

<l<1

Othe

r mea

t<1

<1<1

0<1

<1<1

<1<1

0<1

<1<l

<l<1

Fats

and

oil

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1To

tal%

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100


Tabl

e B

7IR

ON

SO

URC

ES F

OR

NEW

ZEA

LAN

D P

OPU

LATI

ON

NZ

Pop’

nM

ale

Fem

ale

Food

Gro

ups

(Age

15+

)Al

l15

–18

19–2

425

–44

45–6

465

–74

75+

All

15–1

819

–24

25–4

445

–64

65–7

475

+Br

ead

(incl

udes

rolls

an

d sp

ecia

lty b

read

s)13

%12

%10

%10

%12

%14

%12

%14

%13

%12

%11

%13

%14

%16

%16

%Be

ef a

nd V

eal

1214

137

1514

1511

119

1111

1112

11Br

eakf

ast c

erea

ls9

912

127

911

159

86

99

1014

Vege

tabl

es8

75

48

89

89

711

89

1010

Pota

toes

and

kum

ara

78

109

77

78

68

87

66

7N

on-a

lcoh

olic

bev

erag

es5

48

54

34

35

76

55

34

Fish

/sea

food

44

22

56

63

44

54

43

3Br

ead

base

d di

shes

45

812

44

<12

36

44

2<1

1Fr

uits

43

23

33

46

55

55

67

6Sa

usag

es &

pro

cess

ed m

eats

33

44

43

22

34

32

32

2Eg

gs a

nd e

gg d

ishe

s3

31

33

33

33

22

43

34

Cake

s an

d m

uffin

s3

32

23

32

44

32

44

32

Pies

and

pas

ties

33

37

33

22

23

43

21

<1Po

rk3

31

33

42

33

32

33

22

Poul

try2

23

32

32

23

13

32

22

Lam

b/m

utto

n2

23

<13

23

22

<13

22

12

Sauc

es2

22

32

12

12

22

22

21

Grai

ns a

nd p

asta

22

32

22

11

23

22

12

<1Su

gar/s

wee

ts2

22

22

12

22

32

21

12

Milk

22

12

12

32

21

22

32

2Bi

scui

ts2

11

<12

12

22

12

22

22

Othe

r mea

t<1

<1<1

0<1

2<1

<11

0<1

<11

42

Soup

s an

d st

ocks

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

11

<1<1

<1<1

12

1N

uts

and

seed

s<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

2<1

<11

<1<1

Alco

holic

bev

erag

es<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

1<1

<12

1<1

<1<1

Pudd

ings

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<11

<1Da

iry p

rodu

cts

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1Bu

tter a

nd m

arga

rine

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1Sn

ack

food

s<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

1<1

<1<1

<10

Chee

se<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Fats

and

oils

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1Di

etar

y su

pple

men

ts<1

<l0

<1<1

<1<1

<1

<10

<1<1

<1<1

<1To

tal%

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

77Dietary Sources

Tabl

e B

8FO

LATE

SO

URC

ES F

OR

NEW

ZEA

LAN

D P

OPU

LATI

ON

NZ

Pop’

nM

ale

Fem

ale

Food

Gro

ups

(Age

15+

)Al

l15

–18

19–2

425

–44

45–6

465

–74

75+

All

15–1

819

–24

25–4

445

–64

65–7

475

+Ve

geta

bles

18%

17%

13%

12%

18%

18%

24%

18%

20%

15%

20%

18%

22%

22%

22%

Brea

d (in

clud

es ro

lls

and

spec

ialty

bre

ads)

1313

1211

1414

1214

1315

1213

1313

12Br

eakf

ast c

erea

ls11

1216

1610

1012

1410

109

1110

1013

Frui

ts8

65

66

66

810

911

910

1110

Pota

toes

and

kum

ara

89

1110

88

89

68

87

66

6N

on-a

lcoh

olic

bev

erag

es6

64

45

77

87

55

78

89

Sauc

es5

57

56

45

35

64

55

65

Milk

44

44

44

44

44

55

44

5Br

ead

base

d di

shes

33

56

33

<11

24

32

1<1

<1Be

ef a

nd v

eal

23

42

33

32

22

22

22

2Eg

gs a

nd e

gg d

ishe

s2

21

22

34

22

12

33

22

Fish

/sea

food

23

22

33

32

21

22

22

2Ca

kes

and

muf

fins

22

12

22

12

22

23

22

1Al

coho

lic b

ever

ages

23

13

34

11

<1<1

1<1

<1<1

<1Po

ultry

22

32

12

<11

21

22

1<1

1Gr

ains

and

pas

ta2

22

22

2<1

<12

32

2<1

1<1

Bisc

uits

11

1<1

11

11

1<1

11

11

1Da

iry p

rodu

cts

1<1

1<1

1<1

11

12

11

12

1N

uts

and

seed

s1

11

21

<11

<11

22

<11

<1<1

Soup

s an

d st

ocks

1<1

<12

<11

11

1<1

<11

11

<1Pi

es a

nd p

astie

s1

11

21

<1<1

<1<1

<11

<1<1

<1<1

Chee

se<1

<1<1

<11

<1<1

<11

<11

1<1

<1<1

Lam

b/m

utto

n<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Snac

k fo

ods

<1<1

11

<1<1

<1<1

<13

<1<1

<1<1

0Su

gar/s

wee

ts<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Othe

r mea

t<1

<1<1

0<1

<1<1

<1<1

0<1

<1<1

1<1

Pudd

ings

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1Sa

usag

es &

pro

cess

ed m

eats

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1Po

rk<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Butte

r and

mar

garin

e<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Diet

ary

supp

lem

ents

<1<1

00

<1<1

<1<1

<10

<1<1

<1<1

<1Fa

ts a

nd o

il<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

<1<1

Tota

l%10

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

0


Tabl

e B

9A

LCO

HO

L SO

URC

ES F

OR

NEW

ZEA

LAN

D P

OPU

LATI

ON

NZ

Pop’

nM

ale

Fem

ale

Food

Gro

ups

(Age

15+

)Al

l15

–18

19–2

425

–44

45–6

465

–74

75+

All

15–1

819

–24

25–4

445

–64

65–7

475

+Be

er53

%69

%81

%76

%70

%72

%43

%45

%16

%48

%24

%16

%6%

5%5%

Win

e32

1710

1518

1730

1765

2164

6967

5956

Spiri

ts10

10<1

711

818

1612

265

1118

1324

Othe

r alc

ohol

33

0<1

13

822

50

62

819

14Li

queu

rs a

nd c

ockt

ails

1<1

90

<1<1

<10

25

23

14

0To

tal%

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

79Dietary Supplements

Section CDietary SupplementsIntroductionWhile New Zealanders obtained most of the nutrients they needed from foods, some chose toconsume ‘supplements’ on a regular or occasional basis. This included prescribed and self-selectedsupplements from a variety of sources: tablets; powders or liquid preparations of vitamins and/or minerals; herbal and botanical preparations; and combinations of these substances.

In this section the patterns of consumption of categories of supplements, by sex, age, ethnicity,community and NZDep96 quartiles are presented. Nutrients obtained from supplements are notreported because of the small number of participants reporting supplement consumption in theprevious 24 hours.

Key PointsVitamin / mineral supplement use• One-half of the New Zealand population consumed a vitamin and/or mineral supplement over

the previous year; 23 percent less than once a week and 28 percent at least once a week.

• Multi vitamins and/or minerals were the most frequently chosen supplement preparationsover the previous year (19 percent).

Other dietary supplement use• Almost one-third of the New Zealand population consumed dietary supplements over the

previous year; 12 percent less than once a week and 17 percent at least once a week.

• Garlic preparations (9 percent), oils (6 percent) and botanical products (5 percent) were thosemost frequently chosen.


C1Vitamin / Mineral Supplement(s) Table C1

Use in the last yearAbout half the New Zealand population (51 percent) used vitamin and/or mineral supplementsduring the last year. Twenty-three percent of the population used supplements on an occasionalbasis and 28 percent on a regular basis. A greater proportion of females (59 percent) than males (42percent) reported taking vitamin and/or mineral supplements (regular and occasional use combined).The highest use was reported by females 19–24 years (69 percent regular and occasional use combined)and the lowest use by males 75+ years (24 percent). While there was a trend for occasional use todecline with age, regular use remained relatively constant across age groups.

NZ Måori were less likely to consume vitamins and/or minerals regularly than NZ European &Others (Figure A). Pacific males were least likely of the three ethnic groups to use supplementsoccasionally and Pacific females were least likely to use supplements regularly. For NZ European& Others and male NZ Måori, occasional use declined with age. Regular use was higher in femalescompared with males for both NZ Måori and NZ European & Others.

Frequency of regular use declined with NZDep96 quartile for both males and females. Combined(regular and occasional) supplement use was highest in individuals living in NZDep96 quartile Iareas (46 percent males, 68 percent females) and lowest by those living in quartile IV areas (32percent males, 49 percent females).

Provincial males reported lower use of supplements (regular and occasional use combined) thanmetropolitan males (35 percent, 44 percent respectively), whereas provincial and metropolitanfemales reported similar use (59 percent, 60 percent).

Type consumed in the last yearMost consumers of supplements chose combinations rather than single vitamins or minerals. Multivitamin and/or mineral supplements were the most frequently chosen (19 percent), followed byvitamin B complex (10 percent). Individual vitamins or minerals were consumed by a relativelysmall proportion of the population, with vitamin C (7 percent) and iron (4 percent) supplementsthe most common.

Figure A Figure B

Vitamin C supplements

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

NZ

popu

latio

n

75+

Age group (years)

Regular use of vitamin/mineral supplements

Popu

latio

n

Ethnic group

malefemale

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%


malefemale

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%


Females were more likely than males to take multi vitamin and/or mineral supplements, anti-oxidantand other multi nutrient preparations, iron and calcium; whereas males were more likely than femalesto take vitamin C. Females 25–44 years were the highest consumers of iron supplements (10 percent),with use declining after this age to 2 percent in females 75+ years. Calcium supplement use peakedin the 65–74 years group (9 percent), with 0 percent to 3 percent intake in the 19–44 years groups.

There was no significant variation in use across NZDep96 quartiles or between metropolitan andprovincial groups, for either male or female supplement use.

Vitamin C use was highest in the 15–18 years group and declined with increasing age (Figure B).This corresponds with the age-related decrease in occasional vitamin and/or mineral supplementuse.


C2Other Dietary Supplements Table C2

Use in the last yearAlmost one-third of the adult New Zealand population (29 percent) used other dietary supplementsduring the last year, 17 percent on a regular and 12 percent on an occasional basis. As with vitaminand/or mineral supplements (Section C1), females (34 percent) reported that they were more likelyto be regular or occasional users than males (22 percent). The proportion of consumers of otherdietary supplements (regular and occasional) were relatively consistent across age groups. However,more females 45+ years and males 65–74 years were regular consumers compared with youngergroups (Figure A). On the other hand, more females 15–18 years and males 15–64 years wereoccasional users compared to other groups.

NZ Måori females were less likely to have taken other dietary supplements on a regular basis thanNZ European & Others. Pacific females were least likely to have taken other dietary supplementson a regular basis compared to the other ethnic groups. Females from NZDep96 quartile IV areaswere least likely to report taking other dietary supplements (28 percent) compared with femalesliving in quartile I areas (41 percent).

Type used in the last yearA wide variety of other dietary supplements were chosen. The three most commonly chosencategories were garlic preparations (9 percent); oils such as evening primrose (6 percent); andbotanical products (5 percent). Females were more likely than males to have chosen from the groupsof oils and botanical products, while garlic supplement use was equal for both sexes (Figure B). Beeproducts use was highest in males 75+ years (5 percent) and in females 65+ years (4 percent and 6percent). The highest use of sports supplements was in males 19–24 years (5 percent).

Figure A Figure B

Regular users of other dietary supplements

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

NZ

popu

latio

n

75+

Age group (years)

Consumption of other dietary supplements

NZ

popu

latio

n

Type

malefemale male

female

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

Botanical Garlic Oils


Tabl

e C1

VITA

MIN

AN

D M

INER

AL

SUPP

LEM

ENT

USE

IN T

HE

LAST

YEA

R C

onsu

mpt

ion

Perc

ent o

f the

pop

ulat

ion

cons

umin

g su

pple

men

t 2

frequ

ency

(%) 1

Mult

i vita

min

Ant

i-oxid

ant

Fat s

oluble

Othe

r&/

or&

othe

r mult

iVi

tam

in B

Sing

le B

vitam

ins &

indivi

dual

Regu

lar 3

Occa

siona

l 4m

inera

lnu

trien

ts 5co

mple

xvit

amins

6Fo

lic ac

idVi

tam

in C

ß-ca

rote

ne 7

Iron

Calc

ium m

inera

ls 8

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

2823

193

101

17

24

22

Mal

es15

–18

1936

171

80

026

02

00

19–2

418

3315

217

00

102

20

125

–44

2126

163

150

07

21

11

45–6

422

1310

210

10

52

01

465

–74

214

84

10

04

20

15

75+

195

132

01

01

24

02

Tota

l21

2114

212

00

82

11

2Fe

mal

es15

–18

2937

163

60

018

76

61

19–2

433

3632

510

00

64

80

325

–44

3727

274

121

24

110

31

45–6

436

2024

66

30

51

35

265

–74

3515

163

81

14

33

94

75+

268

113

30

02

62

34

Tota

l34

2524

49

11

52

74

2N

ZDep

96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

esI

2620

143

120

010

11

13

II22

2516

413

10

63

11

2III

1725

142

130

08

22

11

IV16

1611

18

00

81

01

2Fe

mal

esI

4028

265

112

15

57

52

II34

2728

49

12

41

64

2III

3523

215

72

18

26

32

IV29

2019

38

01

51

82

1Co

mm

unity

Mal

esM

etro

polit

an22

2215

311

00

92

10

2Pr

ovin

cial

1718

102

120

06

10

13

Fem

ales

Met

ropo

litan

3426

244

91

15

27

42

Prov

inci

al36

2323

59

11

72

63

2

1Co

nsum

ers

of v

itam

in/m

iner

al s

uppl

emen

ts w

ere

clas

sifie

d to

eith

er ‘r

egul

ar’ o

r ‘oc

casi

onal

’ cat

egor

ies

base

d on

thei

r mos

t fre

quen

tly u

sed

supp

lem

ent.

2In

clud

es a

ny s

uppl

emen

t use

(eith

er re

gula

r or o

ccas

iona

l).3

‘Reg

ular

’ inc

lude

s al

l tho

se w

ho u

sed

any

supp

lem

ent a

t lea

st o

nce

per w

eek,

dur

ing

the

last

yea

r.4

‘Occ

asio

nal’

incl

udes

all

thos

e w

ho u

sed

any

supp

lem

ent,

no m

ore

than

3 ti

mes

per

mon

th, d

urin

g th

e la

st y

ear.

5In

clud

es p

rodu

cts

cont

aini

ng m

ultip

le n

utrie

nts,

but

not

cla

imin

g to

be

a m

ulti

vita

min

or m

iner

al. F

or e

xam

ple,

the

prod

ucts

: Im

mun

e Su

ppor

t; PM

T; a

nd P

rost

agua

rd.

6In

clud

es in

divi

dual

sup

plem

ents

of t

hiam

in, r

ibof

lavi

n, n

iaci

n, p

anto

then

ic a

cid,

vita

min

B6,

and

vita

min

B12

.7

Incl

udes

indi

vidu

al s

uppl

emen

ts o

f vita

min

A, D

, and

E.

8In

clud

es in

divi

dual

sup

plem

ents

of m

agne

sium

, pot

assi

um, s

elen

ium

, zin

c, a

nd o

ther

s (e

.g. s

odiu

m, f

luor

ide,

and

iodi

ne).

Supp

lem

ent i

ntak

e qu

estio

nnai

re.


Tabl

e C1

con

t.VI

TAM

IN A

ND

MIN

ERA

L SU

PPLE

MEN

T U

SE IN

TH

E LA

ST Y

EAR

Con

sum

ptio

nPe

rcen

t of t

he p

opul

atio

n co

nsum

ing

supp

lem

ent 2

frequ

ency

(%) 1

Mult

i vita

min

Ant

i-oxid

ant

Fat s

oluble

Othe

r&/

or&

othe

r mult

iVi

tam

in B

Sing

le B

vitam

ins &

indivi

dual

Regu

lar 3

Occa

siona

l 4m

inera

lnu

trien

ts 5co

mple

xvit

amins

6Fo

lic ac

idVi

tam

in C

ß-ca

rote

ne 7

Iron

Calc

ium m

inera

ls 8

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

410

3811

018

00

150

20

025

–44

1516

101

61

010

30

00

45+

113

31

50

01

00

04

Tota

l13

209

19

10

91

10

1Fe

mal

es15

–24

2220

92

70

04

016

11

25–4

429

2520

48

11

30

113

145

+22

1418

07

10

11

41

1To

tal

2521

163

71

03

011

21

Paci

fic P

eopl

eM

ales

15–2

48*

13*

10*

0*3*

0*0*

8*0*

0*0*

0*25

–44

92

53

00

02

00

00

45+

6*2*

0*0*

2*0*

0*4*

0*0*

0*3*

Tota

l8

55

21

00

40

00

1Fe

mal

es15

–24

10*

12*

6*0*

3*0*

0*6*

0*7*

0*0*

25–4

411

149

05

00

00

91

045

+12

*8*

11*

0*1*

0*0*

6*0*

0*1*

0*To

tal

1112

90

40

03

06

10

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

15–2

421

3517

213

00

181

30

125

–44

2329

183

180

07

21

12

45+

2211

113

71

04

21

14

Tota

l22

2215

312

00

82

11

2 F

emal

es15

–24

3543

315

90

013

75

32

25–4

439

2929

413

13

41

103

145

+35

1720

56

20

53

36

3To

tal

3726

265

91

16

36

42

*Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.Su

pple

men

t int

ake

ques

tionn

aire

.1

Cons

umer

s of

vita

min

/min

eral

sup

plem

ents

wer

e cl

assi

fied

to e

ither

‘reg

ular

’ or ‘

occa

sion

al’ c

ateg

orie

s ba

sed

on th

eir m

ost f

requ

ently

use

d su

pple

men

t.2

Incl

udes

any

sup

plem

ent u

se (e

ither

regu

lar o

r occ

asio

nal).

3‘R

egul

ar’ i

nclu

des

all t

hose

who

use

d an

y su

pple

men

t at l

east

onc

e pe

r wee

k, d

urin

g th

e la

st y

ear.

4‘O

ccas

iona

l’ in

clud

es a

ll th

ose

who

use

d an

y su

pple

men

t, no

mor

e th

an 3

tim

es p

er m

onth

, dur

ing

the

last

yea

r.5

Incl

udes

pro

duct

s co

ntai

ning

mul

tiple

nut

rient

s, b

ut n

ot c

laim

ing

to b

e a

mul

ti vi

tam

in o

r min

eral

. For

exa

mpl

e, th

e pr

oduc

ts: I

mm

une

Supp

ort;

PMT;

and

Pro

stag

uard

.6

Incl

udes

indi

vidu

al s

uppl

emen

ts o

f thi

amin

, rib

ofla

vin,

nia

cin,

pan

toth

enic

aci

d, v

itam

in B

6, a

nd v

itam

in B

12.

7In

clud

es in

divi

dual

sup

plem

ents

of v

itam

in A

, D, a

nd E

.8

Incl

udes

indi

vidu

al s

uppl

emen

ts o

f mag

nesi

um, p

otas

sium

, sel

eniu

m, z

inc,

and

oth

ers

(e.g

. sod

ium

, flu

orid

e, a

nd io

dine

).


Tabl

e C2

OTH

ER D

IETA

RY S

UPP

LEM

ENT

USE

IN T

HE

LAST

YEA

RCo

nsum

ptio

nfre

quen

cy (%

) 1Pe

rcen

t of t

he p

opul

atio

n co

nsum

ing

supp

lem

ent 2

Bee

Spor

tsRe

gula

r 3Oc

casi

onal

4Bo

tani

cal 5

Garli

cOi

ls 6

Bran

/fibr

e 7pr

oduc

ts 8

supp

lem

ents

9Ot

her

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

1712

59

63

21

2M

ales

15–1

811

74

55

00

01

19–2

411

124

82

00

52

25–4

49

114

91

11

12

45–6

417

94

103

42

02

65–7

424

33

98

33

10

75+

155

15

43

50

1To

tal

139

49

22

21

2Fe

mal

es15

–18

524

412

52

00

519

–24

918

96

34

11

325

–44

1715

78

85

20

145

–64

2912

711

154

30

265

–74

2810

510

88

60

175

+29

63

138

54

01

Tota

l20

147

99

43

02

NZD

ep96

Qua

rtile

sI

1211

310

22

21

2M

ales

II13

105

102

21

12

III13

105

93

22

22

IV14

54

63

11

11

Fem

ales

I23

189

1010

64

01

II21

146

1010

43

11

III19

145

118

41

03

IV17

116

68

42

01

Com

mun

ityM

ales

Met

ropo

litan

1310

49

32

21

2Pr

ovin

cial

138

48

22

11

1Fe

mal

esM

etro

polit

an19

157

99

52

01

Prov

inci

al23

126

109

33

12

Su

pple

men

t int

ake

ques

tionn

aire

.1

Cons

umer

s of

oth

er d

ieta

ry s

uppl

emen

ts w

ere

clas

sifie

d to

eith

er ‘r

egul

ar’ o

r ‘oc

casi

onal

’ cat

egor

ies

base

d on

thei

r mos

t fre

quen

tly u

sed

supp

lem

ent.

2In

clud

es a

ny s

uppl

emen

t use

(eith

er re

gula

r or o

ccas

iona

l).3

‘Reg

ular

’ inc

lude

s al

l tho

se w

ho u

sed

any

supp

lem

ent a

t lea

st o

nce

per w

eek,

dur

ing

the

last

yea

r.4

‘Occ

asio

nal’

incl

udes

all

thos

e w

ho u

sed

any

supp

lem

ent,

no m

ore

than

3 ti

mes

per

mon

th, d

urin

g th

e la

st y

ear.

5In

clud

es h

erba

l rem

edie

s, b

rew

er’s

yeas

t, sp

irulin

a, a

nd a

cido

philu

s.6

Incl

udes

eve

ning

prim

rose

, cod

live

r, an

d ha

libut

live

r.7

Incl

udes

oat

bra

n, w

heat

bra

n, w

heat

ger

m, f

ibre

pow

ders

, and

fibr

e ta

blet

s.8

Incl

udes

bee

pol

len,

roya

l jel

ly, a

nd p

ropo

lis.

9In

clud

es c

arbo

hydr

ate

and

prot

ein

pow

ders

, car

nitin

e, a

nd c

reat

inin

e.


Tabl

e C2

con

t.O

THER

DIE

TARY

SU

PPLE

MEN

T U

SE IN

TH

E LA

ST Y

EAR

Cons

umpt

ion

frequ

ency

(%) 1

Perc

ent o

f the

pop

ulat

ion

cons

umin

g su

pple

men

t 2

Bee

Spor

tsRe

gula

r 3Oc

casi

onal

4Bo

tani

cal 5

Garli

cOi

ls 6

Bran

/fibr

e 7pr

oduc

ts 8

supp

lem

ents

9Ot

her

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

45

81

20

00

23

25–4

410

85

81

00

30

45+

1014

113

27

20

0To

tal

89

38

12

02

1Fe

mal

es15

–24

96

42

62

01

025

–44

1314

64

94

30

245

+24

612

44

19

01

Tota

l15

107

37

24

11

Paci

fic P

eopl

eM

ales

15–2

418

*0*

3*1*

0*0*

0*4*

0*25

–44

15

42

00

00

045

+8*

0*1*

4*0*

0*2*

0*0*

Tota

l8

33

20

00

10

Fem

ales

15–2

43*

5*4*

0*4*

0*0*

0*0*

25–4

46

21

51

10

00

45+

6*3*

4*2*

1*3*

0*0*

5*To

tal

53

33

21

00

1N

Z Eu

rope

an &

Oth

ers

Mal

es15

–24

1211

58

40

03

225

–44

1012

49

11

11

245

+19

74

94

33

02

Tota

l14

94

93

22

12

Fem

ales

15–2

47

258

114

41

05

25–4

418

168

99

52

11

45+

3011

612

135

40

1To

tal

2215

711

105

30

2

Supp

lem

ent i

ntak

e qu

estio

nnai

re.

* Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.1

Cons

umer

s of

oth

er d

ieta

ry s

uppl

emen

ts w

ere

clas

sifie

d to

eith

er ‘r

egul

ar’ o

r ‘oc

casi

onal

’ cat

egor

ies

base

d on

thei

r mos

t fre

quen

tly u

sed

supp

lem

ent.

2In

clud

es a

ny s

uppl

emen

t use

(eith

er re

gula

r or o

ccas

iona

l).3

‘Reg

ular

’ inc

lude

s al

l tho

se w

ho u

sed

any

supp

lem

ent a

t lea

st o

nce

per w

eek,

dur

ing

the

last

yea

r.4

‘Occ

asio

nal’

incl

udes

all

thos

e w

ho u

sed

any

supp

lem

ent,

no m

ore

than

3 ti

mes

per

mon

th, d

urin

g th

e la

st y

ear.

5In

clud

es h

erba

l rem

edie

s, b

rew

er’s

yeas

t, sp

irulin

a, a

nd a

cido

philu

s.6

Incl

udes

eve

ning

prim

rose

, cod

live

r, an

d ha

libut

live

r.7

Incl

udes

oat

bra

n, w

heat

bra

n, w

heat

ger

m, f

ibre

pow

ders

, and

fibr

e ta

blet

s.8

Incl

udes

bee

pol

len,

roya

l jel

ly, a

nd p

ropo

lis.

9In

clud

es c

arbo

hydr

ate

and

prot

ein

pow

ders

, car

nitin

e, a

nd c

reat

inin

e.

89Eating Patterns

Section DEating PatternsIntroductionWithin the New Zealand population, some people choose from all food types available (plant andanimal) and others restrict their choice for a variety of reasons. People change their food choicesnot only on a daily basis but throughout life in response to many influences including educationabout recommended intake as expressed in food and nutrition guidelines. This section providesinformation about dietary change: the timing and direction of change, and the difficulties (barriers)to achieving change. Respondents were shown lists of possible ‘barriers to change’ for example,‘barriers to increasing intake of fruits’. These lists were presented on showcards. However,respondents were able to express other, non-specified, barriers and these are described in thisreport as non-showcard responses.

Because most New Zealanders prepare a significant proportion of their food at home, they candescribe cooking and preparation habits, such as the use of fats.

Having access to affordable foods which are liked and acceptable is a key issue in whether or notthey are consumed. This aspect of eating patterns is termed food security. It is to be expected,therefore, that ethnic and NZDep96 quartile groups will respond differently to statements aboutfood security.

Key PointsType of diet• Ninety-four percent of the New Zealand population consumed a regular (omnivorous) diet.

Current dietary changes• One-third of New Zealanders were currently trying to make dietary changes, with more females

(39 percent) than males (28 percent) attempting change.

• Trying to alter the consumption of high fat foods was the most popular type of dietary change (22percent) in the New Zealand population, followed by trying to change the amount of fruitseaten (14 percent).

Direction of current dietary change attempts• Of the 22 percent of New Zealanders who were trying to change the amount of high fat foods

eaten, 94 percent were trying to eat less.

• Of the New Zealanders who reported trying to alter their consumption of fruits (14 percent)and vegetables (11 percent) most were trying to eat more (96 percent and 92 percent respectively).

Intended dietary changes• Over one-fifth of the New Zealand population intended to make dietary change in the next six

months, with fruits (11 percent) and high fat foods (9 percent) the most popular areas for changes.

Difficulties involved in making dietary changes• Cost and don’t always have at home were two frequent difficulties cited by those trying to increase

their fruits and vegetable intake.


• Almost half of the population (47 percent) was happy with fat intake and 32 percent felt it wouldbe hard to eat less high fat foods because they taste good.

Food preparation practices• Seventy-four percent of the New Zealand population fried or roasted meat/chicken in fat or

oil, and 69 percent did the same with their vegetables. The most common types of fat used wereother oils (e.g. sunflower, corn oil) and olive/canola.

• Excess fat was trimmed off red meat always or often by 67 percent of those who ate red meat,while 42 percent of those who ate chicken removed the skin always or often.

Household food security• Concern about household food security was more frequently expressed by individuals living in

NZDep96 quartile IV areas (most deprived) compared with those living in NZDep96 quartile Iareas (least deprived).

91Eating Patterns

D1Type of Diet Table D1

Ninety-four percent of all New Zealanders ate a regular diet which included animal products.While avoids meats except chicken was uncommon, it was the most prevalent restricted food dietalongside an other 6 types of diet (both 2 percent). Females 15–18 years were most likely to reporteating a vegetarian diet or avoiding red meat (13 percent). Consumption of a regular diet wasslightly more common in males than females and more common in male NZ European & Othersthan females (Figure A). The proportion consuming a regular diet was highest in males 25–74years and females 65–74 years (both 97 percent), with the lowest proportion in females 15–18years (85 percent).

A greater percentage of Pacific males reported avoids meats except chicken in comparison with maleNZ European & Others (Figure B).

The type of diet consumed was unrelated to NZDep96 quartiles. The proportion of males consuminga regular diet was higher in provincial (98 percent) than metropolitan (95 percent) areas.

Avoided meats except chicken

Ethnic group

Popu

latio

n

Ethnic group

Popu

latio

n

Regular diet

Figure A Figure B

90%

92%

94%

96%

98%

NZ Maori Pacific people NZ European &Others

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

NZ Maori Pacific people NZ European& Others

malefemale

malefemale

6 Other included ‘non-specified combinations’


D2Current Dietary Changes Table D2

One-third of all New Zealanders (34 percent) reported that they were currently attempting tochange either the amount or type of foods they consumed. Compared with males, a largerproportion of females were trying to alter their diet (39 percent, 28 percent respectively). Females25–64 years had a greater prevalence of attempted dietary change than males of the same ages(females 43 percent and 39 percent, males 31 percent and 25 percent). Attempted dietary changewas most frequent in the 19–24 years group (females 58 percent, males 44 percent) but subsequentlydecreased with age (Figure A).

Male NZ European & Others (26 percent) were less likely than females (38 percent) to be currentlyattempting dietary change. A greater percentage of male NZ Måori (37 percent) and Pacific people(45 percent) were undertaking dietary change compared with NZ European & Others (26 percent).Proportions attempting a dietary change did not differ according to NZDep96 quartile orcommunity.

The most popular type of dietary change reported was trying to alter the amount of high fat foodsconsumed (males 16 percent, females 27 percent). Fruits followed as the second most commonlyreported dietary change (males 12 percent, females 17 percent) with third highest being breads andcereals for females (14 percent) and vegetables for males (10 percent) (Figure B). Females living inNZDep96 quartile IV areas were more likely to be trying to change vegetables intake (17 percent)than those living in quartile I areas (8 percent).

Altering the consumption of high fat foods was the predominant dietary change in all ethnic groups.A greater proportion of female NZ European & Others than males were attempting to changetheir consumption of fruits, breads and cereals and high fat foods. Percentages of NZ Måori and Pacificpeople who were attempting the various types of change were similar for both males and females.

A higher proportion of metropolitan than provincial males were attempting to change theirconsumption of fruits (14 percent, 7 percent respectively) and vegetables (11 percent, 6 percent).

Age group (years)

Figure A Figure B

Currently attempting dietary change

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

NZ

popu

latio

n

75+

Current dietary change

Type of change intended

NZ

popu

latio

n

malefemale

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

Fruits Vegetables Breads/cereals High fatfoods

malefemale

93Eating Patterns

D3Direction of Current Dietary Change Attempts Table D3

Of the New Zealanders who reported trying to alter their consumption of ‘fruits’ (14 percent) and‘vegetables’ (11 percent) most were trying to eat more (96 percent, 92 percent respectively) (FigureA). However, more males over 45 years were trying to eat less ‘vegetables’ (27 percent). Of thosealtering their ‘breads and cereals’ intake, most (60 percent) were trying to eat more, with 36 percenttrying to eat less. The percentage trying to eat more ‘breads and cereals’ decreased with age in females.Among females over 45 years the majority (55 percent) were trying to eat less ‘breads and cereals’.

There are two types of change possible for ‘high fat foods’ 7, trying to alter the amounts eaten andchanging the type of fats used. Of the 22 percent of New Zealanders who were attempting tochange their intake of ‘high fat foods’ trying to eat less was the most popular change (94 percent)while only 31 percent were trying to change type of fat eaten (Figure B).

eat more

Attempting change to fat type eaten(NZ population)

NZ

popu

latio

n

Direction of current dietary changeeat less

Figure A Figure B

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

male female male female male female

Breads/cereals FruitsVegetables

ChangingNo change

7 Includes butter, margarine and oils.


D4Intended Dietary Changes Table D4

The percentage of the population intending to make dietary changes in the future (over the nextsix months) was calculated by including all respondents who indicated at least one type of change(fruits, vegetables, breads and cereals and/or high fat foods).

Respondents who had indicated that they were currently trying to change a specific diet category(e.g. fruits or vegetables), were not asked about future changes in this category.

Twenty-two percent of all New Zealanders were intending to change their fruits, vegetables, breadsand cereals and/or high fat foods consumption in the future. The proportion intending to makedietary change in the future decreased with age from 19–24 years in both sexes (Figure A).

The proportion of females intending to change ‘amount/type of food eaten’ increased withNZDep96 quartile area (I 20 percent, IV 29 percent). The proportion of males intending to changeincreased over NZDep96 quartile areas I–III (15 percent to 28 percent) and then decreased to 17percent among individuals living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas. This pattern was reflected in allfood types intended for change. Place of residence (metropolitan vs provincial) had no effect onintention to make dietary change in the future or type of change intended. In both sexes a greaterproportion of NZ Måori and Pacific people were intending to make dietary change in the futurethan NZ European & Others.

For males, fruits was the most popular area for intended change (11 percent), followed by changingthe amount of high fat foods (8 percent) and vegetables (7 percent). For females, intending to changethe amount of fruits eaten was also the most popular change (12 percent) closely followed byaltering the amount of high fat foods eaten (11 percent) (Figure B).

Fruits was a more popular intended change (22 percent) compared with vegetables for NZ Måorifemales (13 percent) and NZ European & Others males and females (10 percent, 7 percentrespectively).

Figure A Figure B

Intending to change diet in future

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

NZ

popu

latio

n

75+

Age group (years)

Intended dietary changes

NZ

popu

latio

n

Type of change intended

malefemale

malefemale

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

Fruits Vegetables Breads/cereals High fatfoods

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%

4%

2%

0%

95Eating Patterns

D5Direction of Intended Dietary Changes Table D5

At least 95 percent of those who intended to change the amount of ‘fruits’ and ‘vegetables’ eatenin the future, intended to increase the amount they ate (Figure A). Although very few were intendingto eat less ‘fruits’ and ‘vegetables’ (3 percent), this was highest among those 45+ years, whereas7 percent of males were intending to eat less ‘vegetables’ and 7 percent of females were intending toeat less ‘fruits’.

The direction of future changes in ‘breads and cereals’ intake varied with age, with the proportionintending to eat less increasing with age to over half of males and females 45+ years (51 percent, 63percent respectively). Proportionately fewer females were intending to eat more ‘breads and cereals’in the future than males. Most of the 9 percent who intended to make future changes in theirconsumption of ‘high fat foods’ were intending to eat less (89 percent) with a small proportionintending to change type eaten (19 percent) (Figure B).

Intending to change type of fat eaten(NZ population)

NZ

popu

latio

n

Direction of intended dietary changeeat lesseat more

Figure A Figure B

male female male female male female

Breads/cereals FruitsVegetables

ChangingNot changing

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%


D6Difficulties Involved in MakingDietary Changes Tables D6.1, D6.2, D6.3, D6.4

Respondents who indicated they were currently trying to eat more fruits, vegetables and/or breadsand cereals were asked about any difficulties they had, or were experiencing in attempting thereported change. They were presented with a showcard but many respondents identified difficultiesnot listed (in the tables these are collectively called non-showcard options). The percentage of therespondents selecting a non-showcard option ranged from 4 percent (high fat foods) to 45 percent(breads and cereals).

Cell sizes are small for a number of age groups related to fruits, vegetables and bread and cereals,therefore it is not possible to make statements about the age trends for the change among thesefood groups.

The major difficulties associated with trying to eat more fruits were cost (24 percent), don’t alwayshave at home (22 percent), poor quality (15 percent) and can’t store for long (14 percent). There wereno significant differences between males and females (Figure A).

There were a number of frequently cited reasons why trying to eat more vegetables was hard:don’t always have at home (16 percent), cost (15 percent), takes too long to prepare (15 percent) and notenough time (15 percent). In contrast to the difficulties expressed with attempting to eat more fruits,poor quality was not often cited as a reason why eating more vegetables would be hard (fruits 15percent, vegetables 4 percent).

Few respondents who were currently attempting to increase their consumption of breads andcereals identified with the difficulties presented to them on the showcards. Almost half, however,volunteered a non-showcard option with the most frequent response volunteered being that it wasnot hard to eat more breads and cereals. Don’t like breads and cereals (8 percent), was the mostcommon showcard option followed by need willpower (7 percent) and too many calories (6 percent).

All respondents, regardless of whether they were currently attempting to change their high fatfoods consumption, were asked about difficulties they might find in reducing the amount of highfat foods they ate. This explains the high proportion (47 percent) that indicated none of thedifficulties applied as they were happy with fat intake (Figure B). The most frequently cited difficulty

Happy with fat intake

Age group (years)

NZ

popu

latio

n

Responses

NZ

popu

latio

n

Difficulty with eating more fruits

Figure A Figure B

malefemale

malefemale

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

Cost Not available Poor Quality Storage0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

15–24 25–44 45+

97Eating Patterns

in reducing the amount of high fat foods eaten was that they taste good (32 percent), followed bynot as enjoyable (16 percent), convenient (14 percent) and need willpower (11 percent). The percentageindicating that they were happy with fat intake increased with age in both sexes (males 30 percent to62 percent; females 25 percent to 61 percent) while the percentage who would find it difficultbecause high fat foods taste good and are convenient decreased with age, particularly in the group45+ years. Food preparation with less fat too hard, others would have to eat less and hard when eating outwere other difficulties cited, particularly by 15–24 years females compared with females 45+ years.


D7Food Preparation Practices Tables D7.1, D7.2

Meat or chickenMales (78 percent) were more likely than females (70 percent) to report having meat or chickenfried or roasted in fat or oil (Figure A). The most common choices were other oils (49 percent), olive/canola oil (35 percent), butter (18 percent) and lard (16 percent). Males 45+ years were less likely toeat meat or chicken cooked in fat or oil, less likely to use butter and more likely to use lard thanthose under 45 years. Females were more likely than males to always or often ‘trim excess fat’ frommeat (72 percent, 60 percent respectively), and ‘remove skin’ from chicken (49 percent, 35 percent).

Females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas were more likely to eat meat or chicken cooked in fator oil (75 percent) than those from quartile I areas (65 percent). Lard was used more amongindividuals from NZDep96 quartile IV areas (males 22 percent, females 18 percent) comparedwith those from quartile I areas (males 15 percent, females 10 percent). Olive/canola oil was morelikely to be used by individuals living in NZDep96 quartiles I and II areas when cooking meat orchicken (males 35 percent, females 53 percent and 42 percent) compared with those living in quartileIV areas (males 24 percent, females 25 percent). Individuals from the NZDep96 quartile I areas,compared to those from quartile IV areas, were more likely to always or often ‘trim excess fat’ frommeat (females) and to ‘remove skin’ from chicken (males and females).

Always and often ‘remove skin’ from chicken was more common in metropolitan (52 percent) thanprovincial females (43 percent).

NZ Måori and Pacific people were less likely than NZ European & Others to have reported alwaysor often ‘trim excess fat’ from meat. NZ Måori were less likely than NZ European & Others to haveused olive/canola oil in cooking meat or chicken. Among females, Pacific people were more likelyto have used margarine and less likely to have used lard in cooking meat or chicken than NZEuropean & Others. NZ Måori were less likely to have always or often removed chicken skin thanNZ European & Others (Figure B).

Age group (years)

Figure A Figure B

Meat or chicken cooked in fat or oil

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

NZ

popu

latio

n

75+

Removed chicken skin (always or often)

Ethnic group

Popu

latio

n

malefemale

malefemale

60%

65%

70%

75%

80%

85%

90%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

NZ Maori Pacific people NZ European &Others

99Eating Patterns

VegetablesSixty-nine percent of the population ate vegetables cooked in fat or oil, with young males (15–18years) having the highest consumption (76 percent) and young females the lowest (57 percent).The fats most commonly used to cook vegetables were: other oils (44 percent), olive/canola oil(32 percent) and lard (20 percent). Olive/canola oil was more popular among females than males.Females living in NZDep96 quartile I areas were more likely to use olive/canola oil in cooking(48 percent) compared with those from quartile II–IV areas (27 percent to 35 percent). Use of lardto cook vegetables varied with NZDep96 quartile for females. The lowest use was reported bythose living in quartile I areas (12 percent) compared to those living in quartile IV areas (21 percent).NZ Måori were less likely to use olive/canola oil than NZ European & Others. Lard was more popularwith NZ Måori compared to Pacific people. Butter was more likely to be used by Pacific people(males 31 percent, females 26 percent) than NZ European & Others for cooking vegetables.Provincial males and females (28 percent, 24 percent respectively) were more likely to use lardthan metropolitan residents (males 19 percent, females 15 percent).


D8Household Food Security Table D8

Food security is an internationally recognised term that encompasses the ready availability ofnutritionally adequate and safe foods, and the assured ability to acquire personally acceptablefoods in a socially acceptable way. Subjects responded to eight statements on behalf of themselves(if they lived alone) or their households. Each of these statements about food relate to the issue ofaffordability i.e. the response was to be made in light of whether or not the respondent felt theyhad enough money.

I/we8 can afford to eat properlyThirteen percent of New Zealanders reported that their household ‘can afford to eat properly’only sometimes; the highest proportion of households in this situation were reported by 19-24years females (31 percent). More NZ Måori (males 24 percent, females 33 percent) and Pacificpeople (males 39 percent, females 37 percent) reported that their households ‘can afford to eatproperly’ only sometimes compared with NZ European & Others (males 9 percent, females 10percent). Reporting that their household ‘can afford to eat properly’ only sometimes, was lowest inthe older groups (45+ years) of NZ European & Others. Individuals living in NZDep96 quartile IVareas were more likely to report that their household can afford to eat properly only sometimescompared with those from the other areas, quartiles I–III (Figure A). There were no differencesbetween metropolitan and provincial residents.

Food runs out in my/our household due to lack of moneyFourteen percent of New Zealanders reported that in their household ‘food runs out because oflack of money’ sometimes (12 percent) or often (2 percent). This was reported more by females(16 percent) compared to males (11 percent). Younger (15-44 years) males and females were morelikely to identify this as an issue for their household than older groups.

‘Food runs out’ often or sometimes was reported by about half of Pacific people (males 50 percent,females 49 percent) and about one-third of NZ Måori (males 26 percent, females 36 percent),compared with about one-tenth of NZ European & Others (males 7 percent, females 11 percent).

Use food grants/banks sometimes

NZDep96 Quartile

NZ

popu

latio

n

NZDep96 Quartile

NZ

popu

latio

n

Can afford to eat properly only sometimes

Figure A Figure B

malefemalemale

female

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

I II III IV0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%

I II III IV

8 Households include one-person households. Therefore, several statements were presented to the respondents as an I or We,depending on whether the household was a one-person or multi-person household.

101Eating Patterns

This declined as an issue with increasing age in NZ European & Others but NZ Måori and Pacificpeople reported that this was an issue for at least one-fifth of their households regardless of age.

The percentage reporting ‘food runs out’ in their household often or sometimes was also related toNZDep96 quartile. This was most frequently reported by females from NZDep96 quartile IV areas(31 percent), compared to quartile I-III areas (7 percent - 19 percent).

I/we9 eat less because of lack of moneyFor the New Zealand population as a whole, and for NZ European & Others, the pattern of responseto this statement reflects that of the previous question (‘food runs out because of lack of money’).Between 12 percent and 14 percent reported that their households ‘eat less because of lack ofmoney’, sometimes or often. Similarly to ‘food runs out’, a relatively large proportion of NZ Måoriand Pacific females, compared to households of NZ European & Others, reported their household‘eat less’. The proportion reporting ‘eat less’ was affected by NZDep96 quartile. Six percent ofmales and 8 percent of females living in quartile I areas said that their household sometimes or often‘eat less’, compared to 18 percent and 24 percent of those living in quartile IV areas.

The variety of foods I am (we are) able to eat is limited by a lack of moneyTwenty-seven percent of the New Zealand population noted that this was an issue for theirhousehold sometimes or often. Compared with older people (45+ years), a greater percentage of thehouseholds of younger people reported ‘variety of foods limited by lack of money’. A higherproportion of NZ Måori (females 47 percent, males 48 percent) and Pacific people (females 48percent, males 50 percent) reported that this was an issue for their household compared with NZEuropean & Others (females 26 percent, males 20 percent). ‘Variety of foods limited’ was consideredan issue in households across all NZDep96 quartiles, although reported more so by individualsliving in quartile IV areas compared with quartile I–III areas. Provincial males were less likely toreport that their household was concerned with this issue (19 percent) than metropolitan males(26 percent).

I/we9 rely on others to provide food and/or money for food, for my/our household, whenI/we don’t have enough moneySeven percent of the New Zealand population said that their households sometimes or often ‘relyon others’ to provide food, or money for food when they don’t have enough money. This issuewas rare (1 percent or less) for those 65+ years and most frequently mentioned by younger people,particularly females 19–24 years (20 percent). More NZ Måori (males 19 percent, females 22 percent)and Pacific people (males 29 percent, females 30 percent) compared to NZ European & Others(males 3 percent, females 5 percent) specified that this was an issue sometimes or often for theirhousehold. Those living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas were more likely to be in this position thanthose from quartile I–III areas. Households of metropolitan females (10 percent) were more likelyto ‘rely on others’ for food than households of provincial females (6 percent).



I/we10 make use of special food grants or foodbanks when I/we do not have enough moneyfor foodFour percent of the New Zealand population (2 percent males, 5 percent females) stated that in thelast year their household sometimes ‘use food grants/banks when they do not have enough moneyfor food’. It was not an issue for the households of males, or females 45+ years and was mostfrequently reported by younger females (19–24 years, 11 percent and 25–44 years, 7 percent). Thosefrom NZ Måori households (males 8 percent, females 16 percent) and Pacific households (males12 percent, females 14 percent) sometimes ‘use food grants/banks’ compared to NZ European &Others (males 1 percent, females 3 percent). The group most often reporting ‘use food grants/banks’ sometimes were households of NZ Måori females 15–24 years (19 percent). Those living inNZDep96 quartile IV areas reported their household ‘use food grants/banks’ sometimes (males 6percent, females 12 percent) more frequently than those in quartile I & II areas (males 0 percent, 1percent; females 1 percent, 2 percent) (Figure B).

I feel stressed because of not having enough money for foodTwelve percent of households of the New Zealand population had this experience sometimes oroften over the previous year (9 percent males, 15 percent females). The households of older people(45+ years) had this experience less often than those 19–44 years. It was most often experienced, atleast sometimes, by the households of females 25–44 years (24 percent). Among females, NZ Måori(31 percent) and Pacific people (32 percent) were more often in this position than NZ European &Others (12 percent). On the other hand, among males under 25 years 10 percent of NZ Måori andNZ European & Others and 15 percent of Pacific people said that they felt their household was‘stressed about lack of money for food’ sometimes or often. Twenty-nine percent of females and 17percent of males from NZDep96 quartile IV areas reported this stress about their household,compared with quartile I areas (females 6 percent, males 5 percent).

I feel stressed because I can’t provide the food I want for social occasionsThe pattern of New Zealanders reporting this experience for their household reflects that of theprevious question. Overall, 13 percent (9 percent males, 15 percent females) reported that theirhousehold felt stressed about providing food for social occasions sometimes or often. Again, it wasnot an issue among older groups, but was highest for females 19–24 years (23 percent). Householdsof NZ Måori and Pacific people were more than twice as likely to report this stress than NZ European& Others. While this stress was experienced to some extent in households of all NZDep96 quartiles,females living in quartile IV areas (26 percent) were more likely to report it for their householdcompared with quartile I–III areas (8 percent to 18 percent).


103Eating Patterns


Tabl

e D

1TY

PE O

F D

IET

Diet

cho

ice

(%)

Avoi

ds m

eats

Lact

o-ov

oLa

cto-

Regu

lar

exce

pt c

hick

en v

eget

aria

nOv

o-ve

geta

rian

vege

taria

nVe

gan

Othe

rN

Z Po

p’n

(Age

15+

)94

21

00

02

Mal

es15

–18

951

00

00

419

–24

923

41

00

025

–44

972

00

00

145

–64

971

01

00

065

–74

972

00

00

275

+96

10

00

02

Tota

l96

21

00

01

Fem

ales

15–1

885

83

01

12

19–2

492

21

00

23

25–4

494

31

00

02

45–6

492

31

10

03

65–7

497

20

00

01

75+

942

11

00

3To

tal

933

10

00

2N

ZDep

96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

esI

971

01

00

2II

962

20

00

0III

980

00

00

2IV

943

00

00

1Fe

mal

esI

923

20

00

3II

942

10

01

2III

915

10

10

3IV

943

00

00

1Co

mm

unity

Mal

esM

etro

polit

an95

21

00

01

Prov

inci

al98

10

00

01

Fem

ales

Met

ropo

litan

924

10

00

2Pr

ovin

cial

942

11

00

2Qu

alita

tive

food

freq

uenc

y qu

estio

nnai

re; q

uest

ion

1.

105Eating Patterns

Tabl

e D

1 co

nt.

TYPE

OF

DIE

TDi

et c

hoic

e (%

)Av

oids

mea

tsLa

cto-

ovo

Lact

o-Re

gula

rex

cept

chi

cken

veg

etar

ian

Ovo-

vege

taria

nve

geta

rian

Vega

nOt

her

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

490

70

21

00

25–4

499

10

00

00

45+

991

00

00

0To

tal

963

01

00

0Fe

mal

es15

–24

942

00

13

025

–44

944

00

10

145

+94

30

20

01

Tota

l94

30

01

11

Paci

fic P

eopl

eM

ales

15–2

489

*4*

1*1*

0*0*

4*25

–44

8910

01

00

045

+92

*8*

0*0*

0*0*

0*To

tal

908

01

00

1Fe

mal

es15

–24

92*

6*0*

1*0*

0*0*

25–4

493

60

00

00

45+

89*

11*

0*0*

0*0*

0*To

tal

927

00

00

0N

Z Eu

rope

an &

Oth

ers

Mal

es15

–24

941

30

00

225

–44

971

00

00

245

+97

10

00

01

Tota

l96

11

00

01

Fem

ales

15–2

488

52

01

14

25–4

493

31

00

02

45+

943

10

00

3To

tal

933

10

00

3*

Lim

ited

sam

ple

size

, 25

≤ n

< 50

, cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in in

terp

reta

tion

of d

ata.

Qual

itativ

e fo

od fr

eque

ncy

ques

tionn

aire

; que

stio

n 1.


Tabl

e D

2D

IETA

RY C

HA

NG

ES A

TTEM

PTED

CU

RREN

TLY

Curr

ently

tryi

ng to

Food

s cu

rren

tly tr

ying

to c

hang

e (%

) 1

chan

ge a

mou

nt/ty

peBr

eads

and

of fo

od e

aten

(%)

Frui

tsVe

geta

bles

cer

eals

High

fat f

oods

2

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

3414

1111

22M

ales

15–1

825

610

613

19–2

444

2523

1419

25–4

431

1611

719

45–6

425

76

516

65–7

417

31

211

75+

82

22

5To

tal

2812

107

16Fe

mal

es15

–18

3918

919

2219

–24

5831

2614

4425

–44

4320

1517

2945

–64

3913

1014

2865

–74

185

38

1375

+6

21

23

Tota

l39

1712

1427

NZD

ep96

Qua

rtile

sM

ales

I28

119

515

II25

119

515

III29

127

715

IV30

1413

1019

Fem

ales

I37

188

1527

II41

1813

1429

III38

1413

1426

IV39

1617

1424

Com

mun

ityM

ales

Met

ropo

litan

3014

117

17Pr

ovin

cial

247

65

14Fe

mal

esM

etro

polit

an38

1813

1426

Prov

inci

al39

1412

1528

1As

mul

tiple

ans

wer

s w

ere

poss

ible

, per

cent

age

tota

ls m

ay e

xcee

d 10

0.Ba

rrie

rs to

cha

nge

ques

tions

4 a

nd 5

.2

Incl

udes

but

ter,

mar

garin

e, a

nd o

ils.

107Eating Patterns

Tabl

e D

2 co

nt.

DIE

TARY

CH

AN

GES

ATT

EMPT

ED C

URR

ENTL

YCu

rren

tly tr

ying

toFo

ods

curr

ently

tryi

ng to

cha

nge

(%) 1

chan

ge a

mou

nt/ty

peBr

eads

and

of fo

od e

aten

(%)

Frui

tsVe

geta

bles

cer

eals

High

fat f

oods

2

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

438

1919

1520

25–4

437

1413

1025

45+

3712

115

24To

tal

3715

1510

23Fe

mal

es15

–24

4817

2013

2625

–44

4417

1814

2845

+28

914

1424

Tota

l41

1518

1427

Paci

fic P

eopl

eM

ales

15–2

452

*23

*27

*27

*42

*25

–44

4232

338

2845

+44

*14

*7*

12*

32*

Tota

l45

2525

1433

Fem

ales

15–2

452

*34

*37

*24

*45

*25

–44

3919

1416

2745

+43

*17

*16

*8*

30*

Tota

l44

2321

1633

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

15–2

435

1717

914

25–4

429

159

717

45+

205

44

12To

tal

2611

86

14Fe

mal

es15

–24

5127

1716

3625

–44

4321

1518

2945

+29

96

1020

Tota

l38

1711

1426

Barr

iers

to c

hang

e qu

estio

ns 4

and

5.

*Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.1

As m

ultip

le a

nsw

ers

wer

e po

ssib

le, p

erce

ntag

e to

tals

may

exc

eed

100.

2In

clud

es b

utte

r, m

arga

rine,

and

oils

.


Tabl

e D

3D

IREC

TIO

N O

F CU

RREN

T D

IETA

RY C

HA

NG

ESCu

rren

tly a

ttem

ptin

g ch

ange

1

Mal

esFe

mal

esD

irec

tion

of c

urre

ntN

Z Po

p’n

Food

cat

egor

yat

tem

pted

cha

nge 2

(Age

15+

)15

–24

25–4

445

+To

tal

15–2

425

–44

45+

Tota

lFr

uits

% tr

ying

to e

at m

ore

9697

9887

9698

9796

97%

tryi

ng to

eat

less

31

211

32

32

2Ve

geta

bles

% tr

ying

to e

at m

ore

9296

*96

69*

9110

094

8593

% tr

ying

to e

at le

ss6

4*1

27*

70

511

5B

read

s an

d ce

real

s%

tryi

ng to

eat

mor

e60

83*

6163

*69

7256

4356

% tr

ying

to e

at le

ss36

14*

3333

*27

2439

5541

Hig

h fa

t foo

ds 3

Chan

ge in

am

ount

% tr

ying

to e

at m

ore

13

10

10

20

1%

tryi

ng to

eat

less

9492

9594

9495

9495

94%

not

cha

ngin

g am

ount

eat

en5

54

65

55

55

Chan

ge in

type

of f

at%

not

tryi

ng to

cha

nge

type

6986

7265

7270

6566

67%

tryi

ng to

cha

nge

type

3114

2835

2830

3534

33*

Lim

ited

sam

ple

size

, 25

≤ n

< 50

, cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in in

terp

reta

tion

of d

ata.

Barr

iers

to c

hang

e qu

estio

ns 6

–9.

1Fi

gure

s ar

e a

perc

enta

ge o

f tho

se c

urre

ntly

atte

mpt

ing

to m

ake

a di

etar

y ch

ange

, in

the

corr

espo

ndin

g fo

od c

ateg

ory.

2‘D

on’t

know

’ res

pons

es a

re n

ot p

rese

nted

.3

Incl

udes

but

ter,

mar

garin

e an

d oi

ls.

109Eating Patterns


1As

mul

tiple

ans

wer

s w

ere

poss

ible

, per

cent

age

tota

ls m

ay e

xcee

d 10

0.Ba

rrie

rs to

cha

nge

ques

tions

9 a

nd 1

0.2

Incl

udes

but

ter,

mar

garin

e, a

nd o

ils.

Tabl

e D

4IN

TEN

DED

DIE

TARY

CH

AN

GES

Inte

ndin

g to

cha

nge

Food

s in

tend

ing

to c

hang

e in

the

futu

re (%

) 1

amou

nt/ty

pe o

f foo

dBr

eads

and

eat

en (%

)Fr

uits

Vege

tabl

es c

erea

lsHi

gh fa

t foo

ds 2

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

2211

87

9M

ales

15–1

826

178

109

19–2

436

2022

1216

25–4

425

138

59

45–6

411

53

34

65–7

48

22

44

75+

22

10

0To

tal

2011

76

8Fe

mal

es15

–18

3822

189

1519

–24

4014

1219

1725

–44

3015

119

1245

–64

187

66

965

–74

83

22

475

+5

41

02

Tota

l25

128

811

NZD

ep96

Qua

rtile

sM

ales

I15

75

45

II21

116

57

III28

1612

812

IV17

98

67

Fem

ales

I20

97

411

II24

108

99

III26

138

810

IV29

1511

1113

Com

mun

ityM

ales

Met

ropo

litan

2010

75

7Pr

ovin

cial

2011

76

8Fe

mal

esM

etro

polit

an24

118

811

Prov

inci

al25

139

79

111Eating Patterns

Tabl

e D

4 co

nt.

INTE

ND

ED D

IETA

RY C

HA

NG

ESIn

tend

ing

to c

hang

eFo

ods

inte

ndin

g to

cha

nge

in th

e fu

ture

(%) 1

amou

nt/ty

pe o

f foo

dBr

eads

and

eat

en (%

)Fr

uits

Vege

tabl

es c

erea

lsHi

gh fa

t foo

ds 2

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

440

2410

518

25–4

427

1515

1411

45+

155

410

1To

tal

2815

1110

11Fe

mal

es15

–24

5230

2119

2625

–44

3622

1315

1945

+23

133

511

Tota

l38

2213

1419

Paci

fic P

eopl

eM

ales

15–2

445

*26

*21

*15

*11

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–44

3515

1614

1345

+9*

1*6*

0*2*

Tota

l32

1515

1110

Fem

ales

15–2

448

*22

*20

*29

*22

*25

–44

3718

208

1445

+33

*10

*19

*11

*3*

Tota

l39

1720

1413

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

15–2

429

1717

1212

25–4

424

137

49

45+

94

23

4To

tal

1810

75

7Fe

mal

es15

–24

3514

1313

1325

–44

2814

108

1145

+12

54

46

Tota

l22

107

79

Barr

iers

to c

hang

e qu

estio

ns 9

and

10.

*Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.1

As m

ultip

le a

nsw

ers

wer

e po

ssib

le, p

erce

ntag

e to

tals

may

exc

eed

100.

2In

clud

es b

utte

r, m

arga

rine,

and

oils

.


Tabl

e D

5D

IREC

TIO

N O

F IN

TEN

DED

DIE

TARY

CH

AN

GES

Futu

re in

tend

ed c

hang

e1

Mal

esFe

mal

esN

Z Po

p’n

Food

cat

egor

yD

irec

tion 2

(Age

15+

)15

–24

25–4

445

+To

tal

15–2

425

–44

45+

Tota

lFr

uits

% in

tend

ing

to e

at m

ore

9699

*98

98*

9894

9692

95%

inte

ndin

g to

eat

less

31*

10*

16

47

5Ve

geta

bles

% in

tend

ing

to e

at m

ore

9599

*95

93*

9793

9491

*93

% in

tend

ing

to e

at le

ss3

1*3

7*3

52

4*4

Bre

ads

and

cere

als

% in

tend

ing

to e

at m

ore

6080

*65

*#

6575

*54

32*

57%

inte

ndin

g to

eat

less

3418

*28

*#

2917

*39

63*

37H

igh

fat f

oods

3

Chan

ge in

am

ount

% in

tend

ing

to e

at m

ore

12*

30*

20

02

0%

inte

ndin

g to

eat

less

8995

*88

96*

9298

8384

87%

not

cha

ngin

g am

ount

eat

en10

3*9

4*6

217

1412

Chan

ge in

type

of f

at%

not

inte

ndin

g to

cha

nge

type

8193

*80

84*

8579

7976

78%

inte

ndin

g to

cha

nge

type

197*

2016

*15

2121

2422

#n

< 25

, sam

ple

size

too

smal

l to

prov

ide

a re

liabl

e es

timat

e.Ba

rrie

rs to

cha

nge

ques

tions

10–

13.

*Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.1

Figu

res

are

a pe

rcen

tage

of t

hose

inte

ndin

g to

mak

e a

diet

ary

chan

ge in

the

futu

re, i

n th

e co

rres

pond

ing

food

cat

egor

y.2

‘Don

’t kn

ow’ r

espo

nses

are

not

pre

sent

ed.

3In

clud

es b

utte

r, m

arga

rine

and

oils

.

113Eating Patterns

Tabl

e D

6.1

DIF

FICU

LTIE

S IN

VOLV

ED IN

EAT

ING

MO

RE F

RUIT

SPe

rcen

t citi

ng re

ason

1

Mal

esFe

mal

esN

Z Po

p’n

Diff

icul

ties

(Age

15+

)15

–24*

25–4

445

+*To

tal

15–2

425

–44

45+

Tota

lCo

st24

2717

618

2533

2328

Don’

t alw

ays

have

at h

ome

2223

266

2233

237

22Po

or q

ualit

y15

1125

818

915

1212

Can’

t sto

re fo

r lon

g14

324

1416

1016

712

Not

eno

ugh

time

1014

617

119

1010

10Ha

ssle

to e

at m

ore

912

1122

131

98

7N

eed

will

pow

er9

1211

510

710

99

Don’

t lik

e7

55

55

186

49

Stom

ach

upse

ts7

13

83

127

1410

Pest

icid

es/c

hem

ical

s4

05

13

17

75

Hard

to c

hew

32

14

20

46

3Al

lerg

y/ba

d re

actio

n2

02

01

13

22

Too

muc

h su

gar

10

20

10

00

0N

ot g

ood

for m

e0

00

00

00

00

Non

-sho

wca

rd o

ptio

n 225

2728

2828

1426

2623

* Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.Ba

rrie

rs to

cha

nge

ques

tion

15.

1Pe

rcen

tage

of t

hose

who

wer

e cu

rren

tly tr

ying

to e

at m

ore

fruit.

As

mul

tiple

ans

wer

s w

ere

poss

ible

, per

cent

age

tota

ls m

ay e

xcee

d 10

0.2

Reas

ons

volu

ntee

red

by th

e re

spon

dent

, whi

ch w

ere

not i

nclu

ded

on th

e sh

owca

rd.


*Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.Ba

rrie

rs to

cha

nge

ques

tion

16.

1Pe

rcen

tage

of t

hose

who

wer

e cu

rren

tly tr

ying

to e

at m

ore

vege

tabl

es. A

s m

ultip

le a

nsw

ers

wer

e po

ssib

le, p

erce

ntag

e to

tals

may

exc

eed

100.

2Re

ason

s vo

lunt

eere

d by

the

resp

onde

nt, w

hich

wer

e no

t inc

lude

d on

the

show

card

.

Tabl

e D

6.2

DIF

FICU

LTIE

S IN

VOLV

ED IN

EAT

ING

MO

RE V

EGET

AB

LES

Perc

ent c

iting

reas

on1

Mal

esFe

mal

esN

Z Po

p’n

Diff

icul

ties

(Age

15+

)15

–24*

25–4

445

+*To

tal

15–2

4*25

–44

45+

Tota

lDo

n’t a

lway

s ha

ve a

t hom

e16

1227

518

2215

916

Cost

1514

80

915

176

14Ta

kes

too

long

to p

repa

re15

2422

019

2216

916

Not

eno

ugh

time

1523

111

1437

89

16Do

n’t l

ike

1216

120

1212

142

11Ca

n’t s

tore

for l

ong

1019

102

1213

94

9N

eed

will

pow

er8

109

79

18

76

Hard

to p

repa

re5

23

73

152

97

Hass

le to

eat

mor

e4

010

86

06

34

Poor

qua

lity

40

50

25

61

5Pe

stic

ides

/che

mic

als

31

22

20

54

4St

omac

h up

sets

10

02

00

32

2Ha

rd to

che

w1

01

00

00

21

Alle

rgy/

bad

reac

tion

00

00

00

00

0N

owhe

re to

coo

k0

00

00

11

01

Not

goo

d fo

r me

00

00

00

00

0N

on-s

how

card

opt

ion 2

268

339

2020

3636

32

115Eating Patterns

Tabl

e D

6.3

DIF

FICU

LTIE

S IN

VOLV

ED IN

EAT

ING

MO

RE B

REA

DS

AN

D C

EREA

LS P

erce

nt c

iting

reas

on1

Mal

esFe

mal

esN

Z Po

p’n

Diff

icul

ties

(Age

15+

)15

–24*

25–4

4*45

+*To

tal

15–2

4*25

–44

45+*

Tota

lDo

n’t l

ike

83

317

67

1110

9N

eed

will

pow

er7

98

17

67

97

Too

man

y ca

lorie

s6

30

01

513

49

Cost

56

40

42

68

5Ha

ssle

to e

at m

ore

52

13

28

93

7To

o fil

ling

53

09

311

37

6Fa

tteni

ng4

013

05

08

14

Stom

ach

upse

ts3

30

42

06

34

Too

heav

y2

50

02

42

02

Not

goo

d fo

r me

20

43

20

33

2To

o st

arch

y1

04

02

12

01

Caus

e w

ind

00

00

00

11

1N

on-s

how

card

opt

ion 2

4551

5836

5046

4141

42

*Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.Ba

rrie

rs to

cha

nge

ques

tion

17.

1Pe

rcen

tage

of t

hose

who

wer

e cu

rren

tly tr

ying

to e

at m

ore

brea

ds a

nd c

erea

ls. A

s m

ultip

le a

nsw

ers

wer

e po

ssib

le, p

erce

ntag

e to

tals

may

exc

eed

100.

2Re

ason

s vo

lunt

eere

d by

the

resp

onde

nt, w

hich

wer

e no

t inc

lude

d on

the

show

card

.


Tabl

e D

6.4

DIF

FICU

LTIE

S IN

VOLV

ED IN

EAT

ING

LES

S H

IGH

FAT

FO

OD

SPe

rcen

t citi

ng re

ason

1

Mal

esFe

mal

esN

Z Po

p’n

Diff

icul

ties

(Age

15+

)15

–24

25–4

445

+To

tal

15–2

425

–44

45+

Tota

lHa

ppy

with

fat i

ntak

e47

3045

6249

2539

6146

Tast

e go

od32

4636

2333

4337

2031

Not

as

enjo

yabl

e16

1318

1616

1519

1516

Conv

enie

nt14

2221

615

2516

513

Nee

d w

illpo

wer

115

108

812

1611

14Pr

epar

atio

n w

ith le

ss fa

t too

har

d8

118

47

1510

59

Othe

rs w

ould

hav

e to

eat

less

66

42

415

115

9Ha

rd w

hen

eatin

g ou

t5

84

14

126

26

Com

fort

eatin

g5

35

34

77

46

Chea

p3

74

13

74

13

Few

low

fat a

ltern

ativ

es3

43

12

33

13

Too

muc

h ha

ssle

33

32

35

22

3To

o lo

ng to

pre

pare

with

low

fat

21

21

22

21

2Bo

dy n

eeds

fat

23

21

22

32

2N

on-s

how

card

opt

ion 2

41

54

45

36

51

Perc

enta

ge o

f all

resp

onde

nts

who

com

plet

ed th

is s

ectio

n, in

clud

ing

thos

e w

ho w

ere

curr

ently

not

atte

mpt

ing

aBa

rrie

rs to

cha

nge

ques

tion

18.

chan

ge in

this

cat

egor

y. A

s m

ultip

le a

nsw

ers

wer

e po

ssib

le, p

erce

ntag

e to

tals

may

exc

eed

100.

2Re

ason

s vo

lunt

eere

d by

the

resp

onde

nt, w

hich

wer

e no

t inc

lude

d on

the

show

card

.

117Eating Patterns


Tabl

e D7

.1FO

OD P

REPA

RATI

ON I

Mea

t or c

hick

enVe

geta

bles

Cook

inTy

pe o

f fat

/oil

(%) 1

Cook

inTy

pe o

f fat

/oil

(%) 1

fat/o

il (%

)Ol

ive/

cano

laBu

tter

Lard

Mar

garin

eOt

her o

ils 2

fat/o

il (%

)Ol

ive/

cano

laLa

rdBu

tter

Mar

garin

eOt

her o

ils 2

Don’

t kno

wN

Z Po

p’n

(Age

15+

)74

3518

169

4969

3220

145

448

Mal

es15

–18

8734

2315

638

7630

249

528

2119

–24

8531

208

841

6723

1315

434

2825

–44

8032

2016

853

7529

1915

548

945

–64

7330

1422

851

6727

2512

543

665

–74

7429

1030

938

5927

309

240

475

+73

2211

188

5262

2324

1312

358

Tota

l78

3117

188

4870

2822

135

4211

Fem

ales

15–1

871

4027

2210

4657

2524

273

5013

19–2

477

4215

914

4673

4210

136

419

25–4

472

3822

139

5670

3418

176

485

45–6

464

4312

157

4670

4316

114

432

65–7

470

3313

1817

4760

3522

114

472

75+

7625

2125

1237

6325

2419

638

1To

tal

7038

1815

1050

6836

1815

546

4N

ZDep

96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

esI

8035

1615

554

6831

2115

341

11II

7535

1415

1043

7132

199

741

12III

7930

1819

848

7225

2514

344

10IV

8024

2222

947

7022

2116

644

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mal

esI

6553

1510

1044

6748

1213

540

5II

7142

1616

845

6935

2012

442

4III

7131

2217

1053

7032

1918

451

5IV

7525

2118

1356

6527

2119

750

4Co

mm

unity

Mal

esM

etro

polit

an79

3318

168

4970

3019

146

4211

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inci

al76

2817

227

4770

2228

113

4311

Fem

ales

Met

ropo

litan

7040

1714

950

6638

1515

547

5Pr

ovin

cial

7233

2019

1249

7233

2417

543

31

Perc

enta

ge o

f tho

se w

ho fr

y or

roas

t in

fat o

r oil.

As

mul

tiple

ans

wer

s w

ere

poss

ible

, per

cent

age

tota

ls m

ay e

xcee

d 10

0.Qu

alita

tive

food

freq

uenc

y qu

estio

nnai

re; q

uest

ions

8 a

nd 9

.2

Incl

udes

sun

flow

er, c

orn

oil,

saffl

ower

oil

etc.

119Eating Patterns

Tabl

e D7

.1 c

ont.

FOOD

PRE

PARA

TION

IM

eat o

r chi

cken

Vege

tabl

esCo

ok in

Type

of f

at/o

il (%

)1Co

ok in

Type

of f

at/o

il (%

) 1

fat/o

il (%

)Ol

ive/

cano

laBu

tter

Lard

Mar

garin

eOt

her o

ils2

fat/o

il (%

)Ol

ive/

cano

laLa

rdBu

tter

Mar

garin

eOt

her o

ils 2

Don’

t kno

wN

Z M

aori

Mal

es15

–24

7912

2823

152

7312

2727

429

1925

–44

9013

2332

460

8110

3116

360

845

+83

1416

308

6479

1525

1012

633

Tota

l85

1323

294

5978

1229

176

5210

Fem

ales

15–2

486

1543

2416

5162

1724

3813

497

25–4

472

2232

2115

6365

2725

257

526

45+

7215

2424

1361

7339

3314

851

2To

tal

7618

3422

1558

6628

2726

951

5Pa

cific

Peo

ple

Mal

es15

–24

88*

18*

35*

5*10

*30

*57

*20

*17

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2*36

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*25

–44

8618

3916

1459

7020

1144

846

1145

+80

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*16

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*68

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*35

*10

*22

*10

*65

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Tota

l85

2236

1313

5263

2312

317

4816

Fem

ales

15–2

483

*20

*24

*5*

19*

70*

50*

11*

4*31

*5*

65*

10*

25–4

480

2123

1518

6768

259

2416

598

45+

66*

19*

26*

3*24

*75

*44

*10

*16

*29

*20

*70

*0*

Tota

l78

2024

919

6957

199

2614

627

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

15–2

487

3819

98

3871

3015

95

3226

25–4

478

3718

138

5174

3318

145

469

45+

7330

1223

846

6428

2711

540

6To

tal

7734

1616

847

6930

2112

541

11Fe

mal

es15

–24

7151

1312

1143

6842

1413

342

1125

–44

7142

2012

754

7135

1815

547

445

+67

4013

189

4367

3918

123

422

Tota

l69

4215

149

4769

3817

134

444

Qual

itativ

e fo

od fr

eque

ncy

ques

tionn

aire

; que

stio

ns 8

and

9.

* Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 <

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.1

Perc

enta

ge o

f tho

se w

ho fr

y or

roas

t in

fat o

r oil.

As

mul

tiple

ans

wer

s w

ere

poss

ible

, per

cent

age

tota

ls m

ay e

xcee

d 10

0.2

Incl

udes

sun

flow

er, c

orn

oil,

saffl

ower

oil

etc.


Tabl

e D

7.2

FOO

D P

REPA

RATI

ON

IIPo

rk, b

eef,

mut

ton,

hog

get,

or la

mb

Chic

ken

Thos

e w

hoTr

im e

xces

s fa

t (%

) 1Th

ose

who

Rem

ove

skin

(%) 1

cons

ume

(%)

Alw

ays

Ofte

nOc

casi

onal

lyN

ever

cons

ume

(%)

Alw

ays

Ofte

nOc

casi

onal

lyN

ever

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

9639

2826

897

2121

2632

Mal

es15

–18

100

2924

3116

999

1821

5219

–24

9330

2233

1595

1419

2939

25–4

499

2629

3411

9812

1725

4745

–64

9935

3124

1098

2018

2637

65–7

496

4725

199

9632

2021

2775

+98

5125

1312

9143

1821

17To

tal

9832

2829

1297

1718

2540

Fem

ales

15–1

887

4728

214

9618

2533

2419

–24

9544

2921

695

2222

3126

25–4

495

3829

266

9720

2528

2745

–64

9647

2622

598

2724

2822

65–7

498

5530

132

9736

3220

1375

+97

5816

179

9442

2023

15To

tal

9545

2723

597

2425

2823

NZD

ep96

Qua

rtile

sM

ales

I99

3430

2610

9917

2131

31II

9634

2828

1195

1819

2341

III99

3225

3211

9920

1522

43IV

9730

2730

1497

1315

2249

Fem

ales

I94

4929

193

9529

2627

18II

9648

2621

597

2628

2817

III95

4230

235

9723

2427

27IV

9739

2428

998

1920

2733

Com

mun

ityM

ales

Met

ropo

litan

9733

2629

1198

1918

2538

Prov

inci

al99

3030

2712

9613

1724

46Fe

mal

esM

etro

polit

an95

4528

225

9727

2527

21Pr

ovin

cial

9543

2724

696

1924

2829

1Pe

rcen

tage

of t

hose

who

con

sum

e.Qu

alita

tive

food

freq

uenc

y qu

estio

nnai

re; q

uest

ions

14

and

15.

121Eating Patterns

Tabl

e D

7.2

cont

.FO

OD

PRE

PARA

TIO

N II

Pork

, bee

f, m

utto

n, h

ogge

t, or

lam

bCh

icke

nTh

ose

who

Trim

exc

ess

fat (

%) 1

Thos

e w

hoRe

mov

e sk

in (%

) 1

cons

ume

(%)

Alw

ays

Ofte

nOc

casi

onal

lyN

ever

cons

ume

(%)

Alw

ays

Ofte

nOc

casi

onal

lyN

ever

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

492

2626

3217

100

814

3939

25–4

410

023

1838

2110

07

1021

6245

+98

2127

2429

995

1535

46To

tal

9723

2332

2210

07

1330

51Fe

mal

es15

–24

9613

3941

810

08

1336

4225

–44

9619

2935

1698

920

3041

45+

9629

2542

399

1618

3531

Tota

l96

2031

3911

9910

1833

39Pa

cific

Peo

ple

Mal

es15

–24

99*

31*

19*

35*

16*

100*

22*

19*

15*

44*

25–4

410

023

2630

2110

04

3111

5445

+10

0*34

*28

*33

*5*

100*

19*

5*25

*51

*To

tal

100

2824

3216

100

1222

1551

Fem

ales

15–2

496

*29

*42

*25

*4*

100*

27*

30*

19*

23*

25–4

497

4321

332

9922

1725

3545

+10

0*29

*23

*33

*15

*10

0*10

*19

*36

*35

*To

tal

9836

2831

699

2122

2632

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

15–2

496

3022

3215

9612

1923

4525

–44

9827

3033

998

1317

2744

45+

9841

2922

897

2719

2331

Tota

l98

3428

2810

9719

1825

39Fe

mal

es15

–24

9155

2515

594

2325

3221

25–4

495

4130

245

9721

2628

2445

+96

5325

185

9733

2624

18To

tal

9548

2720

596

2726

2721

* Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.Qu

alita

tive

food

freq

uenc

y qu

estio

nnai

re; q

uest

ions

14

and

15.

1Pe

rcen

tage

of t

hose

who

con

sum

e.


Tabl

e D

8H

OU

SEH

OLD

FO

OD

SEC

URI

TY O

VER

THE

LAST

YEA

RTh

e ho

useh

old:

1B

ecau

se o

f lac

k of

mon

ey, t

he h

ouse

hold

: 1Th

e ho

useh

old:

1

Stre

ssed

abo

utSt

ress

ed w

hen

noCa

n af

ford

to e

atVa

riety

of f

oods

Use

food

lack

of m

oney

food

for s

ocia

lpr

oper

lyFo

od ru

ns o

utEa

t les

s li

mite

dRe

ly o

n ot

hers

gra

nts/

bank

s fo

r foo

d o

ccas

ions

Som

e-So

me-

Som

e-So

me-

Som

e-So

me-

Som

e-So

me-

Alw

ays

tim

esOf

ten

tim

esOf

ten

tim

esOf

ten

tim

esOf

ten

tim

esOf

ten

tim

esOf

ten

tim

esOf

ten

times

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

8613

212

112

522

16

04

210

211

Mal

es15

–18

8510

211

012

330

05

05

07

17

19–2

482

170

211

224

361

100

41

121

925

–44

8117

212

112

425

17

02

213

213

45–6

493

71

70

74

120

30

22

41

565

–74

991

02

03

16

00

00

01

01

75+

980

00

10

04

00

10

00

20

Tota

l87

121

101

114

211

50

21

81

8Fe

mal

es15

–18

8110

123

110

323

110

24

35

111

19–2

468

316

222

239

347

131

115

152

2125

–44

8019

318

216

930

29

17

519

316

45–6

492

81

71

93

150

30

22

92

1065

–74

982

02

14

116

01

00

13

18

75+

972

03

03

09

01

00

00

03

Tota

l85

142

142

126

232

71

53

122

13N

ZDep

96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

esI

926

08

06

113

02

00

14

27

II90

91

60

93

180

40

10

70

5III

8711

111

111

422

15

02

19

110

IV78

213

162

166

312

120

63

142

13Fe

mal

esI

945

07

17

315

14

01

15

17

II88

101

81

105

202

40

22

101

9III

8216

316

114

626

17

16

314

216

IV72

276

254

209

354

131

127

224

22Co

mm

unity

Mal

esM

etro

polit

an86

121

111

124

221

60

31

102

9Pr

ovin

cial

8910

17

18

316

13

02

26

17

Fem

ales

Met

ropo

litan

8414

314

213

622

28

05

412

213

Prov

inci

al85

142

131

114

261

51

42

142

141

Perc

enta

ge o

f the

pop

ulat

ion

resp

onse

for e

ach

ques

tion.

Opt

ions

‘Nev

er’ a

nd ‘D

on’t

know

’ are

not

repo

rted.

Food

Sec

urity

Que

stio

nnai

re.

123Eating Patterns

Tabl

e D

8 co

nt.

HO

USE

HO

LD F

OO

D S

ECU

RITY

OVE

R TH

E LA

ST Y

EAR

The

hous

ehol

d: 1

Bec

ause

of l

ack

of m

oney

, the

hou

seho

ld: 1

The

hous

ehol

d: 1

Stre

ssed

abo

utSt

ress

ed w

hen

noCa

n af

ford

to e

atVa

riety

of f

oods

Use

food

lack

of m

oney

food

for s

ocia

lpr

oper

lyFo

od ru

ns o

utEa

t les

s li

mite

dRe

ly o

n ot

hers

gra

nts/

bank

sfo

r foo

d o

ccas

ions

Som

e-So

me-

Som

e-So

me-

Som

e-So

me-

Som

e-So

me-

Alw

ays

tim

esOf

ten

tim

esOf

ten

tim

esOf

ten

tim

esOf

ten

tim

esOf

ten

tim

esOf

ten

tim

esOf

ten

times

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

476

213

212

273

650

120

90

104

1025

–44

6830

922

326

540

422

18

523

227

45+

8117

219

29

1114

113

16

310

37

Tota

l74

245

213

236

422

170

83

163

17Fe

mal

es15

–24

6235

731

326

748

1122

419

618

326

25–4

462

379

327

2614

364

170

1813

286

2645

+77

234

224

188

272

101

87

177

18To

tal

6633

729

524

1037

517

216

922

524

Paci

fic P

eopl

eM

ales

15–2

467

*33

*4*

47*

0*21

*8*

23*

5*28

*0*

14*

0*15

*5*

24*

25–4

453

431

471

4612

502

262

115

396

3245

+64

*36

*10

*44

*0*

33*

16*

32*

3*25

*2*

14*

18*

16*

4*25

*To

tal

5939

446

136

1238

326

112

627

529

Fem

ales

15–2

453

*41

*15

*25

*2*

34*

4*42

*0*

27*

4*9*

0*21

*4*

15*

25–4

462

359

456

3215

354

251

179

267

2445

+62

*38

*9*

43*

0*48

*13

*31

*0*

34*

2*13

*7*

30*

5*27

*To

tal

6037

1039

437

1236

228

214

626

622

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

15–2

486

110

140

153

271

60

21

90

725

–44

8514

18

18

421

04

01

110

210

45+

973

03

04

29

01

01

12

12

Tota

l90

90

71

83

170

30

11

71

6Fe

mal

es15

–24

7817

220

114

723

38

05

49

115

25–4

484

152

131

138

281

61

53

172

1445

+96

40

31

52

130

10

11

51

7To

tal

8910

110

110

521

14

03

210

111

* Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.Fo

od S

ecur

ity Q

uest

ionn

aire

.1

Perc

enta

ge o

f the

pop

ulat

ion

resp

onse

for e

ach

ques

tion.

Opt

ions

‘Nev

er’ a

nd ‘D

on’t

know

’ are

not

repo

rted.

125Frequently Eaten Foods

Section EFrequently Eaten FoodsIntroductionThese data are derived from the food frequency questionnaire which also included questions onsome key food habits. For each food or beverage item respondents were asked to describe theirusual frequency of consumption by choosing one of eight frequency of consumption options forexample, never, less than once a month, etc. If the choice of foods was expected to vary withseason (e.g. fruits, vegetables, porridge, soups, etc) respondents were requested to indicate thefrequency of consumption according to how often the foods were consumed ‘in season’.

Choice of foods and beverages varies widely with individuals, over time and according to sex.The choice is set against the background of the rich variety which is available for consumption inNew Zealand; both what is grown and produced here, and imported.

This section compared the distribution of demographic groups (e.g. age, sex, ethnicity) acrossfrequency of consumption categories. These data have been summarised and presented as theproportion consuming most food and beverage items in the questionnaire, at least once per week.

Key PointsDairy foods• Females more frequently chose lower fat dairy products than males.

• Teenagers (15–18 years) were the most frequent consumers of ice cream, at least once per week.

Bread and cereal foods• Only about one in five of the New Zealand population reached the New Zealand Nutrition

Taskforce (1991) guideline of at least six servings of breads and cereals per day.

• Males 15–24 years were the most frequent consumers of bread and the number of servings ofbread per day consumed by females was not related to age group.

Meat and fish• New Zealanders most frequently (at least once per week) chose beef or veal followed by beef

mince dishes and chicken.

Vegetables• About two-thirds of the New Zealand population met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce

(1991) guideline of at least three servings of vegetables per day.

• Only two out of five males aged 15–18 years met the recommended number of daily vegetableservings.

Fruits• Almost half of the New Zealand population met the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991)

guideline of at least two servings of fruit per day.

• Males were almost twice as likely as females to be eating less than one serving of fruit per day.


Beverages• Tea and coffee were equally consumed by about three out of five New Zealanders at least three

times per week.

• Over half of males drank beer at least once a week, while almost one-quarter of females drankwhite wine at least once a week.

Miscellaneous foods• Two-thirds of the New Zealand population consumed sweet spreads and over half Vegemite or

Marmite at least once per week.

• In winter, half of the New Zealand population had homemade soup at least once per week.


E1Dairy Foods Table E1

Females more frequently chose lower fat dairy products (e.g. trim milk, yoghurt, cottage or ricottacheeses) than males, who showed a greater preference for some of the higher fat options, e.g.standard milk, ice cream. Standard milk was a more popular choice among younger males and females.Compared with older males and females, more younger people consumed flavoured milk and milkas a beverage while hot beverage made with milk (e.g. Milo, hot chocolate drinks) were more popularamong males 15–18 years. Young people (15–18 years) were the most frequent consumers of icecream (males 57 percent, females 48 percent) and custard/dairy food (males 25 percent, females39 percent). With increasing age fewer males consumed yoghurt (Figure A). However, milk puddingswere most popular in the 75+ years group (males 22 percent, females 20 percent).

The most popular cheeses were colby/mild/tasty (65 percent overall). All cheeses, with the exceptionof cottage or ricotta and cream cheese were more likely to be eaten by males and females living inNZDep96 quartile I areas. Standard milk was more likely to be consumed by males and femalesliving in NZDep96 quartile IV areas compared with males and females living in quartile I areas.The reverse is true for trim milk. Yoghurt and ice cream were more likely to be eaten by males livingin NZDep96 quartile I areas. In contrast the consumption of hot beverage made with milk was greaterin individuals living in NZDep96 quartiles III and IV areas.

Among NZ Måori and Pacific people, compared with NZ European & Others, standard milk wasmore popular (Figure B) and the reverse was true for trim milk. Pacific people were also lessfrequent consumers of colby/mild/tasty and edam/gouda cheeses and more frequent consumers ofhot beverage made with milk, than other ethnic groups.

Compared with metropolitan males, provincial males were less frequent consumers of yoghurt,mozzarella/feta/camembert cheese and all drinks of milk. Ice cream and colby/mild/tasty cheeses wereeaten more often by people in provincial communities.

Age group (years)

Figure A Figure B

Yoghurt consumed (≥1/week) Usually chose standard milk

Ethnic group

Popu

latio

n

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

NZ

popu

latio

n

75+

malefemale

malefemale

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%



E2Bread and Cereal Foods Tables E2.1, E2.2

Only 18 percent of the population reached the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guidelineof at least six servings of breads and cereals per day with the percentage declining with increasingage, particularly for males (Figure A). Males were more likely to meet the guideline (28 percent)than females (9 percent).

The amount of bread consumed was higher among males than females. Males were also morelikely to consume a larger number of servings of cereals with 18 percent of males consuming ≥10servings of cereals per week compared with 13 percent of females.

Males 15–18 years (47 percent) were most likely to consume at least five servings of bread per day,with more older males having 3-4 servings per day compared to younger males. In females, thenumber of servings of bread per day was not related to age, although the 65+ years group morefrequently had 3–4 servings per day. A higher proportion of younger males and females consumed10 or more servings of cereal foods per week.

While a higher proportion of people living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas consumed five or moreservings of bread per day, the proportion consuming 10 or more servings of cereals per week wasless.

Pacific people and NZ Måori females were more frequent consumers of five or more servings ofbread per day than NZ European & Others. Both NZ Måori and Pacific people were more likely toconsume less than four servings of cereal foods per week than NZ European & Others. Amongfemales, more NZ Måori and Pacific people (20 percent, 14 percent respectively) met the breadsand cereals guideline than NZ European & Others (7 percent).

Fifty percent of New Zealanders spread butter and 47 percent polyunsaturated margarines (e.g. MiracleSunflower) on their bread/crackers. Overall, the percentage using butter or margarine on bread/crackers was lower among younger people. More common spreads used by NZ Måori and Pacificpeople were butter and butter & margarine blend compared to NZ European & Others. Provincialmales were more likely to have used butter than metropolitan males (56 percent, 51 percentrespectively) and less likely to have used polyunsaturated margarines (43 percent, 50 percent) asspreads.

Figure A Figure B

Cooked porridge consumed (≥1/week)

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

NZ

popu

latio

n

75+

Age group (years)

Met breads and cereals guideline (6+ servings/day)

25–44

45–64

65–74

NZ

popu

latio

n

75+

Age group (years)

0

100

15–18

19–24

malefemale

malefemale

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%


A higher proportion of young people consumed pasta, specialty breads, waffles/donuts, fruit/iced buns,rice and Måori bread than older people while savoury biscuits/crackers and cooked porridge were morepopular among older New Zealanders (Figure B).

About 8 percent of NZ Måori (males 10 percent, females 7 percent) and 5 percent of Pacific people(males 6 percent, females 4 percent) consumed Måori bread compared with virtually no NZ European& Others. NZ Måori were less likely to consume savoury biscuits/crackers, pasta (females only) andrice, but more likely to have had rewena bread, Måori bread, frybread and cooked porridge than NZEuropean & Others. A higher proportion of Pacific people consumed rice than the other two ethnicgroups.

In metropolitan areas, rice, pasta and specialty breads were consumed more frequently than inprovincial areas, although cooked porridge consumption was more frequent in provincialcommunities.

Females from NZDep96 quartile I areas were higher consumers of rice, pasta, savoury biscuits/crackersand specialty breads than females living in quartile IV areas.


E3Meat and Fish Tables E3.1, E3.2

The most common types of meat consumed at least once a week by New Zealanders were beef orveal (males 57 percent, females 51 percent), beef mince dishes (47 percent, 43 percent), chicken (40percent, 44 percent), beef or veal mixed dishes (38 percent, 39 percent), and bacon/ham (41 percent, 33percent). In addition, 36 percent males and 26 percent females chose sausages (including frankfurtersand saveloys) and 34 percent females and 29 percent males consumed chicken mixed dishes. Fish-battered was chosen nearly twice as often among males (20 percent) than females (11 percent).

More younger people ate beef mince dishes, luncheon meats, chicken and chicken mixed dishes (Figure A).A higher percentage of older females had fish (other than battered or fried) and other offal e.g.kidneys, while males and females over 75 years were less likely to have sausages.

Males and females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas were more likely to eat hogget/mutton(29 percent, 21 percent respectively) compared to those from quartile I areas (18 percent, 13 percent).The same applied for females for fish-battered (16 percent, 8 percent) and hogget/mutton mixed dishes(17 percent, 6 percent).

Items more likely to be eaten by both NZ Måori and Pacific people than by NZ European & Othersincluded: lamb, hogget/mutton, fish-battered, hogget/mutton mixed dishes, pork - roast/ chops/steak, cornedbeef, lamb mixed dishes, shellfish and pork bones (Figure B). In addition, a higher proportion of Pacificpeople consumed chicken, chicken mixed dishes, fish-canned, fish-steamed/baked/grilled/raw, fish-friedand pork mixed dishes than the other two ethnic groups.

Figure A Figure B

Luncheon meats consumed (≥1/week)

25–44

45–64

65–74 75

+

Age group (years)

Shellfish consumed (≥1/week)

Popu

latio

n

Ethnic group

malefemale

malefemale

0

100

15–18

19–24

NZ

popu

latio

n

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%



E4Vegetables Tables E4.1, E4.2, E4.3

Potato (males 95 percent, females 93 percent), carrots (81 percent, 86 percent), tomatoes (72 percent,81 percent), lettuce (67 percent, 79 percent), onions/leeks (68 percent, 74 percent) and peas (73 percent,64 percent) were the most common types of vegetables consumed by New Zealanders at leastonce a week.

Sixty-seven percent of the population consumed at least three servings of vegetables a day, andtherefore met the New Zealand Nutrition Task Force (1991) guideline. More females (73 percent)met the guideline than males (62 percent) and the group most likely to meet the guideline wasfemales 65–74 years (87 percent). Males 15–18 years (42 percent) were least likely to meet theguideline (Figure A).

The likelihood of meeting the guideline was related to NZDep96 quartile, particularly amongfemales (quartile I 83 percent, quartile IV 60 percent).

NZ European & Others were most likely (males 65 percent, females 76 percent) and Pacific peopleleast likely (males 27 percent, females 42 percent) to have three or more servings of vegetables perday.

The only vegetables eaten at least once per week more often by males than females were peas(males 73 percent, females 64 percent), hot chips (54 percent, 42 percent) and mixed frozen vegetables(54 percent, 40 percent). Thirteen other vegetables, including tomatoes, cauliflower and asparagus,were eaten more frequently by females.

Males and females 15–24 years more often consumed mixed frozen vegetables, mushrooms and hotchips (Figure B). Older people more often ate potato, carrots, tomatoes, onions/leeks, cauliflower, pumpkin,green beans, silverbeet/spinach, courgettes (males only), kumara, beetroot, celery, brussels sprouts, asparagus,parsnip and turnips/swedes.

Compared to New Zealanders living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas a greater proportion of NewZealanders in quartile I areas ate carrots, sweetcorn (females only), mushrooms, peas (males only),tomatoes, sprouts (females only), broccoli, courgettes, capsicum, lettuce, cauliflower (females only), celery,asparagus, and cucumber.

Figure A Figure B

Met vegetables guideline (3+ servings/day) Hot chips consumed (≥1/week)

Age group (years)

malefemale

malefemale

0

100

15–18

19–24

NZ

popu

latio

n

0

100

15–18

19–24

NZ

popu

latio

n

25–44

45–64

65–74 75

+

Age group (years)

25–44

45–64

65–74 75

+

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%


There was a higher proportion consuming mixed frozen vegetables among females living in NZDep96quartile IV areas, compared with quartile I areas.

NZ Måori were less likely than NZ European & Others to have consumed carrots, tomatoes, lettuce,onions/leeks, cauliflower, broccoli and green beans, and more likely to have eaten mixed frozen vegetablesand hot chips (females only). Watercress, kamo kamo, and puha were almost exclusively consumedamong NZ Måori and to a lesser extent among Pacific people. The latter were the most likely toconsume taro, green bananas and taro leaf.

Provincial people showed a higher frequency of consumption of potato, hot chips (females only),pumpkin, kumara, peas, silverbeet/spinach, carrots (females only), cabbage/coleslaw, beetroot, turnips/swedes, parsnip, cauliflower, brussels sprouts and yams. Mushrooms, capsicum and other green leafyvegetables were more often eaten by individuals living in metropolitan areas.


E5Fruits Table E5

Forty-six percent of the population reached the New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) guidelineof at least two servings of fruit per day. Females (56 percent) were more likely to meet the guidelinethan males (34 percent), with the highest proportion in the older groups (Figure A).

Males were almost twice as likely as females to be eating less than one serving of fruit per day (34percent, 19 percent respectively), and less likely to have at least two servings per day (34 percent,56 percent). Numbers of servings of fruit per day increased with age in both sexes, although thepercentage of females 15–18 years having at least two servings of fruit per day was high (60 percent).

There was an increase in the proportion of males and females eating less than one serving of fruitper day who lived in NZDep96 quartile IV areas, compared with those from quartile I areas. Therewas a similar pattern for vegetable consumption.

Female NZ Måori and Pacific people were more likely than NZ European & Others to consumeless than one serving of fruit per day (26 percent and 30 percent, 18 percent).

The fruit consumed most often at least once per week by the New Zealand population was bananas(females 85 percent, males 78 percent). Other fruit consumed by more than half the populationwere apples (73 percent), oranges (67 percent), and stone fruit (peach, nectarine, plum, apricot) in season(56 percent). Almost all fruits were consumed more frequently by females except for fruit canned insyrup. Older groups (65+ years) reported a higher frequency of choice of stewed fruit, bananas andstone fruit (males only) at least once per week.

Individuals from NZDep96 quartile I areas were more likely than individuals living in quartile IVareas to consume grapes, kiwifruit, stone fruit, apples, bananas, berry fruits (strawberries and other berriesor cherries), sultanas and other dried fruit.

While most fruits were eaten equally often among all ethnic groups, Pacific people more oftenchose pears and oranges than other ethnic groups. Both NZ Måori and Pacific people were lesslikely to choose kiwifruit, stewed fruit and other dried fruits than NZ European & Others (Figure B).

The only differences in fruit choice between metropolitan and provincial residents, were the morefrequent consumption of fruit canned in syrup and stewed fruit in provincial areas.

Age group (years)

Figure A Figure B

Met fruit guideline (2+ servings/day)

25–44

45–64

65–74 75

+

Kiwifruit consumed (≥1/week)

Ethnic group

Popu

latio

n

0

100

15–18

19–24

NZ

popu

latio

n

malefemale

malefemale

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%



E6Beverages Table E6

Non-alcoholicWater (80 percent), tea (62 percent) and coffee (61 percent) were consumed regularly (at least threetimes per week) by the greatest numbers of New Zealanders. Males were more frequent regularconsumers than females of coffee (64 percent, 58 percent respectively), carbonated drinks (30 percent,18 percent), cordial (7 percent, 4 percent), powdered drinks (23 percent, 18 percent) and sports drinks(5 percent, 2 percent); whereas for females it was diet carbonated drinks (10 percent, 7 percent), water(85 percent, 74 percent), herbal tea (11 percent, 4 percent) and tea (65 percent, 58 percent).

Males 19–24 years were the most frequent consumers of sports drinks (20 percent). Apart from tea,coffee, diet carbonated drinks and herbal tea, younger groups more frequently consumed non-alcoholicdrinks than older groups.

Tea was less regularly consumed by the 15–24 years group (males 25 percent and 26 percent,females 40 percent and 47 percent), but more frequently consumed by the 75+ years group (males89 percent, females 86 percent) (Figure A). The highest frequency of consumption of herbal tea wasamong females 19–64 years (10 percent – 13 percent).

Powdered drinks and cordial were more regularly consumed by individuals living in NZDep96quartile IV areas but fruit juice, tea (males only), water (females only) and coffee were more popularamong individuals living in quartile I and II areas.

Compared to the other two ethnic groups, Pacific people were higher regular consumers of fruitdrinks and sports drinks, while NZ Måori more often had cordial and carbonated drinks. Fewer NZMåori and Pacific people drank coffee, tea and herbal tea than NZ European & Others.

AlcoholicMore males than females chose beer (51 percent, 10 percent respectively) and spirits/liqueurs (21percent, 16 percent). White wine was the more popular drink among females (23 percent, 13 percent).

Consumption (at least once per week) of beer among females 45+ years was uncommon (≤ 5 percent).Red wine consumption was highest among males 25–74 years (15 percent to 17 percent) and females

Age group (years)

Figure A Figure B

Tea consumed (≥3/week) White wine consumed (≥1/week)

Ethnic group

Popu

latio

n

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

NZ

popu

latio

n

75+

malefemale

malefemale


0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%


19–64 years (14 percent to 17 percent). Females 19–74 years (19 percent to 29 percent) and males45–74 years (17 percent to 25 percent) had the highest white wine consumption on at least a weeklybasis.

The frequency of consumption of beer at least once a week was lowest among Pacific peoplecompared to the other two ethnic groups.

Red wine and white wine consumption, although common among NZ European & Others (15 percentto 25 percent at least once per week), was very rare among NZ Måori (3 percent to 8 percent) andPacific people (1 percent to 4 percent) (Figure B). Compared with NZ European & Others thechoice of spirits/liqueurs was lower among NZ Måori and Pacific people except for NZ Måori males15–24 years who had the highest frequency of intake of all groups (27 percent).

Provincial males were less likely than metropolitan males to consume red wine and white wine atleast once per week.


E7Miscellaneous Foods Tables E7.1, E7.2

Of New Zealanders who ate eggs, almost a quarter consumed at least four eggs per week (males 33percent, females 16 percent) and about a third ate one or less per week (26 percent, 36 percent).This did not include eggs used in baking. The proportion consuming at least four per week changedwith NZDep96 quartile areas for both males (quartile I 20 percent, quartile IV 43 percent), andfemales (quartile I 10 percent, quartile IV 25 percent). NZ Måori males (59 percent) and females(34 percent) were about twice as likely to have eaten at least four per week than NZ European &Others (males 28 percent, females 13 percent).

Sweet spreads (jam, honey, marmalade or syrup) were the most popular ‘toppings/spreads’ (66 percent)followed by Vegemite or Marmite (53 percent) and peanut butter (36 percent). Tomato sauce was themost popular ‘sauces/dressings’ (48 percent) though its popularity declined among older groups(Figure A). Both were consumed at least once per week by a higher proportion of males thanfemales. Sweet spreads were more popular among those living in NZDep96 quartile I areas andamong provincial rather than metropolitan residents. Sweet spreads were the most frequently used‘toppings/spreads’ among NZ European & Others (males 72 percent, females 64 percent), NZMåori males (62 percent) and Pacific males (51 percent).

Plain sweet biscuits (53 percent) were the most popular of the ‘biscuits/cakes/muffins’ category.Cream filled/chocolate biscuits were consumed by more males (44 percent) than females (37 percent).All biscuits, cakes and muffins were eaten less by individuals from NZDep96 quartile IV areasthan quartile I areas. More provincial males preferred cakes/scones/pikelets than metropolitan males.

At least once per week during winter 50 percent of the New Zealand population had homemadesoup and 37 percent had canned/packet soup.

Only small proportions of the population ate sweet pies/pastries and other puddings/desserts at leastonce per week. Males were twice as likely as females to consume sweet pies/pastries (14 percent, 7percent). The consumption of sweet pies/pastries decreased with age in both sexes.

Chocolate and other confectionery were almost equally popular (35 percent, 34 percent respectively).There was no sex difference in the frequency of consumption of other confectionery and muesli barsbut chocolate was eaten more by males than females (38 percent, 33 percent). The consumption ofother confectionery, muesli bars and chocolate all decreased with age (Figure B).

Age group (years) Age group (years)

Figure A Figure B

Tomato sauce consumed (≥1/week) Chocolate consumed (≥1/week)

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

NZ

popu

latio

n

75+ 0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

NZ

popu

latio

n

75+

malefemale

malefemale

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%


Takeaway style foods (meat pies/sausage rolls, hamburger, pizza) were more frequently consumed bymales than females. The percentage consuming meat pies/sausage rolls, hamburger and pizza at leastonce per week was highest in those 15–24 years and decreased with age. NZ Måori and Pacificpeople were more likely to have eaten meat pies/sausage rolls and hamburger than NZ European &Others. Meat pies/sausage rolls were consumed by a greater proportion of individuals from NZDep96quartile IV areas (males 46 percent, females 21 percent) compared with quartile I areas (33 percent,10 percent).

More males than females ate potato crisps (38 percent, 33 percent). There was a marked decreasewith age in the percentage of the population consuming potato crisps while older people weremore likely to consume nuts. Among females, NZ European & Others (32 percent) were less likelyto consume potato crisps than NZ Måori (40 percent) or Pacific people (45 percent).

Coconut cream was only used by a very small proportion of the population with the exception ofPacific people (males 38 percent, females 40 percent). There was a strong gradient across theNZDep96 quartiles for coconut cream intake, with the lowest consumption among those living inNZDep96 quartile I areas (1 percent) and highest in quartile IV areas (7 percent – 8 percent).


Tabl

e E1

DAIR

Y FO

ODS

Milk

s ch

osen

Perc

ent c

onsu

min

g at

leas

t onc

e pe

r wee

k.m

ost o

ften

(%)

Milk

type

Drin

ks o

f milk

Othe

r dai

ry fo

ods

Chee

ses

Hot

Brie

, blu

e,be

vera

geCr

eam

/ C

usta

rd/

Colby

,Co

ttage

Moz

zare

lla,

& ot

her

Milk

as a

mad

e with

Flavo

ured

sour

dairy

Milk

mild

,Ed

am/

orfe

ta,

spec

ialty

Crea

mSt

anda

rd Tr

imbe

vera

gem

ilkm

ilkIc

e cr

eam

Yogh

urt

crea

mfo

odpu

dding

s ta

stygo

uda

ricot

taca

mem

bert

chee

ses

chee

se N

Z Po

p’n

(Age

15+

)60

2535

2011

3835

1815

665

205

55

3M

ales

15–1

885

1563

3742

5733

1125

852

132

72

219

–24

7824

5030

3735

3018

197

7019

68

47

25–4

472

2140

2015

4029

1716

466

172

45

345

–64

5725

2814

846

2420

114

6616

13

62

65–7

440

2725

113

4822

2112

972

101

36

375

+51

2018

145

379

3220

2265

111

14

2To

tal

6622

3719

1643

2718

166

6616

24

53

Fem

ales

15–1

859

3051

2521

4847

2339

467

193

30

519

–24

5727

4525

1331

4421

195

5924

89

51

25–4

460

2435

208

2842

1711

465

259

85

445

–64

4730

2319

229

4218

86

6125

87

53

65–7

441

3426

204

3542

1118

1571

208

36

275

+44

1930

282

4132

2729

2071

115

29

6To

tal

5427

3221

832

4218

157

6424

86

54

NZD

ep96

Qua

rtile

sM

ales

I61

2437

1819

4930

2114

473

212

76

2II

6124

3114

1244

2816

145

6817

43

53

III66

2337

1913

3924

1718

761

151

23

6IV

7718

4327

2039

2417

178

619

35

42

Fem

ales

I42

3028

174

3248

1917

767

319

107

4II

5227

3419

831

4321

126

6423

86

64

III57

3134

229

3138

1615

665

219

53

3IV

6620

3526

936

3817

168

6116

65

43

Com

mun

ityM

ales

Met

ropo

litan

6523

3921

1841

2818

156

6517

35

53

Prov

inci

al69

2034

1613

4624

1817

669

141

24

3Fe

mal

esM

etro

polit

an51

2832

228

3142

1915

663

238

85

4Pr

ovin

cial

5924

3320

634

4118

158

6823

84

53

Qual

itativ

e fo

od fr

eque

ncy

ques

tionn

aire

; que

stio

ns 1

0 –

11.


Tabl

e E1

con

t.DA

IRY

FOOD

SM

ilks

chos

enPe

rcen

t con

sum

ing

at le

ast o

nce

per w

eek.

mos

t ofte

n (%

)M

ilk ty

peDr

inks

of m

ilkOt

her d

airy

food

sCh

eese

sHo

tBr

ie, b

lue,

beve

rage

Crea

m/

Cus

tard

/Co

lby,

Cotta

geM

ozza

rella

, &

othe

rM

ilk as

a m

ade w

ithFla

vour

ed so

urda

iryM

ilkm

ild,

Edam

/ or

feta

,sp

ecial

tyCr

eam

Stan

dard

Trim

beve

rage

milk

milk

Ice

crea

mYo

ghur

t cr

eam

food

pudd

ings

tasty

goud

aric

otta

cam

embe

rtch

eese

sch

eese

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

492

1451

5050

5728

1924

1253

82

114

425

–44

8210

4817

2332

3021

2115

546

41

15

45+

7320

2211

135

1135

75

598

21

21

Tota

l83

1343

2626

4024

2419

1255

73

42

3Fe

mal

es15

–24

7511

4836

3754

4317

298

6013

72

04

25–4

473

1840

2611

2625

1214

657

135

31

345

+85

1334

372

3124

1716

1759

154

20

1To

tal

7715

4130

1636

2915

199

5813

53

13

Paci

fic P

eopl

eM

ales

15–2

485

*17

*61

*31

*33

*36

*14

*14

*34

*9*

20*

4*0*

3*3*

5*25

–44

9514

3029

1346

94

142

251

60

02

45+

69*

15*

36*

35*

15*

49*

37*

13*

23*

25*

33*

3*0*

0*0*

1*To

tal

8615

4031

1944

179

229

252

31

13

Fem

ales

15–2

467

*14

*49

*44

*14

*63

*46

*15

*28

*14

*44

*8*

3*3*

1*4*

25–4

475

2743

3511

4426

1220

834

93

01

245

+80

*29

*22

*26

*8*

33*

34*

6*11

*6*

46*

12*

11*

8*9*

8*To

tal

7324

4035

1147

3412

2010

3910

53

34

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

15–2

478

2255

2937

4233

1519

669

205

73

625

–44

6923

3920

1442

3116

162

7120

25

63

45+

5125

2714

746

2220

127

6915

13

62

Tota

l63

2436

1815

4427

1715

570

182

55

3Fe

mal

es15

–24

5333

4720

1232

4624

263

6426

68

42

25–4

457

2533

187

2946

1810

467

2810

96

545

+41

3124

203

3241

1814

1066

228

56

4To

tal

5029

3119

630

4419

146

6625

97

64

* Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.Qu

alita

tive

food

freq

uenc

y qu

estio

nnai

re; q

uest

ions

10

– 11

.


Tabl

e E2

.1B

REA

DS

AN

D C

EREA

LS I

Freq

uenc

y of

ser

ving

s 1%

usi

ngTy

pe o

f but

ter/m

arga

rine

used

on

brea

d/cr

acke

rs (%

) 2

Cere

als

Brea

ds &

butte

r on

Butte

r & R

educ

edBr

ead

Brea

dBr

ead

Cere

als

≥10

cere

als

brea

d/Po

lyun

sat.

mar

garin

ePr

aise

/Lo

w s

alt

Unsa

lted

fat

<1/d

ay3–

4/da

y≥5

/day

<4/w

eek 3

/wee

k 36+

/day

4cr

acke

rs 5

Butte

rm

arga

rines

6bl

end

Oliv

iom

arga

rine

butte

r m

arga

rine

Othe

rN

Z Po

p’n

(Age

15+

)5

4223

3116

1892

5047

1110

72

20

Mal

es15

–18

625

4728

2839

8652

4920

86

32

119

–24

638

4024

3033

9254

5311

64

20

325

–44

540

3532

2129

9460

4112

75

22

045

–64

241

3436

1226

9646

537

99

11

065

–74

144

3327

522

9639

5011

124

11

075

+0

6215

196

1598

4351

78

122

10

Tota

l4

4035

3118

2894

5248

118

61

11

Fem

ales

15–1

85

4415

4117

1284

5058

62

62

40

19–2

47

4513

3417

887

5153

106

87

50

25–4

48

4013

2820

1089

5146

1211

83

40

45–6

46

4410

377

891

4544

1114

81

10

65–7

42

5710

382

693

3545

1016

91

40

75+

256

1326

68

9839

4912

117

00

1To

tal

644

1233

139

9047

4711

118

23

0N

ZDep

96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

es I

442

2725

2324

8949

5513

64

11

3II

344

3432

1525

9359

4112

84

22

0III

438

3934

1528

9643

528

108

11

0IV

536

4234

1936

9450

4810

86

11

1Fe

mal

esI

448

928

178

8446

617

64

55

0II

744

1129

149

8850

4310

128

34

0III

644

1234

139

9341

4510

158

12

0IV

741

1741

812

8945

479

137

23

0Co

mm

unity

Mal

esM

etro

polit

an4

3933

2919

2793

5150

119

61

11

Prov

inci

al2

4240

3415

3296

5643

116

62

20

Fem

ales

Met

ropo

litan

744

1232

159

9047

4711

128

33

0Pr

ovin

cial

645

1236

1110

9148

4712

118

22

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alita

tive

food

freq

uenc

y qu

estio

nnai

re; q

uest

ions

4, 6

and

13.

1Pe

rcen

t of p

opul

atio

n co

nsum

ing

spec

ified

num

ber o

f ser

ving

s. ‘<

1/d

ay’ a

nd ‘<

4/w

eek’

incl

udes

thos

e w

ho d

o no

t eat

bre

ads/

cere

als.

2Pe

rcen

t of t

hose

who

use

but

ter/m

arga

rine.

As

mul

tiple

ans

wer

s w

ere

poss

ible

, per

cent

age

tota

ls m

ay e

xcee

d 10

0.3

Serv

ings

of f

oods

suc

h as

pas

ta, r

ice,

mue

sli,

porr

idge

, or b

reak

fast

cer

eal.

4N

ew Z

eala

nd N

utrit

ion

Task

forc

e (1

991)

gui

delin

e.5

Incl

udes

peo

ple

who

use

but

ter a

nd/o

r mar

garin

e pr

oduc

ts o

n br

ead

and/

or c

rack

ers.

6Fo

r exa

mpl

e, ‘M

iracl

e’, ‘

Sunf

low

er’ e

tc.


Tabl

e E2

.1 c

ont.

BRE

AD

S A

ND

CER

EALS

IFr

eque

ncy

of s

ervi

ngs 1

% u

sing

Type

of b

utte

r/mar

garin

e us

ed o

n br

ead/

crac

kers

(%) 2

Cere

als

Brea

ds &

butte

r on

Butte

r & R

educ

edBr

ead

Brea

dBr

ead

Cere

als

≥10

cere

als

brea

d/Po

lyun

sat.

mar

garin

ePr

aise

/Lo

w s

alt

Unsa

lted

fat

<1/d

ay3–

4/da

y≥5

/day

<4/w

eek 3

/wee

k 36+

/day

4cr

acke

rs 5

Butte

rm

arga

rines

6bl

end

Oliv

iom

arga

rine

butte

r m

arga

rine

Othe

rN

Z M

aori

Mal

es15

–24

538

4230

2835

8971

4218

87

40

025

–44

432

4452

1235

9765

4213

23

12

045

+2

4626

421

2098

5756

1111

60

51

Tota

l4

3739

4215

3195

6546

146

52

20

Fem

ales

15–2

47

3532

5011

2587

6341

102

157

20

25–4

48

4523

3315

1997

6156

208

61

30

45+

642

2250

213

9353

4125

86

03

0To

tal

741

2542

1020

9460

4819

68

23

0Pa

cific

Peo

ple

Mal

es15

–24

0*26

*52

*26

*16

*38

*96

*59

*37

*20

*13

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10*

4*0*

25–4

49

3928

493

2795

6947

183

243

00

45+

3*34

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28*

100*

63*

46*

9*4*

8*0*

15*

0*To

tal

634

3643

830

9765

4417

616

45

0Fe

mal

es15

–24

2*49

*30

*50

*21

*12

*99

*63

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*23

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17*

1*3*

0*25

–44

932

1729

1716

9549

5624

613

11

145

+18

*42

*13

*38

*18

*10

*97

*48

*61

*18

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3*1*

0*0*

Tota

l9

3920

3719

1496

5351

224

121

10

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

15–2

47

3242

2429

3689

4955

136

41

13

25–4

44

4134

2723

2993

5941

128

42

20

45+

244

3232

1125

9643

528

108

11

0To

tal

441

3529

1928

9450

4810

86

11

1Fe

mal

es15

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646

932

186

8446

617

64

55

025

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840

1127

208

8850

4310

128

34

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+4

499

345

693

4145

1015

81

20

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l6

4510

3114

789

4547

913

72

30

Qual

itativ

e fo

od fr

eque

ncy

ques

tionn

aire

; que

stio

ns 4

, 6 a

nd 1

3.*

Lim

ited

sam

ple

size

, 25

≤ n

< 50

, cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in in

terp

reta

tion

of d

ata.

1Pe

rcen

t of p

opul

atio

n co

nsum

ing

spec

ified

num

ber o

f ser

ving

s. ‘<

1/d

ay’ a

nd ‘<

4/w

eek’

incl

udes

thos

e w

ho d

o no

t eat

bre

ads/

cere

als.

2Pe

rcen

t of t

hose

who

use

but

ter/m

arga

rine.

As

mul

tiple

ans

wer

s w

ere

poss

ible

, per

cent

age

tota

ls m

ay e

xcee

d 10

0.3

Serv

ings

of f

oods

suc

h as

pas

ta, r

ice,

mue

sli,

porr

idge

, or b

reak

fast

cer

eal.

4N

ew Z

eala

nd N

utrit

ion

Task

forc

e (1

991)

gui

delin

e.5

Incl

udes

peo

ple

who

use

but

ter a

nd/o

r mar

garin

e pr

oduc

ts o

n br

ead

and/

or c

rack

ers.

6Fo

r exa

mpl

e, ‘M

iracl

e’, ‘

Sunf

low

er’ e

tc.


Tabl

e E2

.2B

REA

DS

AN

D C

EREA

LS II

Perc

ent c

onsu

min

g at

leas

t onc

e pe

r wee

kSa

vour

yCr

umpe

tsW

affle

sBr

eakf

ast

bisc

uits

/Co

oked

Spec

ialty

Frui

t or

or

orM

aori

Rew

ena

cere

al P

asta

crac

kers

Rice

porr

idge

brea

dsic

ed b

uns

croi

ssan

tsdo

ughn

uts

brea

d b

read

Fryb

read

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

6054

5148

2310

75

31

11

Mal

es15

–18

7064

4146

136

1710

96

33

19–2

465

7334

558

1616

85

10

025

–44

6061

4153

2311

77

32

11

45–6

459

3950

4228

69

43

10

165

–74

6028

6026

393

114

11

00

75+

5224

5528

523

73

10

00

Tota

l60

5245

4624

910

63

21

1Fe

mal

es15

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6073

5740

716

137

51

00

19–2

452

7142

5910

131

65

21

025

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6069

5460

1915

54

21

10

45–6

460

4564

4322

85

41

01

165

–74

6123

6430

304

62

22

21

75+

6625

6726

394

93

11

00

Tota

l60

5757

4920

116

42

11

0N

ZDep

96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

esI

6358

5452

269

86

30

00

II60

5646

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912

52

00

1III

5645

4141

2011

66

31

00

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4937

4525

613

74

52

3Fe

mal

esI

6264

6554

1915

65

10

00

II64

6158

5317

146

32

00

0III

6051

5547

2010

65

21

10

IV53

4548

4123

76

44

43

1Co

mm

unity

Mal

esM

etro

polit

an61

5445

5123

1010

64

21

1Pr

ovin

cial

6146

4333

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95

21

00

Fem

ales

Met

ropo

litan

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5853

1914

65

21

00

Prov

inci

al62

5055

3924

75

42

11

1Qu

alita

tive

food

freq

uenc

y qu

estio

nnai

re; q

uest

ion

12.


Tabl

e E2

.2 c

ont.

BRE

AD

S A

ND

CER

EALS

IIPe

rcen

t con

sum

ing

at le

ast o

nce

per w

eek

Savo

ury

Crum

pets

Waf

fles

Brea

kfas

tbi

scui

ts/

Cook

edSp

ecia

ltyFr

uit o

r o

ror

Mao

riRe

wen

ace

real

Pas

tacr

acke

rsRi

cepo

rrid

gebr

eads

iced

bun

scr

oiss

ants

doug

hnut

sbr

ead

bre

adFr

ybre

adN

Z M

aori

Mal

es15

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7265

2057

197

103

713

76

25–4

454

5524

3230

88

64

104

845

+52

2436

2542

53

01

72

5To

tal

5951

2638

298

74

410

56

Fem

ales

15–2

453

5337

3716

77

57

73

125

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6151

3644

298

47

16

54

45+

6320

3526

497

82

47

138

Tota

l59

4436

3829

76

53

76

4Pa

cific

Peo

ple

Mal

es15

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46*

66*

41*

77*

9*3*

12*

0*7*

4*0*

0*25

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4248

3962

339

80

94

10

45+

29*

32*

56*

61*

51*

18*

17*

15*

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12*

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Tota

l40

4943

6731

911

39

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mal

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68*

66*

28*

74*

18*

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17*

13*

21*

6*0*

2*25

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5152

5678

3610

178

111

21

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58*

29*

63*

59*

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l58

5150

7233

1019

1214

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1N

Z Eu

rope

an &

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ers

Mal

es15

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6770

4149

814

1911

71

00

25–4

462

6243

5521

126

72

00

145

+59

3654

3732

510

42

00

0To

tal

6152

4846

249

116

30

00

Fem

ales

15–2

455

7652

536

166

64

00

025

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6173

5762

1517

54

20

00

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6638

256

63

10

00

Tota

l61

5860

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125

42

00

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Lim

ited

sam

ple

size

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≤ n

< 50

, cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in in

terp

reta

tion

of d

ata.

Qual

itativ

e fo

od fr

eque

ncy

ques

tionn

aire

; que

stio

n 12

.


Tabl

e E3

.1M

EAT

AN

D F

ISH

IPe

rcen

t con

sum

ing

at le

ast o

nce

per w

eek

Fis

h-Ho

gget

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efBe

ef/v

eal

Chic

ken

stea

med

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utto

nBe

ef/

min

cem

ixed

Baco

n/ m

ixed

Lunc

heon

Hogg

et/

Fish

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sh-

bake

d/m

ixed

vea

ldi

shes

Chic

ken

dish

es h

amdi

shes

Saus

ages

1m

eats

Lam

bm

utto

nca

nned

batte

red

grill

ed/ra

wdi

shes

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

5445

4238

3832

3123

2020

1515

1312

Mal

es15

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5939

4139

3930

3740

2522

920

813

19–2

458

5552

3845

3747

3226

2811

317

1625

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5751

4439

4336

3635

1922

1623

1214

45–6

460

4434

3943

2433

1823

2213

1611

1365

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5841

2531

2814

3418

1825

1510

1620

75+

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2830

3713

237

2819

1113

1510

Tota

l57

4740

3841

2936

2722

2314

2011

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mal

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5836

3334

2722

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512

98

19–2

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4053

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4126

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1415

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825

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4742

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4040

4230

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209

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75+

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6248

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5650

3834

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2916

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3630

3227

2224

2117

1620

17Co

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unity

Mal

esM

etro

polit

an54

4742

3640

3333

2722

1913

1913

13Pr

ovin

cial

6647

3442

4420

4327

2132

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Fem

ales

Met

ropo

litan

5042

4737

3238

2420

1914

1810

179

Prov

inci

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4739

4237

2531

1818

2115

1312

141

Incl

udes

fran

kfur

ters

and

sav

eloy

s.Qu

alita

tive

food

freq

uenc

y qu

estio

nnai

re; q

uest

ion

16.


Tabl

e E3

.1 c

ont.

MEA

T A

ND

FIS

H I

Perc

ent c

onsu

min

g at

leas

t onc

e pe

r wee

k F

ish-

Hogg

et/

Beef

Beef

/vea

lCh

icke

nst

eam

ed/

mut

ton

Beef

/ m

ince

mix

edBa

con/

mix

edLu

nche

onHo

gget

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sh-

Fish

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ked/

mix

ed v

eal

dish

esCh

icke

ndi

shes

ham

dish

esSa

usag

es 1

mea

tsLa

mb

mut

ton

cann

edba

ttere

dgr

illed

/raw

dish

esN

Z M

aori

Mal

es15

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5841

4843

4239

3544

3531

730

1020

25–4

459

5738

3440

2640

2929

3919

3812

2245

+60

3438

2232

2433

1625

3312

2417

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5946

4234

3929

3731

3035

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Fem

ales

15–2

454

5059

3328

3931

2421

197

2213

1725

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5339

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3731

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45+

4749

2937

2618

2219

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138

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Tota

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4748

3728

3532

2624

2514

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cific

Peo

ple

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es15

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52*

30*

44*

29*

25*

36*

8*10

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13*

17*

20*

11*

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467

3550

3626

3523

2747

4039

3534

3345

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Fem

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6033

2745

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4528

2815

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NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

15–2

459

5247

3944

3347

3522

2511

266

1425

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5551

4540

4437

3636

1619

1420

1112

45+

5844

3137

4020

3217

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1313

1213

Tota

l57

4839

3842

2936

2719

2113

1810

13Fe

mal

es15

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4937

5437

4236

2624

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119

94

25–4

453

5445

4338

4133

2513

1120

1112

745

+51

3638

3829

2718

1119

1815

1018

11To

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5143

4339

3434

2519

1715

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mite

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e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.Qu

alita

tive

food

freq

uenc

y qu

estio

nnai

re; q

uest

ion

16.

1 Incl

udes

fran

kfur

ters

and

sav

eloy

s.


Tabl

e E3

.2M

EAT

AN

D F

ISH

IIPe

rcen

t con

sum

ing

at le

ast o

nce

per w

eek

Othe

rOt

her

Pork

-roa

st/

Pork

Lam

bse

afoo

dof

fal

Fish

-ch

ops/

Corn

ed m

ixed

mix

edSh

ell-

Pork

Live

r/e.

g.e.

g.Tu

rkey

/M

utto

nfri

edst

eak

beef

dis

hes

dis

hes

fish 1

bone

spa

tepr

awns

kidn

eys

Veni

son

duck

bird

Eel

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

1210

99

96

32

21

10

00

Mal

es15

–18

1612

913

85

44

30

11

00

19–2

419

1310

1011

71

32

22

10

125

–44

1314

911

109

42

31

21

00

45–6

412

1012

76

72

11

11

00

065

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119

94

72

02

01

00

00

75+

197

118

63

23

24

00

10

Tota

l14

1210

98

73

22

11

00

0Fe

mal

es15

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147

108

112

30

21

00

00

19–2

412

99

813

115

16

02

00

025

–44

1011

89

96

32

20

10

10

45–6

48

810

88

42

22

11

00

065

–74

166

77

73

15

02

10

00

75+

1310

76

92

04

02

00

20

Tota

l11

98

89

52

22

11

00

0N

ZDep

96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

esI

119

68

74

12

11

10

00

II14

109

64

51

31

21

00

0III

1412

910

1210

33

11

01

00

IV16

1816

1312

107

25

21

11

1Fe

mal

esI

117

37

83

02

30

00

00

II10

97

67

42

21

01

01

0III

710

109

93

11

11

10

00

IV15

1114

1014

107

34

11

00

0Co

mm

unity

Mal

esM

etro

polit

an14

1310

108

73

32

11

00

0Pr

ovin

cial

1410

116

87

21

21

21

00

Fem

ales

Met

ropo

litan

1110

79

95

32

21

10

00

Prov

inci

al11

711

510

62

11

01

00

01

Shel

l fis

h (e

.g. m

usse

ls, o

yste

rs, p

aua,

kin

a, p

ipis

).Qu

alita

tive

food

freq

uenc

y qu

estio

nnai

re; q

uest

ion

16.


Tabl

e E3

.2 c

ont.

MEA

T A

ND

FIS

H II

Perc

ent c

onsu

min

g at

leas

t onc

e pe

r wee

kOt

her

Othe

rPo

rk-r

oast

/Po

rkLa

mb

seaf

ood

offa

lFi

sh-

chop

s/Co

rned

mix

edm

ixed

Shel

l-Po

rkLi

ver/

e.g.

e.g.

Turk

ey/

Mut

ton

fried

stea

kbe

ef d

ishe

s d

ishe

sfis

h 1bo

nes

pate

praw

nski

dney

sVe

niso

ndu

ckbi

rdEe

lN

Z M

aori

Mal

es15

–24

167

107

811

50

00

12

02

25–4

415

2117

1420

1214

25

12

32

245

+26

1224

93

268

13

30

00

1To

tal

1815

1710

1215

101

31

11

12

Fem

ales

15–2

422

2117

1114

1118

06

10

00

025

–44

1214

1610

1415

112

41

10

01

45+

68

1610

1614

124

25

30

10

Tota

l14

1416

1014

1413

24

21

00

0Pa

cific

Peo

ple

Mal

es15

–24

12*

12*

38*

5*12

*6*

0*0*

3*0*

0*0*

0*2*

25–4

421

2938

1030

3415

213

20

00

045

+26

*25

*48

*32

*41

*35

*29

*2*

19*

0*0*

0*8*

0*To

tal

2023

4014

2726

142

121

00

21

Fem

ales

15–2

423

*26

*37

*39

*28

*29

*15

*2*

8*0*

0*0*

0*3*

25–4

425

2726

1328

138

114

21

01

045

+12

*8*

36*

2*43

*28

*7*

6*11

*0*

0*0*

0*0*

Tota

l22

2231

1831

2110

311

10

01

1N

Z Eu

rope

an &

Oth

ers

Mal

es15

–24

1814

713

115

14

32

10

00

25–4

412

137

117

72

32

02

00

045

+12

99

66

41

21

10

00

0To

tal

1311

89

75

12

21

10

00

Fem

ales

15–2

49

45

511

40

14

01

00

025

–44

99

58

74

12

10

10

10

45+

118

87

72

13

01

00

10

Tota

l10

86

78

31

21

01

00

0*

Lim

ited

sam

ple

size

, 25

≤ n

< 50

, cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in in

terp

reta

tion

of d

ata.

Qual

itativ

e fo

od fr

eque

ncy

ques

tionn

aire

; que

stio

n 16

.1

Shel

l fis

h (e

.g. m

usse

ls, o

yste

rs, p

aua,

kin

a, p

ipis

).


Tabl

e E4

.1VE

GET

AB

LES

ISe

rvin

gs 1

Perc

ent c

onsu

min

g at

leas

t onc

e pe

r wee

kM

ixed

Vege

table

sVe

geta

bles

Onio

ns/

Cabb

age/

Caul

i-Ho

tfro

zen

Gree

n≤

1/da

y≥

3/da

y 2Po

tato

3Ca

rrot

sTo

mat

oes

Lettu

ce le

eks

Peas

cole

slaw

flow

erBr

occo

liPu

mpk

inch

ips 4

vege

tabl

esbe

ans

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

1267

9583

7773

7168

6159

5952

4747

46M

ales

15–1

824

4290

7560

7044

6559

3837

2875

6134

19–2

421

5387

7560

6359

6656

5354

3575

6539

25–4

416

5994

7871

6370

7355

5053

4361

6041

45–6

413

7298

8477

7171

8067

6761

6345

4751

65–7

47

7499

8987

8380

6768

6355

6624

3267

75+

971

9793

7764

7470

5766

3860

1943

52To

tal

1562

9581

7267

6873

6055

5449

5454

45Fe

mal

es15

–18

1368

9679

6480

4763

5868

5742

6356

4119

–24

1559

8976

7176

6462

5055

6447

5557

2525

–44

1071

9086

8177

7765

6057

6549

4941

4045

–64

878

9789

8583

7766

6769

6764

3233

5465

–74

587

9992

9087

8162

6366

6868

2124

7375

+6

7797

9086

6878

5858

7158

6615

3060

Tota

l9

7393

8681

7974

6461

6265

5542

4047

NZD

ep96

Qua

rtile

sM

ales

I12

6696

8877

7367

7660

6063

5053

5448

II12

6698

8374

7271

7658

5151

5155

5246

III17

6095

7872

6469

7361

5853

4457

5447

IV19

5491

7266

5866

6562

5245

4953

5542

Fem

ales

I4

8395

9188

8475

6562

6975

5542

3351

II7

7892

8781

8280

6262

6066

5641

3746

III11

6994

8479

7870

6459

5962

5443

4142

IV16

6093

8074

7169

6658

5954

5740

5045

Com

mun

ityM

ales

Met

ropo

litan

1758

9380

7265

6869

5853

5446

5354

44Pr

ovin

cial

1172

9882

7273

6880

6660

5455

5557

49Fe

mal

esM

etro

polit

an10

7092

8481

7975

6258

6165

5340

4045

Prov

inci

al7

8097

8980

7972

6867

6665

6145

3948

1Pe

rcen

t of p

eopl

e ea

ting

thes

e nu

mbe

rs o

f ser

ving

s of

veg

etab

les

per d

ay (‘

≤ 1’

incl

udes

Qual

itativ

e fo

od fr

eque

ncy

ques

tionn

aire

; que

stio

ns 3

and

20.

thos

e w

ho d

on’t

eat v

eget

able

s). S

ervi

ng =

1 m

ediu

m p

otat

o/ku

mar

a or

1/2

cup

coo

ked

vege

tabl

es o

r 1 c

up s

alad

veg

etab

les.

2N

ew Z

eala

nd N

utrit

ion

Task

forc

e (1

991)

gui

delin

e.3

Pota

to: b

oile

d, m

ashe

d, b

aked

or r

oast

ed.

4Ho

t pot

ato

chip

s or

kum

ara

chip

s/ fr

ench

frie

s/ w

edge

s.


Tabl

e E4

.1 c

ont.

VEG

ETA

BLE

S I

Serv

ings

1Pe

rcen

t con

sum

ing

at le

ast o

nce

per w

eek

Mix

edVe

geta

bles

Vege

table

sOn

ions

/Ca

bbag

e/Ca

uli-

Hot

froze

nGr

een

≤ 1/

day

≥ 3/

day 2

Pota

to 3

Carr

ots

Tom

atoe

sLe

ttuce

leek

sPe

asco

lesl

awflo

wer

Broc

coli

Pum

pkin

chip

s 4ve

geta

bles

bean

sN

Z M

aori

Mal

es15

–24

2544

8754

5065

4252

5229

2929

7259

3625

–44

1756

9975

6352

6880

6556

5554

5179

4345

+24

4997

6566

6174

7074

5443

5733

5146

Tota

l21

5095

6659

5961

7063

4744

4754

6642

Fem

ales

15–2

422

4989

7053

6152

6555

4944

4664

6922

25–4

414

6390

7770

5966

7364

5656

6150

6442

45+

576

9489

8281

7670

6960

6173

3348

51To

tal

1462

9178

6865

6470

6255

5460

5062

37Pa

cific

Peo

ple

Mal

es15

–24

54*

11*

49*

47*

52*

69*

47*

21*

46*

34*

22*

11*

59*

36*

14*

25–4

443

2887

6156

6064

5458

3826

2840

7041

45+

25*

42*

77*

90*

74*

86*

74*

65*

79*

67*

53*

74*

50*

53*

44*

Tota

l41

2774

6458

6862

4760

4431

3447

5634

Fem

ales

15–2

434

*43

*84

*76

*72

*84

*71

*46

*61

*40

*34

*23

*41

*64

*39

*25

–44

2039

8083

8675

6851

6549

4543

4563

4745

+38

*47

*95

*67

*64

*78

*71

*42

*71

*50

*44

*31

*39

*77

*48

*To

tal

2842

8677

7779

7047

6547

4234

4266

45N

Z Eu

rope

an &

Oth

ers

Mal

es15

–24

2052

9183

6366

5572

6052

5434

7767

3925

–44

1461

9479

7365

7172

5449

5542

6357

4045

+10

7498

8880

7273

7766

6658

6338

4254

Tota

l13

6596

8474

6869

7559

5756

5054

5347

Fem

ales

15–2

410

6793

7972

8257

6353

6668

4658

5334

25–4

48

7491

8882

8080

6458

5768

4749

3639

45+

682

9890

8782

7863

6469

6666

2628

60To

tal

776

9488

8381

7563

6064

6855

4035

48*

Lim

ited

sam

ple

size

, 25

≤ n

< 50

, cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in in

terp

reta

tion

of d

ata.

Qual

itativ

e fo

od fr

eque

ncy

ques

tionn

aire

; que

stio

ns 3

and

20.

1Pe

rcen

t of p

eopl

e ea

ting

thes

e nu

mbe

rs o

f ser

ving

s of

veg

etab

les

per d

ay (‘

≤ 1’

incl

udes

thos

e w

ho d

on’t

eat v

eget

able

s). S

ervi

ng =

1 m

ediu

m p

otat

o/ku

mar

a or

1/2

cup

coo

ked

vege

tabl

es o

r 1 c

up s

alad

veg

etab

les.

2N

ew Z

eala

nd N

utrit

ion

Task

forc

e (1

991)

gui

delin

e.3

Pota

to: b

oile

d, m

ashe

d, b

aked

or r

oast

ed.

4Ho

t pot

ato

chip

s or

kum

ara

chip

s/ fr

ench

frie

s/ w

edge

s.


Tabl

e E4

.2VE

GET

AB

LES

IIPe

rcen

t con

sum

ing

at le

ast o

nce

per w

eek

Silve

rbee

t/Sw

eet-

Mus

h-Br

usse

lssp

inac

hCu

cum

ber

Bean

s 1co

rnro

oms

Cour

gette

s 2Ku

mar

aCa

psic

umBe

etro

otCe

lery

spro

uts

Avoc

ado

Aspa

ragu

sSp

rout

sPa

rsni

pN

Z Po

p’n

(Age

15+

)42

4037

3433

3030

3029

2619

1916

1615

Mal

es15

–18

2025

3235

2111

159

1813

119

46

819

–24

3724

3929

3716

1726

1810

518

48

625

–44

3228

3335

3623

2530

2017

1213

1114

945

–64

5136

4429

2530

3325

3324

2416

1513

1865

–74

6246

4015

1930

3418

4132

2315

208

2575

+51

2438

1813

2631

937

2917

515

427

Tota

l40

3038

3130

2427

2626

1916

1412

1113

Fem

ales

15–1

823

4737

3928

1920

2121

256

229

208

19–2

428

4025

4350

3232

3022

2912

2517

2210

25–4

440

4736

4440

4029

4128

2915

2720

2311

45–6

451

5336

3434

3937

3437

3533

2325

2124

65–7

463

5544

2119

3743

2340

4040

2231

1125

75+

6944

4122

2333

3811

3939

4013

3818

35To

tal

4348

3638

3536

3233

3132

2224

2220

17N

ZDep

96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

es I

4137

3733

3529

2733

2525

2018

1414

13II

3729

4127

2825

2623

3017

1413

1214

13III

4030

3634

2924

2522

2417

1414

1112

13IV

4326

3627

2619

2820

2419

1411

96

12Fe

mal

esI

4055

3643

3947

2944

3440

2729

2930

21II

4650

3936

3939

3434

3333

2324

2220

16III

4244

3436

3433

3028

2626

2021

1918

16IV

4843

3334

2926

3624

3028

1920

1614

15Co

mm

unity

Mal

esM

etro

polit

an38

3138

3132

2425

2824

2114

1411

1110

Prov

inci

al44

3236

2923

2330

1832

1819

1512

1220

Fem

ales

Met

ropo

litan

4348

3537

3737

3135

2932

2024

2320

16Pr

ovin

cial

4649

3739

3137

3730

3831

2725

2021

191

Bean

s (in

clud

ing

bake

d be

ans)

, len

tils.

Qual

itativ

e fo

od fr

eque

ncy

ques

tionn

aire

; que

stio

n 20

.2

Cour

gette

s, zu

cchi

ni, m

arro

w, e

ggpl

ant,

squa

sh.


Tabl

e E4

.2co

nt.

VEG

ETA

BLE

S II

Perc

ent c

onsu

min

g at

leas

t onc

e pe

r wee

kSi

lverb

eet/

Swee

t-M

ush-

Brus

sels

spin

ach

Cucu

mbe

rBe

ans 1

corn

room

sCo

urge

ttes 2

Kum

ara

Caps

icum

Beet

root

Cele

rysp

rout

sAv

ocad

oAs

para

gus

Spro

uts

Pars

nip

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

437

2430

2720

1220

1919

72

170

11

25–4

450

2426

2935

1535

1721

138

129

66

45+

5436

3428

1931

3223

2922

1219

128

9To

tal

4727

2928

2618

3019

2313

716

64

5Fe

mal

es15

–24

2427

2646

3014

3311

149

616

78

425

–44

5036

2546

2728

4524

2717

1124

1116

645

+71

4435

2719

3263

1736

2423

2617

915

Tota

l47

3528

4226

2546

1825

1612

2111

128

Paci

fic P

eopl

eM

ales

15–2

47*

30*

10*

11*

16*

9*7*

10*

8*21

*0*

21*

3*6*

0*25

–44

3622

3920

327

3219

919

64

53

045

+74

*60

*47

*39

*27

*29

*65

*56

*30

*46

*32

*11

*21

*35

*0*

Tota

l36

3333

2226

1333

2513

2610

108

110

Fem

ales

15–2

423

*67

*44

*29

*28

*12

*21

*15

*23

*34

*3*

25*

4*1*

0*25

–44

4452

3436

1924

2628

2332

921

118

145

+55

*64

*18

*25

*23

*15

*37

*32

*6*

45*

22*

26*

17*

8*1*

Tota

l41

5834

3123

1828

2619

3611

2411

61

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

15–2

430

2440

3435

1516

1919

119

145

98

25–4

429

2934

3636

2623

3321

1813

1412

1610

45+

5336

4324

2330

3221

3626

2414

1611

22To

tal

4031

3930

3025

2626

2720

1714

1212

15Fe

mal

es15

–24

2745

3042

4431

2631

2331

1126

1626

1125

–44

3749

3843

4444

2645

2930

1628

2125

1345

+55

5239

2930

3937

2939

3836

2129

1928

Tota

l43

5037

3738

3931

3632

3424

2524

2219

* Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.Qu

alita

tive

food

freq

uenc

y qu

estio

nnai

re; q

uest

ion

20.

1Be

ans

(incl

udin

g ba

ked

bean

s), l

entil

s.2

Cour

gette

s, zu

cchi

ni, m

arro

w, e

ggpl

ant,

squa

sh.


Tabl

e E4

.3VE

GET

AB

LES

IIIPe

rcen

t con

sum

ing

at le

ast o

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ms

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as

whi

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alita

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food

freq

uenc

y qu

estio

nnai

re; q

uest

ion

20.


Tabl

e E4

.3 c

ont.

VEG

ETA

BLE

S III

Perc

ent c

onsu

min

g at

leas

t onc

e pe

r wee

kOt

her g

reen

Paci

ficle

afy

Turn

ips/

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nKa

mo

Soy

bean

s/Ta

roIs

land

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dve

geta

bles

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nas

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ater

cres

ska

mo

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tofu

leaf

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00

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54

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ple

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es15

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125

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25

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1Su

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s w

hitlo

of.


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e E5

FRUI

TSSe

rvin

gsPe

rcen

t con

sum

ing

at le

ast o

nce

per w

eek

Frui

tFr

uit

Frui

tSt

one

Berr

yca

nned

Othe

rSt

ewed

< 1/

day 1

2+ /d

ay 2

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nas

Appl

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ange

sfru

it 3Pe

ars

fruits

4Ki

wifr

uit

Grap

esSu

ltana

sFe

ijoas

Mel

on in

syr

updr

ied

fruit

fruit

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

2746

8273

6756

4739

3830

2424

2222

1817

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es15

–18

3736

6876

6637

4831

2528

1920

2826

105

19–2

439

3079

6362

4237

1926

2515

1316

247

325

–44

3932

7467

5740

3725

2920

2014

1521

136

45–6

431

3684

6765

5142

3030

2622

1912

2612

1365

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2740

8369

6259

4845

3331

2427

1527

1637

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8271

5759

5229

3623

3114

1032

2247

Tota

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3478

6861

4541

2829

2320

1616

2412

13Fe

mal

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–18

2060

7685

7265

4538

4036

1740

2728

1921

19–2

429

4879

6965

6045

4130

3222

2927

2220

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2249

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5150

4435

3032

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2212

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3228

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unity

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r day

, or n

o fru

it at

all.

Qual

itativ

e fo

od fr

eque

ncy

ques

tionn

aire

; que

stio

ns 2

, 21,

and

22.

Serv

ing

= 1

med

ium

pie

ce o

r 2 s

mal

l pie

ces

of fr

uit o

r 1/2

cup

of s

tew

ed fr

uit.

2 Per

cent

of p

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e ea

ting

2 se

rvin

gs o

r mor

e of

frui

t per

day

. NZ

Nut

ritio

n Ta

skfo

rce

(199

1) g

uide

line.

3Pe

ach,

nec

tarin

e, p

lum

, apr

icot

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wbe

rry’s

and

oth

er b

errie

s or

che

rrie

s.


Tabl

e E5

con

t.FR

UITS

Serv

ings

Perc

ent c

onsu

min

g at

leas

t onc

e pe

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kFr

uit

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her

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nana

sAp

ples

Oran

ges

fruit 3

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tGr

apes

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nas

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elon

in s

yrup

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d fru

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aori

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7566

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2930

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1752

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itativ

e fo

od fr

eque

ncy

ques

tionn

aire

; que

stio

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, 21,

and

22.

1Pe

rcen

t of p

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e ea

ting

less

than

one

ser

ving

of f

ruit

per d

ay, o

r no

fruit

at a

ll.Se

rvin

g =

1 m

ediu

m p

iece

or 2

sm

all p

iece

s of

frui

t or 1

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up o

f ste

wed

frui

t.2

Perc

ent o

f peo

ple

eatin

g 2

serv

ings

or m

ore

of fr

uit p

er d

ay. N

Z N

utrit

ion

Task

forc

e (1

991)

gui

delin

e.3

Peac

h, n

ecta

rine,

plu

m, a

pric

ot.

4St

raw

berr

y’s a

nd o

ther

ber

ries

or c

herr

ies.


Tabl

e E6

BEV

ERA

GES

Perc

ent c

onsu

min

g ‘re

gula

rly’ 1

Perc

ent c

onsu

min

g at

leas

t onc

e pe

r wee

kN

on-a

lcoh

olic

Alco

holic

Diet

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Carb

onat

edFr

uitPo

wde

red

carb

onat

edSp

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Fruit

Herb

alW

hite

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s/Re

dalc

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Wat

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juice

drink

s d

rinks

Cord

ial dr

inks

drink

sTe

aCo

ffee

tea

Beer

wine

lique

urs

wine

beer

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

8024

2620

86

43

6261

830

1818

132

Mal

es15

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7653

3133

613

97

2536

232

116

33

19–2

479

5438

354

1320

826

512

566

288

025

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2829

77

63

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1318

153

45–6

475

1622

128

52

276

684

5417

1917

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117

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01

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411

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317

814

40

19–2

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4230

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79

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5310

2419

1717

225

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8315

2521

95

22

6163

1311

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7829

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5514

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267

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1Co

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unity

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esM

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polit

an75

3430

218

76

457

654

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2116

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ovin

cial

7425

2026

69

43

6462

453

1020

83

Fem

ales

Met

ropo

litan

8420

2718

104

33

6459

1110

2215

131

Prov

inci

al85

1622

198

51

466

5611

1123

1612

11

‘Reg

ular

ly’ i

nclu

des

all t

hose

who

con

sum

e th

ese

beve

rage

s at

leas

t 3 ti

mes

per

wee

k.Qu

alita

tive

food

freq

uenc

y qu

estio

nnai

re; q

uest

ion

23.


Tabl

e E6

con

t.B

EVER

AG

ESPe

rcen

t con

sum

ing

‘regu

larly

’ 1Pe

rcen

t con

sum

ing

at le

ast o

nce

per w

eek

Non

-alc

ohol

icAl

coho

licDi

etLo

wCa

rbon

ated

Fruit

Pow

dere

dca

rbon

ated

Spor

tsFr

uitHe

rbal

Whit

eSp

irits/

Red

alcoh

olW

ater

drink

sjui

ce dr

inks

drin

ksCo

rdial

drink

sdr

inks

Tea

Coffe

ete

aBe

erw

ine liq

ueur

s w

ine be

erN

Z M

aori

Mal

es15

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7363

3438

225

70

1549

044

027

71

25–4

473

3414

423

1314

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653

582

177

345

+68

2622

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40

071

641

498

612

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7240

2237

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91

5060

251

317

83

Fem

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15–2

467

4722

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207

1438

460

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121

325

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1934

710

54

5551

811

59

50

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1829

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16

6938

67

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60

Tota

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2520

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134

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465

116

105

1Pa

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ple

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36*

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4*33

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3*14

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3*25

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7838

2350

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819

4963

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33

11

45+

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20*

11*

15*

11*

19*

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3625

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1116

1553

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283

62

4 F

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43*

36*

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18*

10*

16*

24*

56*

33*

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3*25

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8518

2236

108

107

6362

46

45

11

45+

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12*

36*

24*

16*

2*0*

11*

73*

59*

9*2*

6*2*

3*1*

Tota

l88

2429

3014

79

1363

525

54

61

2N

Z Eu

rope

an &

Oth

ers

Mal

es15

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7952

3633

611

169

2745

249

523

61

25–4

472

3331

267

64

252

737

5915

1917

345

+76

1620

108

50

279

663

4819

2316

7To

tal

7529

2720

77

53

5965

453

1521

154

Fem

ales

15–2

486

3631

2712

26

345

4610

2417

1715

125

–44

8414

2618

103

22

6265

1511

2816

161

45+

8612

238

92

13

7761

114

2618

131

Tota

l85

1726

1510

22

366

6012

1025

1715

1*

Lim

ited

sam

ple

size

, 25

≤ n

< 50

, cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in in

terp

reta

tion

of d

ata.

Qual

itativ

e fo

od fr

eque

ncy

ques

tionn

aire

; que

stio

n 23

.1

‘Reg

ular

ly’ i

nclu

des

all t

hose

who

con

sum

e th

ese

beve

rage

s at

leas

t 3 ti

mes

per

wee

k.


Tabl

e E7

.1M

ISCE

LLA

NEO

US

FOO

D I

Freq

uenc

y 1Pe

rcen

t con

sum

ing

at le

ast o

nce

per w

eek

Eggs

Topp

ings

/spr

eads

Sauc

es/d

ress

ings

Bisc

uits

/cak

es/m

uffin

sLo

w-

Crea

mVe

gem

iteW

hite

/ca

lorie

Plai

nfil

led/

Cake

s/≤

1/2–

3/≥

4/Sw

eet

orPe

anut

Tom

ato

May

on-

chee

seSa

lad

sala

dsw

eet

choc

olat

esco

nes/

wee

kw

eek

wee

ksp

read

s 2M

arm

itebu

tter

sauc

eGr

avy

nais

esa

uce

dres

sing

dres

sing

bisc

uits

bisc

uits

pike

lets

Muf

fins

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

3144

2466

5336

4843

2625

2312

5340

3926

Mal

es15

–18

3344

2454

5456

7540

1917

148

5163

3823

19–2

432

3434

5350

4875

3834

2220

1443

3735

2925

–44

2243

3566

4743

5540

2321

207

5343

3926

45–6

426

3935

8047

3048

5226

2426

1158

4242

2065

–74

3051

2086

5040

3655

2618

2014

7146

4917

75+

2655

1987

3523

3549

1626

288

6537

6023

Tota

l26

4233

7048

4054

4525

2221

1055

4441

23Fe

mal

es15

–18

4935

1636

6733

6537

3924

206

6448

3527

19–2

437

4122

3761

3864

4024

3216

1342

4526

1825

–44

3746

1761

5434

4837

2528

2316

5038

3730

45–6

437

4915

6957

2527

4326

2526

2053

3139

3165

–74

3359

877

6429

2349

2629

3521

6034

5025

75+

3157

1285

5822

2750

3334

2610

6530

4820

Tota

l36

4816

6257

3141

4027

2824

1652

3738

28N

ZDep

96 Q

uart

iles

Mal

esI

3149

2078

4940

5444

3023

2411

6454

4626

II29

4131

7349

3957

4628

2225

1361

4146

33III

2736

3664

4640

5242

2020

187

4841

3617

IV17

4143

6346

4055

4820

2116

845

3835

17Fe

mal

esI

4148

1064

5832

4041

2929

2819

5945

4133

II39

4715

6759

2943

3929

3028

1854

3341

31III

3748

1560

5629

4038

2325

2013

5035

3827

IV28

4625

5656

3445

4325

2619

1246

3332

18Co

mm

unity

Mal

esM

etro

polit

an27

4330

6648

4155

4123

2120

953

4538

25Pr

ovin

cial

2340

3777

4938

5454

2923

2410

6142

4720

Fem

ales

Met

ropo

litan

3748

1559

5632

4138

2426

2215

5338

3729

Prov

inci

al34

4719

6762

3043

4532

3127

1653

3339

231

Freq

uenc

y of

egg

con

sum

ptio

n fo

r tho

se w

ho e

at e

ggs

(per

cent

).Qu

alita

tive

food

freq

uenc

y qu

estio

nnai

re; q

uest

ions

17

– 19

.2

Incl

udes

jam

, hon

ey, m

arm

alad

e an

d sy

rup.


Tabl

e E7

.1 c

ont.

MIS

CELL

AN

EOU

S FO

OD

IFr

eque

ncy 1

Perc

ent c

onsu

min

g at

leas

t onc

e pe

r wee

kEg

gsTo

ppin

gs/s

prea

dsSa

uces

/dre

ssin

gsBi

scui

ts/c

akes

/muf

fins

Low

-Cr

eam

Vege

mite

Whi

te/

calo

riePl

ain

fille

d/Ca

kes/

≤ 1/

2–3/

≥ 4/

Swee

tor

Pean

utTo

mat

oM

ayon

-ch

eese

Sala

dsa

lad

swee

tch

ocol

ates

cone

s/w

eek

wee

kw

eek

spre

ads 2

Mar

mite

butte

rsa

uce

Grav

yna

ise

sauc

edr

essi

ngdr

essi

ngbi

scui

tsbi

scui

tspi

kele

tsM

uffin

sN

Z M

aori

Mal

es15

–24

935

5650

4554

7740

2316

169

5452

368

25–4

46

3163

6141

3850

4415

2414

446

2926

1445

+17

2657

7943

3052

4126

2129

933

3031

6To

tal

931

5962

4341

5842

2021

187

4536

3010

Fem

ales

15–2

426

3341

4047

4368

4427

3815

442

4430

1625

–44

2248

3150

4735

4037

2436

1010

3731

2818

45+

2047

3374

7535

2742

2925

2721

3220

2511

Tota

l23

4334

5254

3744

4126

3415

1138

3228

15Pa

cific

Peo

ple

Mal

es15

–24

18*

38*

44*

24*

28*

21*

49*

18*

18*

8*11

*5*

29*

20*

13*

8*25

–44

937

5455

2543

5256

156

185

3438

3322

45+

41*

23*

35*

76*

32*

64*

64*

65*

18*

9*27

*19

*54

*32

*42

*27

*To

tal

1935

4751

2742

5448

178

188

3732

2920

Fem

ales

15–2

441

*34

*26

*21

*50

*11

*76

*34

*37

*10

*11

*12

*43

*68

*41

*40

*25

–44

2444

3244

3533

4842

2616

2212

4036

2318

45+

25*

54*

22*

46*

40*

26*

40*

25*

14*

15*

20*

16*

24*

10*

18*

19*

Tota

l28

4327

3941

2554

3527

1419

1337

3927

25N

Z Eu

rope

an &

Oth

ers

Mal

es15

–24

3838

2357

5553

7740

3022

1812

4548

3732

25–4

424

4529

6750

4557

4026

2120

855

4641

2845

+27

4527

8247

3043

5326

2424

1264

4446

21To

tal

2844

2872

4940

5546

2722

2210

5846

4325

Fem

ales

15–2

446

4014

3769

3662

3830

2819

1254

4528

2225

–44

3946

1563

5635

5036

2527

2416

5240

3933

45+

3652

1274

5825

2646

2727

2819

5932

4529

Tota

l39

4813

6459

3041

4127

2725

1756

3740

29*

Lim

ited

sam

ple

size

, 25

≤ n

< 50

, cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in in

terp

reta

tion

of d

ata.

Qual

itativ

e fo

od fr

eque

ncy

ques

tionn

aire

; que

stio

ns 1

7 –

19.

1Fr

eque

ncy

of e

gg c

onsu

mpt

ion

for t

hose

who

eat

egg

s (p

erce

nt).

2In

clud

es ja

m, h

oney

, mar

mal

ade

and

syru

p.


1In

clud

es o

ther

sav

oury

pas

tries

.Qu

alita

tive

food

freq

uenc

y qu

estio

nnai

re; q

uest

ion

18.

Tabl

e E7

.2M

ISCE

LLA

NEO

US

FOO

D II

Perc

ent c

onsu

min

g at

leas

t onc

e pe

r wee

kSo

ups

Pudd

ings

Conf

ectio

nery

Othe

r foo

dsOt

her

Swee

tM

eat p

ies/

Hom

e-Ca

nned

/pu

ddin

gs/

pies

/Ot

her

Mue

sli

sau

sage

Pota

toCo

conu

tm

ade

pack

etde

sser

tspa

strie

sCh

ocol

ate

conf

ectio

nery

bars

rolls

1Ha

mbu

rger

Pizz

acr

isps

Nut

scr

eam

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

5037

1710

3534

1326

169

3519

3M

ales

15–1

828

3427

2466

6716

5742

1970

132

19–2

430

2816

2452

3414

6347

3052

112

25–4

436

3516

1338

3417

3924

1143

185

45–6

455

3720

1228

289

309

528

252

65–7

469

4222

637

363

162

422

290

75+

6046

169

2028

414

14

714

1To

tal

4436

1914

3835

1338

2111

3820

3Fe

mal

es15

–18

5336

2116

5955

2827

3312

678

419

–24

3344

1611

5443

1728

3012

568

125

–44

4737

147

3433

1316

129

3919

545

–64

6636

178

2424

119

34

1825

265

–74

7140

156

2031

36

12

1421

175

+75

3920

319

303

90

29

200

Tota

l55

3816

733

3312

1511

733

193

NZD

ep96

Qua

rtile

sM

ales

I50

3823

1639

3814

3320

1341

221

II50

3819

1337

3414

3519

1236

182

III36

3115

1338

3510

3722

1141

193

IV38

3515

1339

3112

4624

1036

217

Fem

ales

I57

4218

836

3813

1011

835

201

II60

3914

732

3011

1310

532

222

III56

3515

832

3114

1610

731

153

IV47

3816

833

3412

2114

834

188

Com

mun

ityM

ales

Met

ropo

litan

4135

1815

4036

1340

2312

3920

4Pr

ovin

cial

5039

1912

3433

1434

1511

3718

1Fe

mal

esM

etro

polit

an52

3815

735

3413

1612

734

184

Prov

inci

al62

3716

829

3212

128

630

201


Tabl

e E7

.2 c

ont.

MIS

CELL

AN

EOU

S FO

OD

IIPe

rcen

t con

sum

ing

at le

ast o

nce

per w

eek

Soup

sPu

ddin

gsCo

nfec

tione

ryOt

her f

oods

Othe

rSw

eet

Mea

t pie

s/Ho

me-

Cann

ed/

pudd

ings

/pi

es/

Othe

rM

uesl

i s

ausa

gePo

tato

Coco

nut

mad

epa

cket

dess

erts

past

ries

Choc

olat

eco

nfec

tione

ryba

rs ro

lls 1

Ham

burg

erPi

zza

cris

psN

uts

crea

mN

Z M

aori

Mal

es15

–24

2331

1417

7053

1874

5515

675

225

–44

2237

816

2425

1440

303

3310

545

+39

2215

1623

255

370

622

311

Tota

l26

3212

1638

3413

5030

741

143

Fem

ales

15–2

427

3823

1669

5621

4540

2062

142

25–4

432

3114

730

3212

2216

740

214

45+

5437

2312

2032

514

74

1717

1To

tal

3634

1911

3938

1227

2010

4017

3Pa

cific

Peo

ple

Mal

es15

–24

21*

24*

11*

14*

52*

31*

8*63

*44

*11

*47

*6*

24*

25–4

445

2713

1731

1317

5628

1251

1544

45+

60*

26*

25*

29*

23*

15*

14*

51*

30*

15*

26*

28*

46*

Tota

l42

2615

1935

1814

5733

1244

1638

Fem

ales

15–2

447

*26

*30

*36

*50

*50

*14

*55

*30

*11

*64

*14

*35

*25

–44

5931

1116

3017

1325

228

4322

4745

+62

*30

*24

*4*

6*5*

3*17

*8*

1*28

*20

*31

*To

tal

5629

2019

3024

1131

217

4519

40N

Z Eu

rope

an &

Oth

ers

Mal

es15

–24

3131

2226

5447

1557

4329

5913

025

–44

3735

1813

4136

1839

2313

4420

345

+60

4120

930

307

247

424

240

Tota

l46

3719

1438

3513

3519

1238

211

Fem

ales

15–2

444

4316

1054

4522

2029

1060

60

25–4

449

3914

634

3414

1510

1038

183

45+

7038

176

2326

87

23

1623

1To

tal

5739

167

3233

1312

97

3219

1*

Lim

ited

sam

ple

size

, 25

≤ n

< 50

, cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in in

terp

reta

tion

of d

ata.

Qual

itativ

e fo

od fr

eque

ncy

ques

tionn

aire

; que

stio

n 18

.1

Incl

udes

oth

er s

avou

ry p

astri

es.

163Health

Section FHealthIntroductionThe nutrition-related health of New Zealanders was determined from anthropometric measures,blood pressure and blood assays. The critical body size data in terms of health are body massindex (BMI) and waist to hip (W/H) ratio. Blood pressure provides an indication of the prevalenceof an important cardiovascular disease risk factor. While we have confidence in the trends inblood pressure measurement we note that the equipment used (an automatic electronicsphygmomanometer) in the NNS97 may be a factor which suggests some caution in theinterpretation of these data. All blood assays were conducted by Dunedin-based SouthernCommunity Laboratories (an IANZ accredited laboratory) which follows the Royal College ofPathologists of Australasia quality assurance programme.

Key PointsBody size• Seventeen percent of the New Zealand population (15 percent males, 19 percent females) were

considered obese. An additional 35 percent were considered overweight (40 percent males, 30percent females).

Blood pressure• Twenty-two percent of males and 18 percent of females had high blood pressure (those taking

hypertensive medication plus those with a systolic pressure ≥ 160 mmHg and a diastolic pressure≥ 95 mmHg).

Blood analyses• The mean total serum cholesterol of both males and females was 5.7 mmol/L. Twenty-three

percent of the New Zealand population had total cholesterol levels higher than 6.5 mmol/L.

• Low iron stores, iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia affected 6 percent, 3 percent and 2percent of females, respectively.


F1Body Size Table F1

Anthropometric measurements (height, weight, circumferences, breadths and skinfolds) wereincluded as indicators of health status and to provide a description of the size and shape of NewZealanders.

Height and weightMales on average were 13 cm taller and 12 kg heavier than females. Weight was greatest in the45–64 years group (males 84.6 kg, females 72.7 kg) (Figure A). NZ Måori (males 87.3 kg, females75.2 kg) and Pacific people (males 95.0 kg, females 84.7 kg) were heavier than NZ European &Others (males 78.9 kg, females 67.1 kg) but did not differ significantly in height.

Mean height was greatest in the 19–24 years group (177.4 cm) and decreased in older age groups.The difference in height may reflect a loss of height with age group and/or a trend to an increasein height among younger New Zealanders.

Body mass indexBody Mass Index (BMI) is an indicator of excess weight. The proportion of the population who areoverweight 11 or obese 12 can be estimated from BMI. Thirty-five percent of the population(40.4 percent males, 30.1 percent females) were classified as overweight and a further 17 percentwere considered obese (14.7 percent males, 19.2 percent females). Obesity in the populationincreased with age, peaking in the 45–64 years group (males 23 percent, females 26.5 percent),then declining in the older groups. The proportion of the population classified as overweight washighest in those 65–74 years (males 57.6 percent, females 47.5 percent).

In females, there was a strong relationship between obesity and NZDep96 quartile. Females livingin NZDep96 quartile I areas had the lowest level of obesity (13.1 percent), compared with quartileIV areas (25.4 percent). This relationship was not significant in males. The proportion of thepopulation who were overweight was not associated with NZDep96 quartile.

NZ Måori (males 27.0 percent, females 27.9 percent) and Pacific people (26.2 percent, 47.2 percent)were more likely to be classified as obese than NZ European & Others (12.6 percent, 16.7 percent).The proportion of overweight females was not affected by ethnic group. However, Pacific males

Figure A Figure B

W/H ratio excess

25–44

45–64

65–74

NZ

popu

latio

n

75+

Age group (years)

Weight

25–44

45–64

65–74

Mea

n (k

g)

75+

Age group (years)

0

100

15–18

19–24 0

100

15–18

19–24

malefemale

malefemale

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

0%

10%

20%30%

40%

50%

60%70%

80%

90%

11 NZ Maori and Pacific people with 26 kg/m2 ≤ BMI < 32 kg/m2 and all other New Zealanders with 25 kg/m2 ≤ BMI < 30 kg/m2 .12 NZ Maori and Pacific people with a BMI ≥ 32 kg/m2 and all other New Zealanders with a BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2.

165Health

were more likely to be classified as overweight (59.2 percent) than NZ European & Others (41.0percent) and NZ Måori (30.0 percent). NZ Måori males (30.0 percent) were less likely to be classifiedas overweight than NZ European & Others (41.0 percent).

Waist/hip ratioWaist to hip (W/H) ratio is considered an indicator of cardiovascular risk when the ratio exceeds0.9 for males and 0.8 for females (National Cholesterol Education Program 1994). The proportionof the population with a W/H ratio excess increased with age from the 15–18 years groups (males7.7 percent, females 10.2 percent) to the 75+ years group (72.9 percent, 71.8 percent) (Figure B).With the exception of the youngest and oldest groups, a higher proportion of males had a W/Hratio excess than females. Pacific people (males 66 percent, females 52.4 percent) had the highestprevalence of W/H ratio excess compared with NZ Måori (47.5 percent, 38.0 percent) and NZEuropean & Others (46.8 percent, 34.4 percent).

SkinfoldsThe mean triceps skinfold was 19.5 mm (females 25.0 mm, males 13.9 mm) which was similar tothe mean subscapular skinfold at 20.8 mm (females 23.3 mm, males 18.3 mm). In males, meantriceps skinfold did not change with age group, but mean subscapular skinfold was highest in the45–64 years group (21.0 mm). In females, the highest mean triceps and subscapular skinfolds weremeasured in the 45–64 years group (triceps 28.4 mm, subscapular 27.0 mm).

The mean subscapular skinfold was higher in females living in NZDep96 quartile IV areas (25.3mm) compared with quartile I areas (21.7 mm).


F2Blood Pressure Table F2

Mean systolic and diastolic blood pressures increased with age as described in other studies indeveloped societies peaking in the 75+ years group at approximately 160 mmHg (systolic) and80 mmHg (diastolic).

Males up to 65 years had higher blood pressure than females of a comparable age.

HypertensionParticipants were deemed to be hypertensive in accordance with the World Health Organization(WHO) cut-off values (≥ 160 mmHg systolic and/or ≥ 95 mmHg diastolic), irrespective of whetherthey were taking hypertensive medication. Under these criteria, 16.5 percent of males and 12.3percent of females were deemed to be hypertensive. Hypertensive levels were lowest in the 15–44years groups and increased markedly with age, peaking at 48 percent to 51 percent in the 75+years groups (Figure A). Twenty percent of the population had high blood pressure when allindividuals who reported taking hypertensive medication and those who were hypertensive wereincluded. This prevalence did not alter across ethnic groups (Figure B).

Close to 10 percent of the population were on some form of hypertensive medication. Of interest,is the observation that 4.2 percent of respondents (males 4.1 percent, females 4.3 percent) whoreported taking hypertensive medication were still hypertensive at the time of their blood pressuremeasurements. Medication of hypertensives was apparently more effective in NZ European &Others (males 6.1 percent, females 6.4 percent) compared with NZ Måori (1.6 percent, 3.3 percent)and Pacific people (1.2 percent, 4.4 percent).

Age group (years)

Figure A Figure B

Hypertension High blood pressure

Ethnic group

Popu

latio

n

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

NZ

popu

latio

n

75+

malefemale

malefemale


0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

167Health

F3Blood Analyses Table F3

The mean total serum cholesterol (mmol/L) of New Zealanders was 5.7 with no differencebetween males and females. Cholesterol levels increased with age group for females, but for malesit peaked at the 65–74 years group before declining slightly. Twenty-three percent of NewZealanders had cholesterol levels greater than 6.5 mmol/L, the level which some internationalorganisations suggest as a cut-off point above which people should be counselled to reduce theircholesterol levels (Figure A). However, in females, proportions among NZ Måori and Pacific peoplewere low (10.0 percent and 11.9 percent respectively) compared to NZ European & Others (25.6percent). Among males, a lower proportion of Pacific people exceeded 6.5 mmol/L (17.5 percent)than did NZ Måori (27.6 percent) or NZ European & Others (23 percent). Metropolitan residents(males 21.4 percent, females 22.0 percent) were less likely than provincial residents (27.4 percent,27.7 percent) to have levels above 6.5 mmol/L.

The overall level of HDL cholesterol in the population was 1.3 mmol/L with females (1.4) havinghigher levels than males (1.2). This trend was also evident among the three ethnic groups. HDLlevels decreased from NZDep96 quartile I areas (females 1.5, males 1.2) to quartile IV areas (1.3, 1.1).

Lipid Guidelines developed by The National Heart Foundation (1996) recommend a total cholesterolof 3.0 mmol/L – 5.0 mmol/L and 31 percent of New Zealanders achieved this guideline. Amongfemales, NZ European & Others were the least likely to achieve this guideline (29.4 percent)compared with NZ Måori (43.8 percent) and Pacific people (60.2 percent) (Figure B). Males in thethree ethnic groups had similar percentages meeting the guideline (NZ European & Others 31.1percent, NZ Måori 26.8 percent, Pacific people 28.7 percent).

The only difference in haemoglobin levels (g/L) was between males (151) and females (135). Males75+ years had a lower mean haemoglobin level (144) than all other age groups.

Ferritin levels (µg/L) of males (190) were substantially higher than those of females (80). Theywere lowest among premenopausal females (38–62) and males 15–18 years (78) and highest amongPacific males (318). Provincial males (206) had higher concentrations than metropolitan males(183). There were no apparent differences by NZDep96 quartiles.

Age group (years)

Figure A Figure B

Total serum cholesterol > 6.5 mmol/L Met NHF lipid guideline

Ethnic group

Popu

latio

n

0

100

15–18

19–24

25–44

45–64

65–74

NZ

popu

latio

n

75+

malefemale

malefemale


0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%


The zinc protoporphyrin to haemoglobin ratio (µmol/mol) was higher in females (41) than males(35), which was the reverse of the pattern seen in ferritin concentrations. In females, the ratio washighest among Pacific people (53) compared to NZ Måori (45) and NZ European & Others (40).

Low iron stores, iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia primarily affected females (6 percent,3 percent, 2 percent respectively). Prevalence was highest among NZ Måori females (11 percent, 9percent, 6 percent). Males overall were not affected with only 4 percent of the 15–18 years groupand 2 percent of the 75+ years group considered to have low iron stores, iron deficiency and irondeficiency anaemia.

169Health


1Pe

rcen

tage

of N

Z M

aori

and

Paci

fic p

eopl

e w

ith 2

6 kg

/m2 ≤

BM

I < 3

2 kg

/m2 , N

Z Eu

rope

an &

Oth

ers

with

25

kg/m

2 ≤ B

MI <

30

kg/m

2 .2

Perc

enta

ge o

f NZ

Mao

ri an

d Pa

cific

peo

ple

with

BM

I ≥ 3

2kg/

m2 , N

Z Eu

rope

an &

Oth

ers

with

BM

I ≥ 3

0 kg

/m2 .

3Pe

rcen

tage

with

a W

/H ra

tio >

0.9

for m

en a

nd >

0.8

for w

omen

.

Tabl

e F1

BO

DY

SIZE

Over

- W

/H ra

tioSu

bsca

pula

rUp

per a

rmHe

ight

Wei

ght

BMI

wei

ght 1

Obes

ity 2

W/H

exce

ss 3

Tric

eps

skin

fold

ski

nfol

d c

ircum

fere

nce

(cm

)(k

g)(k

g/m

2 )(%

)(%

) ra

tio(%

)(m

m)

(mm

)(c

m)

Mea

nSE

MM

ean

SEM

Mea

nSE

MM

ean

SEM

Mea

nSE

MM

ean

SEM

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

168.

60.

2174

.50.

3326

.10.

1035

.217

.00.

8441

.419

.50.

2120

.80.

2331

.00.

09M

ales

15–1

817

4.9

0.95

71.2

2.16

23.2

0.63

11.7

12.6

0.81

7.7

13.0

1.07

13.2

1.23

29.0

0.54

19–2

417

7.4

0.75

77.9

1.42

24.8

0.40

34.0

2.1

0.84

12.5

12.2

0.50

14.1

0.66

31.3

0.36

25–4

417

6.4

0.31

81.5

0.67

26.1

0.19

39.2

14.1

0.89

38.1

14.3

0.35

18.5

0.43

32.3

0.16

45–6

417

4.9

0.43

84.6

0.80

27.6

0.23

48.2

23.0

0.94

74.2

14.7

0.38

21.0

0.54

32.6

0.16

65–7

417

1.9

0.52

78.6

0.92

26.6

0.28

57.6

13.9

0.95

77.1

13.1

0.63

19.3

0.57

30.9

0.25

75+

168.

20.

6571

.81.

0225

.30.

3038

.97.

40.

9572

.912

.80.

4518

.00.

7829

.20.

24To

tal

175.

30.

2380

.40.

4526

.20.

1340

.414

.70.

9047

.613

.90.

2218

.30.

2731

.80.

11Fe

mal

es15

–18

163.

30.

6161

.41.

6723

.00.

6323

.55.

30.

7410

.220

.81.

2318

.01.

2227

.50.

6219

–24

164.

60.

8867

.81.

5125

.00.

5617

.717

.20.

7510

.823

.00.

9821

.81.

3029

.40.

4725

–44

163.

60.

2668

.60.

6125

.70.

2225

.717

.10.

7724

.825

.20.

4023

.00.

4730

.10.

1745

–64

161.

50.

3272

.70.

7527

.90.

2736

.626

.80.

8048

.428

.40.

4927

.00.

5931

.90.

2065

–74

159.

00.

5768

.80.

9527

.20.

3447

.522

.00.

8368

.124

.50.

6823

.50.

7830

.70.

2775

+15

6.4

0.59

62.5

1.17

25.5

0.46

33.3

17.3

0.83

71.8

19.6

0.70

17.7

0.81

28.6

0.35

Tota

l16

2.2

0.18

68.7

0.41

26.1

0.15

30.1

19.2

0.78

35.6

25.0

0.28

23.3

0.33

30.2

0.12

NZD

ep96

Qua

rtile

sM

ales

I17

5.5

0.48

79.8

0.96

25.9

0.25

39.0

14.8

0.89

44.9

14.4

0.47

18.2

0.56

31.6

0.22

II17

5.8

0.47

80.6

0.85

26.0

0.26

41.9

14.5

0.91

50.9

13.4

0.39

18.0

0.54

31.7

0.21

III17

5.0

0.43

79.5

0.79

25.9

0.24

41.0

12.5

0.89

45.6

13.5

0.42

18.0

0.56

31.6

0.19

IV17

4.6

0.39

81.9

0.89

26.9

0.26

40.2

16.7

0.90

49.1

14.1

0.39

19.0

0.50

32.3

0.22

Fem

ales

I16

2.9

0.45

66.7

0.69

25.2

0.26

32.3

13.1

0.77

28.9

24.3

0.57

21.7

0.61

29.6

0.23

II16

2.2

0.33

68.5

0.83

26.0

0.29

27.9

19.8

0.78

36.5

25.4

0.57

23.7

0.68

30.2

0.22

III16

2.0

0.33

68.2

0.92

26.0

0.35

30.1

19.6

0.79

34.3

24.8

0.62

22.7

0.72

30.3

0.31

IV16

1.7

0.32

71.7

0.81

27.5

0.30

30.3

25.4

0.80

43.5

25.7

0.43

25.3

0.62

31.1

0.22

Com

mun

ityM

ales

Met

ropo

litan

175.

40.

2780

.20.

5526

.00.

1638

.214

.40.

8946

.214

.00.

2718

.20.

3231

.70.

13Pr

ovin

cial

174.

90.

4181

.00.

7626

.40.

2245

.515

.30.

9050

.813

.70.

3718

.40.

5232

.00.

18Fe

mal

esM

etro

polit

an16

2.2

0.23

68.6

0.47

26.1

0.17

30.2

18.5

0.78

34.0

25.0

0.30

23.0

0.38

30.3

0.14

Prov

inci

al16

2.2

0.29

68.8

0.81

26.2

0.31

29.9

20.9

0.79

39.3

25.1

0.62

23.8

0.66

30.2

0.25

171Health

Tabl

e F1

con

t.B

OD

Y SI

ZEOv

er-

W/H

ratio

Subs

capu

lar

Uppe

r arm

Heig

htW

eigh

tBM

Iw

eigh

t 1Ob

esity

2W

/Hex

cess

3 T

ricep

s sk

info

ld s

kinf

old

circ

umfe

renc

e(c

m)

(kg)

(kg/

m2 )

(%)

(%)

ratio

(%)

(mm

)(m

m)

(cm

)M

ean

SEM

Mea

nSE

MM

ean

SEM

Mea

nSE

MM

ean

SEM

Mea

nSE

MN

Z M

aori

Mal

es15

–24

175.

61.

1180

.93.

1526

.20.

9417

.417

.40.

8323

.213

.01.

1016

.41.

7032

.20.

6625

–44

174.

70.

5487

.82.

2628

.70.

7236

.322

.20.

9044

.514

.50.

9222

.01.

3834

.20.

4345

+17

2.3

0.89

93.9

2.91

31.6

0.87

33.5

47.4

0.95

81.9

17.6

1.94

27.2

2.08

34.9

0.58

Tota

l17

4.4

0.47

87.3

1.66

28.7

0.53

30.0

27.0

0.89

47.5

14.8

0.73

21.5

1.03

33.8

0.33

Fem

ales

15–2

416

3.4

0.70

69.8

1.94

26.1

0.72

21.8

17.7

0.77

18.0

23.5

1.12

24.6

1.70

30.0

0.61

25–4

416

2.7

0.49

77.2

1.55

29.2

0.53

36.7

28.0

0.80

34.1

26.4

0.88

29.0

1.38

32.1

0.39

45+

159.

50.

9777

.82.

5330

.70.

9938

.439

.80.

8468

.830

.02.

8331

.62.

0832

.50.

54To

tal

162.

10.

4175

.21.

1328

.70.

4232

.727

.90.

8038

.026

.40.

8928

.30.

9131

.60.

30Pa

cific

Peo

ple

Mal

es15

–24

177.

3*1.

78*

101.

8*6.

31*

32.3

*1.

77*

57.6

*30

.0*

0.88

*33

.1*

25.4

*5.

48*

30.5

*4.

86*

37.1

*1.

40*

25–4

417

5.1*

1.26

*93

.8*

2.15

*30

.5*

0.60

*55

.8*

27.4

*0.

92*

74.3

*16

.0*

1.27

*26

.1*

1.76

*36

.2*

0.52

*45

+17

0.1*

0.79

*88

.9*

2.87

*30

.7*

0.98

*69

.7*

18.4

*0.

99*

90.0

*15

.6*

1.07

*24

.6*

1.92

*34

.4*

0.62

*To

tal

174.

70.

8595

.02.

2931

.10.

6359

.226

.20.

9266

.018

.51.

8427

.01.

7436

.10.

52Fe

mal

es15

–24

164.

5*1.

26*

81.9

*5.

56*

30.2

*1.

75*

25.5

*40

.6*

0.76

*25

.4*

26.9

*1.

50*

28.0

*1.

92*

32.8

*1.

60*

25–4

416

1.5

0.60

79.4

2.90

30.4

1.04

34.8

34.0

0.82

53.5

29.8

1.60

34.1

2.18

33.4

0.75

45+

160.

7*1.

34*

97.5

*4.

20*

37.7

*1.

45*

21.6

*78

.4*

0.87

*80

.6*

38.3

*2.

45*

44.3

*2.

67*

39.6

*1.

10*

Tota

l16

2.1

0.61

84.7

2.45

32.2

0.84

28.8

47.2

0.81

52.4

31.1

1.15

34.9

1.52

34.8

0.69

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

15–2

417

6.6

0.74

72.2

1.26

23.2

0.34

24.5

2.3

0.82

6.3

11.5

0.42

12.0

0.50

29.6

0.33

25–4

417

6.8

0.35

79.8

0.71

25.5

0.19

38.7

12.1

0.88

35.0

14.1

0.40

17.6

0.47

31.8

0.17

45+

173.

70.

3780

.90.

6126

.70.

1650

.017

.30.

9473

.813

.90.

2819

.80.

3931

.60.

13To

tal

175.

40.

2578

.90.

4625

.60.

1341

.012

.60.

9046

.813

.60.

2317

.50.

2831

.30.

11Fe

mal

es15

–24

164.

10.

7462

.41.

3023

.10.

4819

.48.

30.

747.

421

.30.

9618

.41.

1227

.80.

4525

–44

163.

80.

3066

.60.

6524

.80.

2323

.514

.40.

7621

.724

.80.

4621

.50.

5129

.60.

1945

+16

0.2

0.26

69.0

0.56

26.9

0.20

38.9

21.7

0.81

54.7

25.6

0.36

24.0

0.45

30.8

0.15

Tota

l16

2.2

0.21

67.1

0.43

25.5

0.16

29.8

16.7

0.78

34.4

24.6

0.30

22.1

0.36

29.8

0.13

*Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.1

Perc

enta

ge o

f NZ

Mao

ri an

d Pa

cific

peo

ple

with

26

kg/m

2 ≤ B

MI <

32

kg/m

2 , NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

s w

ith 2

5 kg

/m2 ≤

BM

I < 3

0 kg

/m2 .

2Pe

rcen

tage

of N

Z M

aori

and

Paci

fic p

eopl

e w

ith B

MI ≥

32k

g/m

2 , NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

s w

ith B

MI ≥

30

kg/m

2 .3

Perc

enta

ge w

ith a

W/H

ratio

> 0

.9 fo

r men

and

> 0

.8 fo

r wom

en.


Tabl

e F2

BLOO

D PR

ESSU

RESy

stol

icDi

asto

licBP

cat

egor

ies

High

blo

od(m

mHg

)(m

mHg

)(ir

resp

ectiv

e of

med

icat

ion)

2pr

essu

re 6

Med

icat

ion 7

Nor

mo-

Hype

r-N

otM

ean 1

SEM

Mea

n 1SE

M te

nsiv

e 3Bo

rder

line 4

tens

ive 5

Effe

ctiv

eef

fect

ive

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

132

0.4

780.

367

.5%

18.2

%14

.4%

20.0

%5.

7%4.

2%M

ales

15–1

812

02.

066

1.9

93.5

%4.

0%2.

5%2.

5%0.

0%0.

0%19

–24

130

1.5

741.

076

.4%

20.6

%3.

0%3.

4%0.

4%0.

0%25

–44

131

0.7

800.

575

.5%

17.4

%7.

1%8.

5%1.

4%0.

2%45

–64

143

1.1

870.

742

.1%

29.7

%28

.2%

36.1

%7.

8%7.

7%65

–74

155

1.9

861.

126

.3%

35.2

%38

.5%

59.9

%21

.4%

13.1

%75

+16

02.

681

1.3

20.3

%31

.9%

47.8

%65

.5%

17.7

%18

.1%

Tota

l13

70.

680

0.4

61.2

%22

.2%

16.5

%21

.9%

5.4%

4.1%

Fem

ales

15–1

811

21.

371

1.0

99.7

%0.

3%0.

0%0.

7%0.

7%0.

0%19

–24

113

1.0

701.

097

.4%

2.2%

0.4%

0.4%

0.0%

0.0%

25–4

411

70.

675

0.4

90.1

%6.

9%3.

1%5.

3%2.

2%0.

2%45

–64

136

1.0

800.

657

.1%

26.1

%16

.8%

24.9

%8.

1%5.

4%65

–74

152

2.1

791.

435

.2%

28.2

%36

.6%

53.0

%16

.5%

14.7

%75

+16

12.

779

1.6

21.7

%27

.3%

51.0

%72

.5%

21.5

%22

.0%

Tota

l12

70.

676

0.3

73.5

%14

.2%

12.3

%18

.2%

5.9%

4.3%

NZD

ep96

Qua

rtile

sM

ales

I13

51.

179

1.1

65.7

%23

.2%

11.1

%16

.3%

5.2%

2.3%

II13

81.

381

0.7

60.8

%19

.8%

19.3

%25

.9%

6.5%

5.7%

III13

81.

481

0.8

58.6

%23

.0%

18.5

%23

.0%

4.6%

4.5%

IV13

71.

081

0.6

58.6

%22

.9%

18.4

%23

.5%

5.1%

4.2%

Fem

ales

I12

71.

277

0.6

76.3

%13

.1%

10.5

%15

.8%

5.3%

3.1%

II12

91.

177

0.6

73.2

%13

.8%

13.0

%19

.9%

6.9%

5.0%

III12

71.

475

0.7

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175

0.6

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Com

mun

ityM

ales

Met

ropo

litan

137

0.7

800.

561

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21.9

%16

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21.9

%5.

3%4.

1%Pr

ovin

cial

137

1.1

810.

760

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22.9

%16

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22.0

%5.

6%4.

1%Fe

mal

esM

etro

polit

an12

70.

776

0.4

74.6

%13

.0%

12.4

%18

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4.3%

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inci

al12

71.

177

0.5

70.9

%17

.0%

12.1

%18

.6%

6.5%

4.2%

1Sy

stol

ic a

nd d

iast

olic

pre

ssur

es a

re th

e m

ean

of th

e pa

rtici

pant

s re

adin

gs (m

axim

um th

ree)

.2

Parti

cipa

nts w

ere

clas

sifie

d irr

espe

ctiv

e of

whe

ther

they

wer

e ta

king

hyp

erte

nsiv

e m

edic

atio

nor

not

. Cat

egor

ies

wer

e de

term

ined

hie

rarc

hica

lly a

nd a

re m

utua

lly e

xclu

sive

.3

Nor

mot

ensi

ve: s

ysto

lic <

140

mm

Hg a

nd d

iast

olic

< 9

0 m

mHg

.4

Bord

erlin

e: 1

40 m

mHg

≤ s

ysto

lic ≤

160

mm

Hg, a

nd/o

r 90

mm

Hg ≤

dia

stol

ic <

95

mm

Hg.

5Hy

perte

nsiv

e: s

ysto

lic ≥

160

mm

Hg o

r dia

stol

ic ≥

95

mm

Hg.

6Hi

gh b

lood

pre

ssur

e in

clud

es a

ll pa

rtici

pant

s on

med

icat

ion

plus

thos

e in

the

hype

rtens

ive

cate

gory

(foo

tnot

e 5)

abo

ve.

7Ef

fect

ivel

y med

icat

ed in

clud

es a

ll par

ticip

ants

on

hype

rtens

ive

med

icat

ion

and

not c

lass

ified

as

hype

rtens

ive.

Non

effe

ctiv

ely

med

icat

ed in

clud

es a

llpa

rtici

pant

s on

hype

rtens

ive

med

icat

ion

and

are

clas

sifie

d as

hyp

erte

nsiv

e.Th

e su

m o

f effe

ctiv

ely

and

non

effe

ctiv

ely

med

icat

ed is

the

perc

enta

ge o

fth

e po

pula

tion

on h

yper

tens

ive

med

icat

ion.

173Health

Tabl

e F2

con

t.BL

OOD

PRES

SURE

Syst

olic

Dias

tolic

BP c

ateg

orie

sHi

gh b

lood

(mm

Hg)

(mm

Hg)

(irre

spec

tive

of m

edic

atio

n) 2

pres

sure

6M

edic

atio

n 7

Nor

mo-

Hype

r-N

otM

ean 1

SEM

Mea

n 1SE

M te

nsiv

e 3Bo

rder

line 4

tens

ive 5

Effe

ctiv

eef

fect

ive

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571

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2.2

831.

958

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93.

587

2.2

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tal

136

1.6

811.

263

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18.9

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19.7

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4%Fe

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es15

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1.3

701.

198

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0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

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876

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1.8

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123

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741.

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rope

an &

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ers

Mal

es15

–24

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90.7

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n <

25, s

ampl

e si

ze to

o sm

all t

o pr

ovid

e a

relia

ble

estim

ate.

*Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

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5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.1

Syst

olic

and

dia

stol

ic p

ress

ures

are

the

mea

n of

the

parti

cipa

nts

read

ings

(max

imum

thre

e).

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rtici

pant

s wer

e cl

assi

fied

irres

pect

ive

of w

heth

er th

ey w

ere

taki

ng h

yper

tens

ive

med

icat

ion

or n

ot. C

ateg

orie

s w

ere

dete

rmin

ed h

iera

rchi

cally

and

are

mut

ually

exc

lusi

ve.

3N

orm

oten

sive

: sys

tolic

< 1

40 m

mHg

and

dia

stol

ic <

90

mm

Hg.

4Bo

rder

line:

140

mm

Hg ≤

sys

tolic

≤ 1

60 m

mHg

, and

/or 9

0 m

mHg

≤ d

iast

olic

< 9

5 m

mHg

.5

Hype

rtens

ive:

sys

tolic

≥ 1

60 m

mHg

or d

iast

olic

≥ 9

5 m

mHg

.

6Hi

gh b

lood

pre

ssur

e in

clud

es a

ll pa

rtici

pant

s on

med

icat

ion

plus

thos

e in

the

hype

rtens

ive

cate

gory

(foo

tnot

e 5)

abo

ve.

7Ef

fect

ivel

y med

icat

ed in

clud

es a

ll par

ticip

ants

on

hype

rtens

ive

med

icat

ion

and

not c

lass

ified

as

hype

rtens

ive.

Non

effe

ctiv

ely

med

icat

ed in

clud

es a

llpa

rtici

pant

s on

hype

rtens

ive

med

icat

ion

and

are

clas

sifie

d as

hyp

erte

nsiv

e.Th

e su

m o

f effe

ctiv

ely

and

non

effe

ctiv

ely

med

icat

ed is

the

perc

enta

ge o

fth

e po

pula

tion

on h

yper

tens

ive

med

icat

ion.


Tabl

e F3

BLO

OD

AN

ALY

SES

Tota

l cho

lest

erol

HDL

chol

este

rol

Haem

oglo

bin

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itin

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pro

topo

rphy

rin/

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stat

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mol

/L)

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ol/L

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/L)

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L)ha

emog

lobi

n ra

tio 1

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Iron

Betw

een

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Iron

defic

ienc

yM

ean

SEM

> 6.

5 33

and

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ean

SEM

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nSE

MM

ean

SEM

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nSE

Mst

ores

5de

ficie

ncy 6

anem

ia 7

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lobi

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tio (µ

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enta

ge o

f the

pop

ulat

ion.

Par

ticip

ants

wer

e on

ly in

clud

ed in

this

cal

cula

tion

if th

eyha

d a

valu

e fo

r eac

h of

the

follo

win

g: fe

rriti

n, c

-rea

ctiv

e pr

otei

n, h

aem

oglo

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and

zin

cpr

otop

orph

yrin

s. A

lso

thei

r c-r

eact

ive

prot

ein

was

≤ 8

mg/

L.3

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enta

ge o

f the

pop

ulat

ion.

4Pe

rcen

tage

of t

he p

opul

atio

n w

ith to

tal c

hole

ster

ol b

etw

een

3 an

d 5

mm

ol/L

.

5Fe

rriti

n <

12µg

/L.

6Fe

rriti

n <

12µg

/L a

nd zi

nc p

roto

porp

hyrin

> 6

0 µm

ol/m

ol.

7Ir

on d

efic

ienc

y an

emia

; fer

ritin

< 1

2 µg

/L a

nd z

inc

prot

opor

phyr

in >

60

µmol

/mol

, and

haem

oglo

bin;

< 1

36 g

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5–19

yea

rs m

ale)

, < 1

37 g

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0–49

yea

rs m

ale)

, < 1

33 g

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0–69

year

s m

ale)

, < 1

24 g

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ears

mal

e), <

120

g/L

(15–

69 y

ears

fem

ale)

, or <

118

g/L

(70+

year

s fe

mal

e).

175Health

Tabl

e F3

con

t.B

LOO

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NA

LYSE

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tal c

hole

ster

olHD

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oles

tero

lHa

emog

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atus

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bin

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nSE

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0.10

6.7

51.4

1.5

0.03

134

0.8

402.

939

0.9

21

125

–44

5.4

0.06

13.3

41.8

1.4

0.02

135

0.4

592.

841

0.6

72

245

+6.

50.

0643

.110

.81.

50.

0213

60.

510

84.

341

0.7

43

2To

tal

5.8

0.04

25.6

29.4

1.5

0.01

135

0.3

782.

540

0.4

52

2#

n <

25, s

ampl

e si

ze to

o sm

all t

o pr

ovid

e a

relia

ble

estim

ate.

*Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.1

Zinc

pro

topo

rphy

rin to

hae

mog

lobi

n ra

tio (µ

mol

/mol

).2

Perc

enta

ge o

f the

pop

ulat

ion.

Par

ticip

ants

wer

e on

ly in

clud

ed in

this

cal

cula

tion

if th

ey h

ad a

valu

e fo

r eac

h of

the

follo

win

g: fe

rriti

n, c

-rea

ctiv

e pr

otei

n, h

aem

oglo

bin,

and

zinc

pro

topo

rphy

rins.

Also

thei

r c-r

eact

ive

prot

ein

was

≤ 8

mg/

L.3

Perc

enta

ge o

f the

pop

ulat

ion.

4Pe

rcen

tage

of t

he p

opul

atio

n w

ith to

tal c

hole

ster

ol b

etw

een

3 an

d 5

mm

ol/L

.5

Ferr

itin

< 12

µg/

L.6

Ferr

itin

< 12

µg/

L an

d zin

c pr

otop

orph

yrin

> 6

0 µm

ol/m

ol.

7Iro

n de

ficie

ncy

anem

ia; f

errit

in <

12

µg/L

and

zin

c pr

otop

orph

yrin

> 6

0 µm

ol/m

ol, a

ndha

emog

lobi

n; <

136

g/L

(15-

19 y

ears

mal

e), <

137

g/L

(20-

49 y

ears

mal

e), <

133

g/L

(50-

69ye

ars

mal

e), <

124

g/L

(70+

yea

rs m

ale)

, < 1

20 g

/L (1

5-69

yea

rs fe

mal

e), o

r < 1

18 g

/L (7

0+ye

ars

fem

ale)

.

177Have We Changed?

Section GHave We Changed?IntroductionCaution should be exercised when comparing these NNS97 data in this report with previousnational nutrition surveys.

The most recent national survey of nutrition undertaken in New Zealand was the HillaryCommission’s Life in New Zealand (LINZ) survey conducted in 1989 (Russell and Wilson 1991).Specific differences which may affect the validity of comparisons include the following.

1. Change in the ethnic mix of the population. The proportion of NZ Måori, Pacific people andother ethnic groups has increased in New Zealand since 1989.

2. The age structure of the New Zealand population has changed since 1989 with an increasingproportion of older New Zealanders.

3. Methodologies were not identical in the two surveys. Specific differences include:

LINZ NNS97

Sampling Frame Electoral roll Area-based frame

Oversampling New Zealand Måori New Zealand Måori andPacific people

Location of Interview Central clinics Participant’s home

24 hour Diet Recall Paper based Computer basedTwo pass Three passLimited probe questions Detailed probe questionsSingle administration Repeat on subsampleData collected over three Data collected over 12months months

Qualitative Food Frequency Two formats One formatQuestionnaire Few ethnic foods Good choice of ethnic foods

Different questionsDifferent food combinationswithin questions

Not checked with respondent Checked with respondent byinterviewer

Manually coded Electronically scanned

Skinfolds Slimguide calipers Harpenden calipers

Blood Pressure Hawksley Random Zero Omron 706C Smart-InflateSphygmomanometer Monitor

Therefore, only limited comparisons have been presented in this report. Further comparisons willbe made in research papers which adjust for some of the methodological differences.


Key PointsEnergy and selected foods• Percent contribution to energy from fat has fallen from 37.5 percent in 1989 to 35 percent in

1997.

• While some changes in food choices reflected dietary guidelines (e.g. increased frequency ofconsumption of pasta and rice), other choices did not (e.g. decreased frequency of consumptionof many vegetables).

Health• Mean body weight has increased by 3.2 kg since 1989. Associated with this increase was an

increase in obesity levels from 11 percent in 1989 to 17 percent in 1997.

• Mean total serum cholesterol has decreased from 5.9 mmol/L to 5.7 mmol/L since 1989. Thiswas reflected in the proportion of the population with a cholesterol greater than 6.5 mmol/L,decreasing from 30 percent to 23 percent.

179Have We Changed?

G1Energy and Selected Foods Tables G1.1, G1.2, G1.3

The mean daily energy intakes (unadjusted for intra-individual variation) reported from the24 hour diet recall data for the New Zealand population were higher in NNS97 (males 12.0 MJ,females 8.0 MJ) than the LINZ survey (11.2 MJ, 7.2MJ respectively).

The question of whether this is a ‘true’ increase in energy intake cannot be answered because themethodological and sampling issues (outlined in the introduction) would also be expected toincrease reported energy intake. However, when unadjusted 90th percentiles of energy intake arecompared (LINZ 14.4 MJ, NNS97 15.8 MJ) it can be concluded that there is an increase in theproportion of high energy consumers. (These unadjusted percentile data are not included in thisreport.)

Sources of energy from macronutrients for the New Zealand population have continued to change.Between 1989 and 1997, the percent contribution to energy from fat has fallen, from 37.5 percent to34.9 percent. This trend continues the decrease from the level of about 40 percent reported in the1977 survey (Birkbeck 1983). This decrease in contribution to energy from fat has been observed inboth males and females (Figure A). The contribution of carbohydrate to energy has shown acorresponding increase from 43.7 percent to 46.2 percent and that of protein from 14.8 percent to15.6 percent.

Consumption of selected foodsFoods for which comparable data were available between NNS97 and LINZ surveys, are listed inTable G1. Some of the changes observed were in the direction recommended by the New ZealandNutrition Taskforce (1991) guidelines: an increase in some lower fat cheeses and in highcarbohydrate foods such as pasta and rice (Figure B). Other changes did not complement thedietary guidelines, particularly the decrease in frequency of choice of many vegetables.

Mea

n

Fat contribution to energy

NZ

popu

latio

n

Selected food consumed (≥1/week)LINZNNS97

LINZNNS97

Figure A Figure B

32%

34%

36%

38%

40%

Male Female Rice Pasta0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%


Increase DecreaseFood Food LINZ NNS97 Diff. 2 Food LINZ NNS97 Diff. 2

Category

Dairy Edam/Gouda 9% 20% 11% Cottage/ricotta cheese 18% 5% 13%Ice cream 47% 37% 10%Milk puddings 12% 6% 6%Colby/mild/tasty cheeses 70% 65% 5%

Meat & Fish Sausage/frankfurter/ saveloy 47% 31% 17%Fish/other than fried or battered 30% 14% 17%Luncheon meats 29% 23% 5%

Breads & Pasta 39% 54% 16% Fruit/iced buns 15% 8% 7%Cereals Rice 31% 48% 16%Fruits Pears 34% 47% 14% Raisins 38% 24% 14%

Feijoas 12% 25% 13% Stewed fruit 28% 17% 11%Melon 14% 22% 8% Canned fruit in syrup 30% 22% 7%Bananas 75% 81% 7% Pineapple 18% 12% 6%Grapes 25% 30% 5% Grapefruit 21% 16% 5%

Vegetables Broccoli 41% 59% 18% Green beans 59% 46% 13%Brussels sprouts 15% 19% 5% Pumpkin 63% 52% 11%Capsicum 25% 29% 5% Peas 77% 68% 9%

Cabbage/coleslaw 68% 60% 8%Beetroot 37% 29% 8%Avocado 25% 19% 6%Bean sprouts 21% 16% 5%Celery 31% 26% 5%

Non-alcoholic Carbonated 42% 50% 8% Decaffeinated coffee 18% 7% 11%Beverages drinks

Tea 77% 69% 7%Alcoholic Beer 41% 30% 11%BeveragesMiscellaneous Chocolate 30% 35% 6% Cream filled/chocolate

Other biscuits 49% 40% 8% confectionery 21% 34% 13% Muesli bars 22% 13% 10%

Table G1.1 FREQUENCY OF CHOICE OF TYPE OF FOOD CONSUMED 1

1 Percentage of population consuming more than one serving per week.2 Due to rounding, the difference between LINZ and NNS97 may differ (+ 1 percent) from the difference presented.

All differences are statistically significant.

181Have We Changed?

Tabl

e G

1.2

ENER

GY

IEn

ergy

(MJ)

1

Mea

nSE

M95

% C

.I. 2

Diffe

renc

e 3

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

All

LIN

Z9.

20.

138.

9–9.

4*

NN

S9.

90.

09 9

.7–1

0.1

Mal

esLI

NZ

11.2

0.21

10.8

–11.

6*

NN

S12

.00.

1411

.7–1

2.2

Fem

ales

LIN

Z7.

20.

187.

0–7.

4*

NN

S8.

00.

087.

8–8.

1N

Z M

aori

Mal

esLI

NZ

11.7

1.00

9.8

–13.

7N

SN

NS

12.3

0.47

11.3

–13.

2Fe

mal

esLI

NZ

7.6

0.39

6.9–

8.4

*N

NS

9.0

0.26

8.5–

9.5

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

LIN

Z11

.10.

2110

.7–1

1.5

*N

NS

11.9

0.15

11.6

–12.

2Fe

mal

esLI

NZ

7.2

0.12

6.9–

7.4

*N

NS

7.8

0.09

7.6–

8.0

1Th

ese

data

wer

e no

t adj

uste

d fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n.2

C.I.

= co

nfid

ence

inte

rval

.3

* =

Sign

ifica

nt d

iffer

ence

at 0

.05.

NS

= N

on s

igni

fican

t diff

eren

ce.


Tabl

e G

1.3

ENER

GY

IIPe

rcen

t ene

rgy

from

car

bohy

drat

e 1Pe

rcen

t ene

rgy

from

pro

tein

2Pe

rcen

t ene

rgy

from

fat 3

Mea

nSE

M95

% C

.I. 4

Diffe

renc

e 5M

ean

SEM

95%

C.I.

4Di

ffere

nce 5

Mea

nSE

M95

% C

.I. 4

Diffe

renc

e 5

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

All

LIN

Z43

.70.

2943

.2–4

4.3

*14

.80.

1114

.6–1

5.1

*37

.50.

2537

.0–3

8.0

*N

NS

46.2

0.21

45.8

–46.

615

.60.

1015

.4–1

5.8

34.9

0.18

34.6

–35.

3M

ales

LIN

Z42

.30.

4141

.5–4

3.1

*14

.80.

1614

.5–1

5.2

NS

38.1

0.35

37.4

–38.

8*

NN

S45

.00.

3344

.3–4

5.6

15.4

0.15

15.1

–15.

735

.40.

2834

.8–3

5.9

Fem

ales

LIN

Z45

.10.

3844

.3–4

5.8

*14

.80.

1614

.5–1

5.1

*36

.90.

3636

.2–3

7.6

*N

NS

47.3

0.27

46.8

–47.

815

.80.

1315

.6–1

6.1

34.5

0.24

34.0

–35.

0N

Z M

aori

Mal

esLI

NZ

38.0

1.55

35.0

–41.

0N

S15

.40.

6614

.1–1

6.7

NS

41.0

1.27

38.6

–43.

5*

NN

S42

.40.

9440

.6–4

4.2

16.1

0.51

15.1

–17.

136

.80.

7535

.4–3

8.3

Fem

ales

LIN

Z43

.51.

6840

.2–4

6.8

NS

13.6

0.53

12.6

–14.

7N

S40

.71.

5137

.7–4

3.7

*N

NS

46.7

0.67

45.4

–48.

015

.30.

3014

.7–1

5.8

36.2

0.62

35.0

–37.

4N

Z Eu

rope

an &

Oth

ers

Mal

esLI

NZ

42.6

0.43

41.8

–43.

5*

14.8

0.17

14.4

–15.

1N

S37

.90.

3637

.2–3

8.6

*N

NS

45.3

0.36

44.6

–46.

015

.30.

1515

.0–1

5.6

35.2

0.30

34.6

–35.

8Fe

mal

esLI

NZ

45.2

0.39

44.4

–46.

0*

14.9

0.17

14.6

–15.

2*

36.6

0.37

35.9

–37.

3*

NN

S47

.20.

3046

.6–4

7.8

16.0

0.15

15.7

–16.

234

.30.

2733

.8–3

4.9

1Th

ese

figur

es a

re n

ot a

djus

ted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion.

Per

cent

ene

rgy

from

car

bohy

drat

e fo

r eac

h pa

rtici

pant

was

calc

ulat

ed a

s th

e en

ergy

from

car

bohy

drat

e (c

onve

rsio

n fa

ctor

= 1

6.7

kJ/g

) div

ided

by

the

tota

l ene

rgy

inta

ke.

2Th

ese

figur

es a

re n

ot a

djus

ted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al va

riatio

n. P

erce

nt e

nerg

y fro

m p

rote

in fo

r eac

h pa

rtici

pant

was

cal

cula

ted

as th

e en

ergy

from

pro

tein

(con

vers

ion

fact

or =

16.

7 kJ

/g) d

ivid

ed b

y th

e to

tal e

nerg

y in

take

.3

Thes

e fig

ures

are

not

adj

uste

d fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n. P

erce

nt e

nerg

y fro

m fa

t for

eac

h pa

rtici

pant

was

cal

cula

ted

as th

e en

ergy

from

fat (

conv

ersi

on fa

ctor

= 3

7.7

kJ/g

) div

ided

by

the

tota

l ene

rgy

inta

ke.

4C.

I. =

conf

iden

ce in

terv

al.

5*

= Si

gnifi

cant

diff

eren

ce a

t 0.0

5. N

S =

Non

sig

nific

ant d

iffer

ence

.

183Have We Changed?

G2Health Tables G2.1, G2.2, G2.3

Body sizeMean body weight has increased in the New Zealand population from 71.3 kg in 1989 to 74.5 kg.The increase for males and females was 2.6 kg and 3.6 kg respectively. Changes were not significantfor NZ Måori or male NZ European & Others. Female NZ European & Others increased weight by2.7 kg. There was no change in height in any groups compared.

BMI has increased in the New Zealand population and this is reflected in the estimated obesitylevels rising from 11.1 percent to 17.0 percent. This increase has occurred for both males andfemales (Figure A). The increase was significant for NZ European & Others, but not for NZ Måori.There has also been an increase in central obesity (as estimated by W/H ratio excess) from 27.4percent to 41.4 percent of the New Zealand population. This increase has occurred for both malesand females and was significant for NZ European & Others. There was no significant change forNZ Måori. While methodological differences may account for some, they are not considered toaccount for all of the difference.

Serum cholesterolMean total serum cholesterol (mmol/L) has decreased from 5.9 to 5.7 for the population, althoughthe decrease was only significant for females (NZ European & Others 6.1, 5.8, NZ Måori 5.7, 5.3).The decrease in the proportion of the population with a cholesterol >6.5 mmol/L from 30.2 percentto 23.4 percent is beneficial, with the greatest impact on females (33.7 percent, 23.7 percent)(Figure B).

NZ

popu

latio

n

Obesity

NZ

popu

latio

n

Total serum cholesterol >6.5 mmol/LLINZNNS97 LINZ

NNS97

Figure A Figure B

Male Female0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

Male Female

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%


Tabl

e G

2.1

BO

DY

SIZE

IW

eigh

t (kg

)He

ight

(cm

)BM

I (kg

/m2 )

Mea

nSE

M95

% C

.I.1

Diffe

renc

e 2M

ean

SEM

95%

C.I.

1Di

ffere

nce 2

Mea

nSE

M95

% C

.I. 1

Diffe

renc

e 2

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

All

LIN

Z71

.30.

2770

.8–7

1.9

*16

8.7

0.19

168.

4–16

9.1

NS

25.0

0.09

24.9

–25.

2*

NN

S74

.50.

3373

.8–7

5.1

168.

60.

2116

8.2–

169.

026

.10.

1025

.9–2

6.3

Mal

esLI

NZ

77.8

0.34

77.2

–78.

5*

175.

30.

2017

4.9–

175.

7N

S25

.30.

1125

.1–2

5.5

*N

NS

80.4

0.45

79.6

–81.

317

5.3

0.23

174.

8–17

5.7

26.2

0.13

25.9

–26.

4Fe

mal

esLI

NZ

65.1

0.36

64.4

–65.

8*

162.

40.

1816

2.1–

162.

8N

S24

.70.

1424

.5–2

5.0

*N

NS

68.7

0.41

67.9

–69.

516

2.2

0.18

161.

9–16

2.6

26.1

0.15

25.8

–26.

4N

Z M

aori

Mal

esLI

NZ

82.3

1.65

79.1

–85.

5N

S17

4.1

0.76

172.

6–17

5.6

NS

27.2

0.59

26.0

–28.

3N

SN

NS

87.3

1.66

84.0

–90.

617

4.4

0.47

173.

5–17

5.3

28.7

0.53

27.6

–29.

7Fe

mal

esLI

NZ

72.2

1.70

68.9

–75.

6N

S16

2.7

0.71

161.

3–16

4.1

NS

27.3

0.61

26.1

–28.

5N

SN

NS

75.2

1.13

73.0

–77.

416

2.1

0.41

161.

3–16

2.9

28.7

0.42

27.8

–29.

5N

Z Eu

rope

an &

Oth

ers

Mal

esLI

NZ

77.4

0.35

76.7

–78.

1N

S17

5.4

0.20

175.

0–17

5.8

NS

25.2

0.11

25.0

–25.

4N

SN

NS

78.9

0.46

78.0

–79.

817

5.4

0.25

174.

9–17

5.9

25.6

0.13

25.4

–25.

9Fe

mal

esLI

NZ

64.4

0.36

63.7

–65.

1*

162.

40.

1816

2.0–

162.

8N

S24

.50.

1424

.2–2

4.7

*N

NS

67.1

0.43

66.2

–67.

916

2.2

0.21

161.

8–16

2.7

25.5

0.16

25.2

–25.

81

C.I.

= co

nfid

ence

inte

rval

.2

* =

Sign

ifica

nt d

iffer

ence

at 0

.05.

NS

= N

on s

igni

fican

t diff

eren

ce.

185Have We Changed?

Tabl

e G

2.2

BO

DY

SIZE

IIOb

esity

1 (%

)W

/H e

xces

s 2 (%

)M

ean

SEM

95%

C.I.

3Di

ffere

nce 4

Mea

nSE

M95

% C

.I. 3

Diffe

renc

e 4

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

All

LIN

Z11

.10.

609.

87–1

2.24

*27

.40.

8525

.75–

29.0

8*

NN

S17

.00.

7015

.62–

18.3

741

.41.

0339

.43–

43.4

7M

ales

LIN

Z9.

50.

758.

02–1

0.96

*33

.11.

2530

.63–

35.5

3*

NN

S14

.71.

0612

.61–

16.7

847

.61.

6144

.41–

50.7

3Fe

mal

esLI

NZ

12.6

0.94

10.7

1–14

.39

*22

.01.

1719

.68–

24.2

8*

NN

S19

.21.

0017

.26–

21.2

035

.61.

2733

.06–

38.0

5N

Z M

aori

Mal

esLI

NZ

19.6

4.24

11.2

9–27

.90

NS

32.6

5.34

22.1

2–43

.06

NS

NN

S27

.03.

8019

.54–

34.4

347

.54.

5438

.62–

56.4

4Fe

mal

esLI

NZ

17.5

3.60

10.4

9–24

.60

NS

40.9

5.20

30.7

2–51

.12

NS

NN

S27

.93.

0421

.93–

33.8

538

.03.

1931

.74–

44.2

5N

Z Eu

rope

an &

Oth

ers

Mal

esLI

NZ

8.9

0.75

7.31

–10.

25*

33.1

1.29

30.5

7–35

.65

*N

NS

12.6

1.09

10.4

2–14

.69

46.8

1.76

43.3

3–50

.22

Fem

ales

LIN

Z11

.80.

979.

93–1

3.73

*20

.21.

1817

.90–

22.5

4*

NN

S16

.71.

0714

.65–

18.8

534

.41.

4431

.61–

37.2

71

Perc

enta

ge o

f NZ

Mao

ri an

d Pa

cific

peo

ple

with

BM

I ≥ 32

kg/m

2 , NZ

Euro

pean

and

Oth

ers w

ith B

MI ≥

30 kg

/m2 . T

he LI

NZ

data

hav

ebe

en re

calc

ulat

ed fo

r the

se B

MI c

utof

fs.

2Pe

rcen

tage

with

a W

/H ra

tio >

0.9

for m

en a

nd >

0.8

for w

omen

.3

C.I.

= co

nfid

ence

inte

rval

.4

* =

Sign

ifica

nt d

iffer

ence

at 0

.05.

NS

= N

on s

igni

fican

t diff

eren

ce.


1C.

I. =

conf

iden

ce in

terv

al.

2*

= Si

gnifi

cant

diff

eren

ce a

t 0.0

5. N

S =

Non

sig

nific

ant d

iffer

ence

.

Tabl

e G

2.3

CHO

LEST

ERO

LTo

tal c

hole

ster

ol (m

mol

/L)

Tota

l cho

lest

erol

> 6

.5 m

mol

/L (%

)M

ean

SEM

95%

C.I.

1Di

ffere

nce 2

Mea

nSE

M95

% C

.I.1

Diffe

renc

e 2

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

All

LIN

Z5.

90.

035.

88–5

.98

*30

.20.

8928

.43–

31.9

3*

NN

S5.

70.

035.

67–5

.78

23.4

0.99

21.4

9–25

.39

Mal

esLI

NZ

5.8

0.03

5.75

–5.9

8N

S26

.61.

1624

.32–

28.8

9N

SN

NS

5.7

0.05

5.63

–5.8

123

.21.

5420

.18–

26.2

1Fe

mal

esLI

NZ

6.0

0.04

5.96

–6.1

0*

33.7

1.34

31.0

4–36

.30

*N

NS

5.7

0.04

5.66

–5.8

123

.71.

2521

.25–

26.1

4N

Z M

aori

Mal

esLI

NZ

5.6

0.13

5.36

–5.8

7N

S22

.64.

6313

.53–

31.6

8N

SN

NS

6.0

0.20

5.64

–6.4

127

.65.

4616

.85–

38.2

6Fe

mal

esLI

NZ

5.7

0.12

5.51

–5.9

6*

22.8

4.15

14.6

6–30

.94

NS

NN

S5.

30.

085.

10–5

.43

10.0

3.32

3.5

1–16

.53

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

LIN

Z5.

80.

045.

77–5

.91

NS

27.0

1.21

24.5

8–29

.33

NS

NN

S5.

70.

055.

59–5

.78

22.9

1.63

19.7

3–26

.13

Fem

ales

LIN

Z6.

10.

045.

98–6

.13

*34

.51.

4131

.75–

37.2

7*

NN

S5.

80.

045.

73–5

.89

25.6

1.37

22.9

6–28

.33

187References

ReferencesAustralian Bureau of Statistics. 1998. National Nutrition Survey: Nutrient Intakes and Physical

Measurements, Australia 1995. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics.

Beaton GH. 1994. Criteria of an Adequate Diet. In: M Shils, J Olson, M Shike (eds.). Modern Nutritionin Health and Disease 8th ed, Vol 2, 1491–1506. Philadelphia: Lea and Feibiger.

Birkbeck JB. 1983. New Zealanders and their diet. A report to the National Heart Foundation of NewZealand on the National Diet Survey, 1977, 2nd ed. Dunedin: Otago University.

Briefel RR, McDowell NA, Alaimo K, et al. 1995. Total energy intake of the US population: Thethird National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1988-1991. American Journal of ClinicalNutrition 62 (Suppl): 10 725–805.

Burlingame BA, Milligan GC, Spriggs TW and Athar N. 1997. The Concise New Zealand FoodComposition Tables. Palmerston North: New Zealand Institute for Crop & Food Research andMinistry of Health.

Department of Health. 1991. Food for Health. The Report of the Nutrition Taskforce to the Department ofHealth. Wellington: Department of Health.

Department of Statistics and Center for Agricultural and Rural Development (CARD), Iowa StateUniversity. 1996. A User’s Guide to C-SIDE. Technical Report 96-TR 31. Dietary Assessment ResearchSeries Report 8.

Dodd KW. 1996. A Technical Guide to C-SIDE, Software for Intake Distribution Estimation. TechnicalReport 96–TR 32. Dietary Assessment Research Series Report 9.

Duffield AJ. 1999. Selenium requirements for New Zealanders. PhD thesis, University of Otago.

Gibson RS. 1990. Principles of Nutrition Assessment. New York: Oxford University Press.

Lohman TA, Roche AF, Martorell R (eds). 1988. Anthropometric Standardization Reference Manual.Illinois: Human Kinetics.

Ministry of Health. 1999. Taking the Pulse. The 1996/97 New Zealand Health Survey. Wellington:Ministry of Health.

National Cholesterol Education Program. 1994. Second Report of the Expert Panel on Detection,Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel II).Circulation 89: 1333–1432.

National Research Council Subcommittee on Criteria for Dietary Evaluation. 1986. Nutrient adequacy:Assessment using food consumption surveys. Washington DC: National Academy Press.

New Zealand Institute of Crop & Food Research. 1998. FOODfiles: Datafiles of the New Zealand FoodComposition Database, version 9.0. OCNZ 98.

Nusser SM, Carriquiry AL, Dodd KW and Fuller WA. 1996. A Semiparametric TransformationApproach to Estimating Usual Daily Intake Distributions. Journal of American Statistical Association91: 1440–1449.

Quigley RJ, Burlingame BA, Milligan GC and Gibson JJ. 1995. Fats and fatty acids in New Zealandfoods. Palmerston North: NZ Institute for Crop & Food Research and the Public HealthCommission.

Quigley R and Watts C. 1997. Food Comes First: Methodologies for the National Nutrition Survey ofNew Zealand. Wellington: Ministry of Health.

Russell DG and Wilson NC. 1991. Life in New Zealand Commission Report Volume I: Executive Overview.Dunedin: University of Otago.


Salmond C, Crampton P and Sutton F. 1998. NZDep96. Index of Deprivation. Research Report No.8.Wellington: Health Services Research Centre.

Schofield W, Schofield C and James W. 1985. Basal metabolic rate: Review and prediction, togetherwith an annotated bibliography of source material. Human Nutrition: Clinical Nutrition 39 C(Suppl 1): 1–96.

Statistics New Zealand. 1997. 1996–97 New Zealand Health Survey. Final Report prepared for theMinistry of Health and the Regional Health Authorities. Unpublished.

Swinburn BA, Carmichael HE and Plank LD. 1999. Body Composition in Samoans. Wellington:Ministry of Health.

The National Heart Foundation of New Zealand Dyslipidaemia Advisory Group. 1996. 1996National Heart Foundation clinical guidelines for the assessment and management ofdyslipidaemia. New Zealand Medical Journal 109: 224–32.

United Kingdom Department of Health. 1991. Dietary Reference Values for Food Energy and Nutrientsfor the United Kingdom. London: HMSO.

Wilson NC and Russell DG. 1998. Overview and Methodology of the National Nutrition Survey.New Zealand Dietetic Association Conference Proceedings Number 3, 31–33.

189Explanatory Notes

Explanatory NotesTables1. All data have been weighted 13, to compensate for sampling bias, in a three step process:

i. determination of each participant’s probability of selection into the survey sample suppliedby Statistics NZ

ii. adjustment of the response rate to correct for differences occurring between days of theweek and months of the year

iii. post-stratification by age, sex and ethnicity to the New Zealand population as at the 1996Census.

2. Cell sizes are included in Table I for the different sections of the survey. When the sample sizein the cell was less than 25 it was considered insufficient to provide a reliable population estimateand the data are not presented. Where the sample size was 25 ≤ n < 50, an asterisk (*) is shownnext to the data to indicate that caution should be exercised in interpretation.

3. In some cases where numbers are insufficient to provide reliable estimates, data are presentedin collapsed age groups only. Examples of this are Tables D3 – D5.

4. Sampling error: The NNS97 used a complex sampling design which involved both stratificationand clustering. It is therefore not appropriate to calculate standard errors using formulae thatassume simple random sampling. To assist readers a guide to the level of sampling error presentin population proportions has been prepared (Table 2). These sampling errors have beencalculated as:

where deff is the ratio of the variance calculated from the actual survey estimate, to the varianceon the estimate had it been calculated assuming a simple random sample of the same size. Sincedeff varies for health characteristics and subpopulations (age groups, sex, ethnic groups etc)within the characteristics an average deff value (calculated over several subpopulations over awide selection of variables) was used in the sampling error equation.

5. Derivation of ethnic group. Where only one ethnic group was given, that category was coded.In cases where participants stated that they belonged to more than one ethnic group, a singleethnic category was assigned to that person using a system of priority recording of ethnicity.The following hierarchical rules 14 were applied:

i. If NZ Måori was one of the groups reported, then the participant was assigned to NZMåori.

ii. If any of the Pacific groups was one of the groups reported, then the participant was assignedto Pacific people.

iii. All remaining participants were assigned to NZ European & Others.

sampling error = 1.96 deff x p(1 – p)

n

13 Weighting is based on participation in the 24 hour diet recall. Although individuals did not necessarily participate in allsections of the survey, only one weight was created (similar to 1996/97 Health Survey). The creation of individualweights for the different sections were considered but rejected, as drop off rates were similar across demographicvariables (e.g. ethnic groups).

14 This system of hierarchical recording of ethnicity was consistent with the 1996/97 Health Survey.


6. NZDep96. This is an index of deprivation based on the residential address of the individual(Salmond et al 1998). The scale ranges from quartile I to quartile IV, where quartile I representsthe least deprived areas to live in and quartile IV the most deprived areas to live in. See AppendixC for further information.

7. Metropolitan/Provincial. Individuals were classified as living in a metropolitan area if theirresidential address was in an urban centre with a population ≥ 30,000. All other individualswere classified as provincial.

8. SEM. This is the abbreviation used for the standard error of the mean.

TextItalics have been used in the text to indicate actual response choices of participants.

Only statistically significant differences among various groups (e.g. age, sex, ethnicity) have beendiscussed in the text. It was not always possible to carry out an appropriate statistical test becauseof factors such as the complex sampling design, and the distribution of the particular healthcharacteristic (e.g. differences in median alcohol consumption). When this occurs it is noted in thetext.

Differences in nutrient medians were calculated using the following pivotal quantity:

where T1 and T2 are the estimates of the medians from subgroup 1 and subgroup 2 respectively,and S1 and S2 are the standard errors for these estimates. These pivotal quantities were thenstatistically tested for a significant difference by comparing the observed quantity with that of thetwo-tailed normal critical value at the 95 percent level of significance. Refer to Appendix B forfurther information on the nutrient analysis.

Differences in proportions between subgroups (for example percentage hypertensive) wereconsidered to be significant if the 95th percentile confidence limits surrounding the two estimatesdid not overlap. Differences in means (for example height, blood pressure) were also assessedusing confidence limits. Again the difference was considered significant if the confidence limitssurrounding the two estimates did not overlap. It should be noted that testing for a significantdifference between two subgroups using the above method of comparing confidence intervals is aconservative method.

No trend analysis was undertaken, nor was any adjustment made for multiple testing.

FiguresData for age groups have been plotted at the mid-point of each age group.

Q =T1 – T2

S2 + S2T2T1


Tabl

e I

NU

MB

ER O

F RE

SPO

ND

ENTS

Diet

ary

Qual

itativ

eN

ew Z

eala

nd24

hou

r die

t rec

all

supp

lem

ents

food

Barr

iers

to p

opul

atio

nus

ed o

ver t

hefre

quen

cych

ange

/ foo

dBl

ood

Bloo

d(‘0

00)

Initi

alRe

peat

last

yea

rqu

estio

nnai

re s

ecur

itypr

essu

reAn

thro

pom

etry

anal

ysis

NZ

Pop’

n (A

ge 1

5+)

2656

4636

695

4617

4576

4609

4379

4420

3369

Mal

es15

–18

9910

926

107

105

107

105

104

6819

–24

152

145

2714

514

214

513

914

111

625

–44

516

759

131

757

746

757

733

738

586

45–6

434

558

882

585

585

585

572

572

463

65–7

411

121

119

211

209

211

206

208

170

75+

5811

514

113

117

113

110

109

81To

tal

1281

1927

299

1918

1904

1918

1865

1872

1484

Fem

ales

15–1

896

137

2313

713

313

713

113

275

19–2

415

720

939

209

203

208

187

188

146

25–4

455

412

0518

611

9911

9111

9711

1211

1586

745

–64

352

667

8366

466

066

263

764

747

165

–74

124

296

4029

629

229

427

328

419

675

+92

195

2519

419

319

317

418

213

0To

tal

1375

2709

396

2699

2672

2691

2514

2548

1885

NZD

ep96

Qua

rtile

sM

ales

IN

/A39

677

396

394

396

391

394

320

IIN

/A43

049

428

425

429

424

422

353

IIIN

/A45

067

447

443

447

440

437

360

IVN

/A65

110

664

764

264

661

061

945

1Fe

mal

esI

N/A

486

9448

548

448

445

746

236

9II

N/A

581

8558

057

457

954

855

242

4III

N/A

663

9366

365

966

362

563

048

4IV

N/A

979

124

971

955

965

884

904

608

Com

mun

ityM

ales

Met

ropo

litan

N/A

1290

294

1283

1274

1283

1249

1250

1001

Prov

inci

alN

/A63

75 1

635

630

635

616

622

483

Fem

ales

Met

ropo

litan

N/A

1856

391

1851

1837

1847

1722

1746

1320

Prov

inci

alN

/A85

35 1

848

835

844

792

802

565

1Re

peat

24

hour

reca

lls w

ere

targ

ette

d at

met

ropo

litan

are

as o

nly.


Tabl

e I c

ont.

NU

MB

ER O

F RE

SPO

ND

ENTS

Diet

ary

Qual

itativ

eN

ew Z

eala

nd24

hou

r die

t rec

all

supp

lem

ents

food

Barr

iers

to p

opul

atio

nus

ed o

ver t

hefre

quen

cych

ange

/ foo

dBl

ood

Bloo

d(‘0

00)

Initi

alRe

peat

last

yea

rqu

estio

nnai

re s

ecur

itypr

essu

reAn

thro

pom

etry

anal

ysis

NZ

Mao

riM

ales

15–2

445

5613

5653

5652

5134

25–4

467

119

1411

811

611

911

511

787

45+

3693

1290

9190

8888

61To

tal

148

268

3926

426

026

525

525

618

2Fe

mal

es15

–24

4810

110

101

9410

189

9161

25–4

477

248

2224

624

124

522

322

215

545

+39

878

8683

8677

8146

Tota

l16

543

640

433

418

432

389

394

262

Paci

fic P

eopl

eM

ales

15–2

415

308

2828

2824

2616

25–4

424

5316

5350

5349

4836

45+

1233

833

3333

2931

19To

tal

5211

632

114

111

114

102

105

71Fe

mal

es15

–24

1647

1347

4647

4242

2225

–44

2710

936

109

105

109

9093

5745

+14

355

3532

3533

3316

Tota

l57

191

5419

118

319

116

516

895

NZ

Euro

pean

& O

ther

sM

ales

15–2

419

016

832

168

166

168

168

168

134

25–4

442

558

710

158

658

058

556

957

346

345

+46

678

895

786

787

786

771

770

634

Tota

l10

8115

4322

815

4015

3315

3915

0815

1112

31Fe

mal

es15

–24

188

198

3919

819

619

718

718

713

825

–44

450

848

128

844

845

843

799

800

655

45+

515

1036

135

1033

1030

1028

974

999

735

Tota

l11

5320

8230

220

7520

7120

6819

6019

8615

28


Tabl

e II

EFFE

CT O

F SA

MPL

E SI

ZE O

N A

CCU

RACY

OF

ESTI

MAT

ED P

ROPO

RTIO

NS 1

Prop

ortio

n 2

Sam

ple

size

5%10

%15

%20

%25

%30

%35

%40

%45

%50

%25

11%

315

% 3

18%

320

%21

%23

%24

%24

%25

%25

%50

8% 3

10%

12%

14%

15%

16%

17%

17%

17%

17%

756%

39%

10%

11%

12%

13%

14%

14%

14%

14%

100

5%7%

9%10

%11

%11

%12

%12

%12

%12

%15

04%

6%7%

8%9%

9%10

%10

%10

%10

%20

04%

5%6%

7%8%

8%8%

9%9%

9%25

03%

5%6%

6%7%

7%7%

8%8%

8%30

03%

4%5%

6%6%

7%7%

7%7%

7%35

03%

4%5%

5%6%

6%6%

6%7%

7%40

03%

4%4%

5%5%

6%6%

6%6%

6%45

03%

4%4%

5%5%

5%6%

6%6%

6%50

02%

3%4%

4%5%

5%5%

5%6%

6%10

002%

2%3%

3%3%

4%4%

4%4%

4%15

001%

2%2%

3%3%

3%3%

3%3%

3%25

001%

2%2%

2%2%

2%2%

2%2%

3%45

001%

1%1%

2%2%

2%2%

2%2%

2%1

The

valu

es in

the

tabl

e ar

e 1.

96 x

SE,

ther

efor

e p

+/- t

he v

alue

are

the

95%

con

fiden

ce li

mits

. For

exa

mpl

e, if

30%

of t

he s

ampl

ech

oose

a p

artic

ular

resp

onse

(sam

ple

size

= 1

00) w

e ca

n be

95%

con

fiden

t tha

t the

cor

rect

per

cent

age

lies

betw

een

19 a

nd41

% (3

0% +

/- 11

%).

2N

ote

that

the

sam

ple

erro

r on

a pr

opor

tion

estim

ate

p (w

here

p >

50%

) is

the

sam

e as

that

of a

pro

porti

on e

stim

ate

1-p

prod

uced

usin

g th

e sa

me

size

d sa

mpl

e.3

The

low

er li

mit

of th

ese

conf

iden

ce in

terv

als

are

zero

.

195Appendix A

Appendix ASurvey MethodologyLinking with Health SurveyThe NNS97 was conducted in association with the 1996/97 Health Survey. The 1996/97 HealthSurvey was conducted by Statistics New Zealand and was a nation-wide survey involvingapproximately 9,000 New Zealanders over a 12 month period. At the conclusion of the 1996/97Health Survey interview, individuals were asked to participate in the NNS97. The linkage of thetwo surveys had the potential to significantly enhance the value of both data collections and willprovide a comprehensive picture of the health and nutrition patterns of New Zealanders aged 15years and older. Nevertheless, this approach was not optimal for maximising sample size, sincesome respondents were ‘lost to follow-up’.

Survey DesignAn area based sampling frame was used with a three stage stratified design consisting of a selectionof primary sampling units (PSUs), households within the selected PSU, and a single randomlyselected respondent within a household. A detailed description of the survey design is includedin Food Comes First: Methodologies for the National Nutrition Survey of New Zealand (Quigley andWatts 1997).

Survey SampleAs for most surveys, the sample design was influenced by statistical, financial and operationalconsiderations. The NNS97 covered rural and urban areas across New Zealand but was restrictedto persons living in private dwellings. Only one person per dwelling was invited to take part inthe 1996/97 Health Survey and, therefore, in the NNS97. The total number of respondents was4,636, including an oversampling of NZ Måori and Pacific people.

Survey Methods24 hour diet recall: The computer assisted, multiple pass 24 hour diet recall interview was structuredinto three steps (passes) to maximise respondent recall of foods eaten. The first pass, the ‘quicklist’, involved respondents supplying a broad description of all food and beverage items consumedin the previous day (the 24 hours from midnight to midnight). In the second pass, a detaileddescription of each food or beverage item on the quick list was ascertained through a series ofquestions and prompts (generated by the programme) which were specific to each item. The thirdand final step was a review of the recall. Further details about this methodology are included inAppendix B Technical Notes.

Food Frequency Questionnaire: This was a self-administered, qualitative questionnaire whichestimated the frequency of intake of foods over the preceding 12 months or in the case of seasonalfoods, the consumption frequency when they were ‘in season’. This questionnaire also includedquestions on food preparation habits for example, use of fats/oils in cooking. This instrument wasdeveloped and piloted by the University of Otago’s LINZ® Research Unit under a separate contractwith the Ministry of Health. This questionnaire was designed so the data could be electronicallyscanned. A copy of the questionnaire is included in Appendix E.


Food-related questions: A number of additional food-related questions on dietary supplements,barriers to change and food security were included in the survey. These were asked after the24 hour diet recall and were entered directly into the computer using the LEDDAS® software.

Environmental chemicals: A small number of questions on exposure to dioxins, polychlorinatedbiphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides were included. These data will be reported bythe Ministry for the Environment in a separate report.

Physical measurements: Physical measurements collected were weight, height, circumferences(waist, hip and arm), two skinfolds (triceps and subscapular) and elbow breadth. Blood pressurewas also measured. These data were entered directly into the computer using the LEDDAS®

software. The results of physical measurements were sent to the respondent if requested.

Blood sample: A standard blood sample was taken for the purpose of measuring mean cell volume,haematocrit, haemoglobin, serum ferritin, serum iron, erythrocyte protoporphyrin, white bloodcell count, high density lipoprotein cholesterol, total cholesterol and environmental chemicals.Transferrin receptors were measured on females aged 15–34 years.

Details of the methodologies are included in the Food Comes First: Methodologies for the NationalNutrition Survey of New Zealand (Quigley and Watts 1997). This document can be downloadedfrom the Ministry of Health Web site at http://www.moh.govt.nz

Quality Control of DataQuality control of the data was of primary concern and the difficulty of maintaining the controlwas compounded by the fact that data collection covered a 12 month period, 16 different sets ofequipment were used, 49 different people were involved in data collection and staff were basedthroughout New Zealand. A number of different data quality control initiatives including ongoingstaff training and monitoring, use of computer-based data capture, equipment calibration, on-going review of interview data and telephone checks were thus required. Details of these proceduresare described in Wilson and Russell (1998).

Collection of DataThe survey data were collected in the homes of respondents by two trained interviewers.

Respondent BurdenThis was an important consideration in the design of the NNS97 methodologies. The constraintsof a survey setting are different from those of clinical and epidemiological settings. The NNS97respondents were selected by Statistics New Zealand according to the procedures outlined above,so that survey results could be generalised to the New Zealand population. The methods weredeveloped to be efficient and to burden the respondent as little as possible, both in terms of timeand effort. Respondents in the 1996/97 Health Survey and the NNS97 were visited in their homeson different occasions by different interviewers for two lengthy interviews. Because participationwas voluntary, most respondents whom NNS97 interviewers encountered were motivated andcomfortable about participating.

Ethical IssuesEthical approval for the survey was granted by 14 ethics committees throughout New Zealand.Participation in the survey was voluntary, and written consent before the interview began wasrequired from the respondent, or from the guardian of respondents under 18 years.

197Appendix A

New Zealand Maori and Pacific People ConsultationThe NNS97 project team’s NZ Måori principal investigator, Dr Papaarangi Reid, was supportedby Consultants Professor Mason Durie, medical consultant of Te Pumanawa Hauora Måori HealthResearch Unit, Massey University, and Ms Druis Barrett, President of the Måori Women’s WelfareLeague. Bishop Bennett was also involved through the Måori Statistical Forum which had inputvia the Ministry of Health. The principal investigator for Pacific people was Dr Colin Tukuitonga,Måori and Pacific Health Unit, University of Auckland, with individuals from each of the mainPacific groups providing advice, guidance and support for the project team and the field staff.Local New Zealand Måori support people were also involved.

Response AnalysisThe response rate for the 1996/97 Health Survey was 73.8 percent (Statistics NZ 1997). Of thoserespondents to the 1996/97 Health Survey who were asked to consent to having their personalinformation (name, address, telephone number) passed to the University of Otago for contactingto participate in the NNS97, 80.2 percent agreed (n = 5,613).

Four thousand six hundred and thirty six completed the 24 hour diet recall and 977 did notparticipate for the following reasons:

698 refused

147 unable to be located

100 completed the qualitative food frequency questionnaire

27 ill

5 deceased.

Statistics NZ (personal communication Feb 1998) calculated this as a response rate of 84.7 percent,allowing for the survey design.

The overall response rate taking into account the three step procedure for recruitment of participantswas 50.1 percent.

Survey Non ResponseThere are several types of bias that can occur in surveys. Selection bias occurs when particularsubgroups of the population do not respond in the same proportion as other subgroups in thepopulation. This may then cause biased survey estimates of collected variables. For example, arepresentative sample size of 500 is selected from a population to investigate nutrient intake.Suppose also that 400 people from this sample are considered to have excellent health, while 100are considered to have poor health. Selection bias through non-response will occur if, for example,75 percent of the people with excellent health respond but only 30 percent of the people with poorhealth respond. When estimates of nutritional variables are calculated (such as usual daily meanenergy intake) they may be biased towards a healthy population.

NNS97 was ‘piggybacked’ on the 1996/97 Health Survey. This meant that participants of the1996/97 Health Survey were also asked to participate in NNS97. There were therefore three stagesat which participants could drop out. Initially, they could refuse to participate in the 1996/97Health Survey. If they did participate in the 1996/97 Health Survey they could refuse to have theirname passed on to the University of Otago for participation in the NNS97. Finally, participants of


the 1996/97 Health Survey who initially agreed to participate in the NNS97 could refuse whencontacted.

Information was not available to investigate non-response of those who did not participate in the1996/97 Health Survey, and chose not to participate in the NNS97. However, information wasavailable to investigate non-response of those who participated in the 1996/97 Health Survey, butthen chose not to participate in the NNS97. Non-response for this group of people wasinvestigated by selecting particular variables collected from the 1996/97 Health Survey that werethought to be related to diet, for example, age group, ethnic group, sex, marital status, labourforce status, smoking status. Response rates to each variable were then compared between thetwo surveys. It was found from this analysis that for the variables selected the two samples werevery similar, suggesting the NNS97 sample had similar characteristics to the 1996/97 Health Surveysample.

199Appendix B

Appendix B Technical NotesDevelopment of 24 Hour Diet Recall MethodologyThe first step in the development of this methodology was to review the use of methodologies inuse in other large national surveys. The 24 hour diet recall methodology is widely regarded as theonly suitable dietary survey methodology to be used in national surveys which aim to determinethe food and nutrient intake of the population. Following the decision to collect the data in thehome, a decision was made to use methodology similar to that which the Australians used in their1995 National Nutrition Survey. This was refined from the methodology used by the ContinuingSurvey of Food Intakes of Individuals 1994-96 (CSFII) of the United States Department ofAgriculture (USDA). Permission was granted to use and adapt the instruments and associatedbooklets used in the Australian survey. This methodology was further developed and modifiedby the LINZ® Research Unit’s NNS97 Project Team to New Zealand conditions and adapted to adirect computer data entry system (the LINZ® Electronic Dietary Data Acquisition System –LEDDAS©).

The computer assisted, multiple pass 24 hour diet recall interview was structured into three steps(passes) to maximise respondent recall of foods eaten. The first pass, the ‘quick list’, involvedrespondents supplying a broad description of all food and beverage items consumed in the previousday (the 24 hours from midnight to midnight).

In the next stage, a detailed description of each food or beverage item on the quick list wasascertained through a series of programme-controlled questions and prompts specific to eachitem. Questions for each item included: time of consumption, amount eaten, any additions madeprior to consumption (i.e. eaten in combination with other foods, for example, potatoes with butter),the cooking method, fats used in preparation and recipe where appropriate. If the respondent didnot know the recipe of a mixed item, probe questions about ingredients likely to influence the fatcontent of the food (for example type of fat, milk, yoghurt and/or cheese used) were asked. If therespondent was able to supply some information about these ingredients it was used to modify astandard recipe (see nutrient analysis section).

For any foods from a category where fortification was permitted, brand and product names wererequested. Where the respondent had the packaging available, a bar code scanner was used torecord information directly. The amount of food or beverages consumed was described by volumeusing cups, spoons, food photographs and shape dimensions. Alternatively, a help file was availablecontaining weights of common servings or measures of specified items (e.g. one slice of bread)and conversions from the raw to cooked form. When the respondent supplied a recipe the amountof each ingredient was obtained and the portion of the whole dish eaten was recorded.

The third and final pass was a review of the recall. The interviewer read aloud the foods eaten inchronological order and verified the descriptions and amounts consumed with the respondent. Afinal question checked whether anything had been omitted from the recall. Any information thatwas forgotten or incorrectly entered was added or edited at this stage, although editing facilitieswere available throughout the recall. Entry errors were minimised by warning messages, forexample, seeking confirmation of unusually large volumes or amounts of the food eaten.

A comprehensive food list, which comprised all of the known foods and beverages available forconsumption in New Zealand, was contained within the programme. Foods eaten were entered ina format consistent with the names used in this list to produce standardised descriptions. Theseries of item specific questions in the second pass of the recall ensured food items were describedin sufficient detail to enable accurate matching with food composition data. This minimised possible


variation between interviewers as they were read from the computer screen to respondents. Anotepad function allowed interviewers to record any additional information about foods eaten bythe respondent.

Dietary AnalysisNutrient AnalysisFood and beverages from the 24hr diet recall were electronically matched to food compositiondata to calculate nutrient intake. The primary source of food composition information was theNew Zealand Food Composition Database (NZFCD) which contains the composition ofapproximately 2,000 foods and was compiled by Crop and Food Research Ltd (1998). Detailedfood composition analytical techniques for nutrients included in the NZFCD are in Burlingame etal (1997). Table I provides an outline of the analytical techniques. If a direct match with informationin the NZFCD was not available and the frequency of use was high relative to other foods, additionalnutrient composition data was sought either from overseas databases (Australian, USDA andBritish) if applicable, or the food item was prioritised for New Zealand analysis.

When a food or beverage could not be completely described by the respondent (for example theperson had milk but did not know the type) it was matched to a composite of the various types ofmilk weighted to reflect use reported in the survey.

Foods that were fortified at the commencement of data collection (2 December 1996) were identifiedby the New Zealand Therapeutic Database (NZTD) which obtained fortificant levels from themanufacturer. Crop and Food Research Ltd (CFR) then incorporated these levels into existingnutrient information for the corresponding food to create brand and product name specific nutrientcomposition. Products fortified during the 12 month survey period or changes in fortificant levelscould not be taken into account due to an unknown and variable time lag between a change inmanufacturing procedure and product consumption.

If a recipe could not be supplied for a mixed food item eaten it was matched to a standard recipe.Preparation of ‘standard recipes’ was carried out by examination of appropriate recipes from theAustralian survey and checking commonly used recipes from top selling New Zealand cook books.Modifications were made to standard recipe ingredients to correspond with frequent responses tothe ingredient probe questions (e.g. type of fat, milk, yoghurt and/or cheese used). These modifiedrecipes were matched to mixed food items where the respondent, although unable to supply theentire recipe, had been able to give some ingredient information in response to the probe questions.The nutrient composition of these recipes, allowing for weight and nutrient loss in cooking, wascalculated by CFR.

Dietary SourcesFood items reported as consumed in the 24hr diet recall, have been allocated to groups to calculatedietary sources of nutrients. Table II outlines the groups and illustrates the designation of fooditems. The following issues require explanation:

1. Grouping of components of mixed dishes: Respondents who consumed a mixed dish, such asmacaroni cheese, may or may not have known the recipe. If the recipe was supplied by therespondent the ingredients were entered individually i.e. each ingredient was separatelyallocated to the appropriate group. When the exact recipe was unknown, information regardingcontent was sought from the participant, for example, whether meat was added to the macaronicheese, in order to identify which recipe provided the best nutrient match. In this situationwhere there was nutrient composition information only for the dish as a whole, it was grouped

201Appendix B

accordingly. For example, macaroni cheese would be assigned to ‘grains and pasta’ since pastais the main ingredient.

2. Alcoholic beverages: These were considered as an aggregate group for all analyses, except sourcesof alcohol, where the sub-groups have been used to examine the contribution of the variousbeverage types to alcohol intake.

3. Comparisons of dietary sources of nutrients with results of the 1989 Life in New Zealand (LINZ) survey:While many of the groups are essentially the same as those used in the LINZ survey, foodconsumption patterns have changed considerably in the last eight years and a new food groupclassification was required. Consequently, food items may fall into different groups and directcomparison of results warrants caution. Asterisks (*) in Table II indicate that this is not a directlycomparable group to 1989.

C-SIDE – Software for Intake Distribution EstimationIt is important to assess the distribution of a population’s usual intake for a particular dietarycomponent (for example protein intake), where usual intake of that nutrient for an individual isdefined as the long-run average for that individual. The distribution of a dietary component basedon an individual’s one day intake is wider than that of individual’s usual intake, since anindividual’s day-to-day diet is likely to be highly variable.

The software package C-SIDE (developed by Iowa State University) was used in the NNS97 toestimate the distribution of usual intakes of dietary components. This software can be used whendaily intake observations are repeated at least once on a subsample of the individuals in thepopulation.

To estimate the distribution of usual intakes of a dietary component an assumption that the datais normally distributed is required. Nutrient data is generally non-normal, and can be particularlyextreme in some nutrients (for example retinol, vitamin A). To remedy this problem C-SIDE usesa combination of a power and grafted polynomial transformation.

The method used by C-SIDE to estimate usual intake distributions consists of the four major tasks:preliminary data adjustments, semiparametric transformation to normality, estimation of withinand between individual variances for intakes, and finally back transformation into the originalscale. These tasks, described below, are summaries of those found in the C-SIDE User’s Guide.Detailed information describing the C-SIDE methodology can be found in Nusser et al (1996) andDodd (1996).

a. Preliminary data adjustmentsPreliminary data adjustments include shifting observed intake data by a small amount awayfrom zero, incorporating survey weights by creating an equal weights sample, and correctingfor the effect of sample day (first versus all the rest) on the mean and variance of the distributionof observed intakes.


Table I: Analytical Techniques for Nutrients*

Nutrient INFOODS Units Description/synonym/methodTagname1

Energy ENERC kJ Energy, calculated (protein = 16.7 kJ/g; totalfat = 37.7 kJ/g; available carbohydrate =16.7 kJ/g; alcohol = 29.3 kJ/g).

Protein PROCNT g Protein, calculated from total nitrogen; generallyFAO/WHO conversions factors.

Total fat FAT g Total fat/total lipid; several methods depending onfood matrix.

Saturated fat FASAT g Sum of individual saturated fatty acids; GC ofmethyl esters.

Monounsaturated fat FAMS g Sum of individual monounsaturated fatty acids; GC ofmethyl esters.

Polyunsaturated fat FAPU g Sum of individual polyunsaturated fatty acids; GC ofmethyl esters.

Cholesterol CHOLE mg Cholesterol, GC.

Carbohydrate CHOAVL g Available carbohydrate; sum on mono-, di- and oligo-saccharides, starch and glycogen; or enzymicdigestion and colorimetry.

Dietary fibre PSACNS g Non-starch polysaccharides/fibre; Englyst method.

Insoluble non-starch PSACNSI g Insoluble non-starch polysaccharides; Englystpolysaccharides method.

Soluble non-starch PSACNSS g Soluble non-starch polysaccharides; Englyst method.polysaccharides

Total sugars SUGAR g Total available sugars, sum of individual mono- anddi-saccharides; GC or HPLC.

Glucose GLUS g Available glucose, sum of individual d-glucosemonosaccharides; GC or HPLC.

Fructose FRUS g Available fructose, sum of individual d-fructosemonosaccharides; GC or HPLC.

Sucrose SUCS g Available sucrose, sum of individual sucrosedisaccharides; GC or HPLC.

Lactose LACS g Available lactose, sum of individual lactosedisaccharides; GC or HPLC.

Maltose MALS g Available maltose, sum of individual maltosedisaccharides; GC or HPLC.

Starch STARCH g Starch; enzymic digestion and colorimetry.

Alcohol ALC g Alcohol/ethyl alcohol, hydrometer or GC.

Vitamin A equivalents VITA µg Total vitamin A equivalents/retinol equivalents;equals (µg retinol ) + (0.166 x µg β-caroteneequivalents); HPLC.

203Appendix B

1 Klensin JC, Feskanich D, Lin V, Truswell AS, and Southgate DAT 1989. Identification of Food Components for INFOODSData Interchange. United Nations University Press, Tokyo. The up-to-date listing can be found on the World Wide Web[http://www.fao.org/infoods/].

* The information in this table was adapted by R Quigley, Ministry of Health, from Burlingame et al, 1997.

Nutrient INFOODS Units Description/synonym/methodTagname1

Retinol RETNOL µg All trans retinol only, HPLC.

β -carotene CARTBEQ µg Beta-carotene equivalents; equals (µg β-carotene)+ (0.5 x µg other provitamin A carotenoids); HPLC.

Vitamin C VITC mg Vitamin C; HPLC and titration.

Vitamin E VITE mg Vitamin E/α - tocopherol equivalents; equals (mg α -tocopherol ) + (0.4 x mg β - tocopherol) + (0.1 x mggamma-tocopherol) + (0.01 x mg delta-tocopherol) +(0.3 x mg alpha-tocotrienol) + (0.05 x mg β -tocotrienol) + (0.01 x mg gamma-tocotrienol); HPLC.

Thiamin THIA mg Thiamin; HPLC, fluorescence detection ofthiochrome.

Riboflavin RIBF mg Riboflavin; HPLC, fluorescence detection.

Niacin equivalents NIAEQ mg Total niacin equivalents; equals (mg pre-formedniacin (HPLC, UV detection)) + (1/60 x mg tryptophan(HPLC)).

Vitamin B6 VITB6C mg Vitamin B6; HPLC, fluorescence detection.

Vitamin B12 VITB12 µg Vitamin B12; microbiological.

Folate FOL µg Folate, total; radioassay or microbiological.

Calcium CA mg Calcium, wet ashing, ICAPS-AES.

Phosphorus P mg Phosphorus, wet ashing, ICAPS-AES.

Magnesium MG mg Magnesium, wet ashing, ICAPS-AES.

Iron FE mg Iron, wet ashing, ICAPS-AES or dry ashing, AAS.

Zinc ZN mg Zinc, wet ashing, ICAPS-AES or dry ashing, AAS.

Potassium K mg Potassium; wet ashing, ICAPS-AES.

Selenium SE µg Selenium; fluorometry or wet ashing ICP-AES.

Manganese MN mg Manganese; wet ashing, ICAPS-AES.

Copper CU mg Copper; wet ashing, ICAPS-AES.

Table I: Analytical Techniques for Nutrients* cont.


Food Group Examples of food items includedGrains and pasta* Rice (fried/risotto), flour, pasta (filled/with sauce /lasagne), bran,

wheatgerm, barley, semolinaBread* All types bread (rolls, pita, foccacia, garlic), bagels, English muffins,

crumpets, sweet bunsBreakfast cereal All types cereals (muesli, porridge, puffed/flakes/extruded & bran

cereals)Biscuits Sweet biscuits, crackers, muesli barsCakes and muffins* All cakes and muffins, slices, scones, pancakes, doughnuts, pastryBread-based dishes* Sandwiches, filled rolls, hamburgers, pizza, samosas, wontons, spring

rollsPuddings Milk puddings, cheesecake, fruit crumbles & pies, mousse, steamed

sponges, PavlovaMilk Cow, soy & goat milk, flavoured milk, milkshakes, milk powderDairy products Cream, sour cream, yoghurt, dairy food, ice-creamCheese Cheddar, edam, speciality (blue, brie, feta etc), ricotta, cream cheese,

cottage cheese, processed cheeseEggs and egg dishes Poached, boiled, scrambled and fried eggs, omelettes, self-crusting

quichesButter and margarine Butter, margarine (poly- and mono-unsaturated), butter/margarine

blendsFats and oils* Dripping, lard, canola, olive, sunflower and vegetable oilsBeef and veal All muscle meats (steak, mince, corned beef, roast etc), casseroles/

stews, stir-friesLamb/mutton All muscle meats (chops, mince, roast etc), casseroles/stews, curriesPork All muscle meats (roast, chop, schnitzel etc), bacon, ham, casseroles/

stews, stir-friesPoultry All chicken, duck, turkey and muttonbird muscle meats (breast, leg,

wing etc), casseroles/stews and stir-friesOther meat* Venison, rabbit, tongue, kidney, heart, liver (lambs fry), pâté (liver),

sweetbreadsSausages and processed Sausages, luncheon, frankfurters, saveloy/cheerios, salami, meatloafmeats* and pattiesPies and pasties All pies including potato top, pasties, savouries, sausage rolls, quiche

with pastryFish/seafood All fish and dishes (canned, battered, fingers etc), shellfish, squidVegetables* All vegetables including mixes, coleslaw, green salads, legumes and

pulses, tofuPotatoes and kumara* Mashed, boiled, baked, scalloped etc potatoes and kumara, hot chips,

crisps, hash brownsSnack foods* Corn chips, popcorn, extruded snacks (burger rings etc), mixes

(scroggin)Fruits Fresh, canned, cooked and dried fruitsNuts and seeds* Peanuts, almonds, sunflower and sesame seeds, tahini, coconut milk &

creamSugar/sweets* Sugars, syrups, confectionery, chocolate, jam, marmalade, honey, jelly,

sweet toppingsSoups and stocks All instant and home-made soups, stocks and stock powderSauces* Gravy, tomato & cream based sauces, mint, tartare and cheese sauces,

mayonnaise, oil and vinegar dressings, chutney, marmiteNon-alcoholic beverages* All teas, coffee & substitutes, Milo, hot chocolate, juices, cordial, soft

drinks, waterAlcoholic beverages

Beer All types including reduced alcoholWine White, red, sparkling, mulled, saki (rice wine)Spirits Vodka, gin, brandy, rumLiqueurs and cocktails All types including spirits and mixes, cream basedOther alcohol Wine cooler, cider, alcoholic soda, sherry, port

Meal replacements* Complan, Ensure, Vitaplan

* Not comparable with 1989 LINZ Survey

Table II: Food Groups

205Appendix B

b. Semiparametric transformation to normalityObserved intake data (whether adjusted or not) generally have non-normal distributions. Fornutrients such as vitamins and some micro nutrients, skewness is quite extreme.

Most statistical procedures rely on the assumption of normality. The C-SIDE proceduretransforms adjusted dietary intake data into normality as part of obtaining estimates of usualintake distributions.

The transformation into normality in C-SIDE is done in two steps. In the first step, data aretransformed so that their distribution is as close to normal as possible, by using a powertransformation. However, power transformed data are not necessarily normal. Thus, a secondtransformation which takes the power transformed intakes into the normal scale is employed.This second step in the transformation is nonparametric and is based on a grafted polynomialmodel. The power transformation plus the grafted polynomial function make up thesemiparametric transformation into normality.

c. Estimation of within and between individual variances in intakesC-SIDE uses a measurement error model for observed daily intakes, similar to the modelproposed by the National Research Council Subcommittee on Criteria for Dietary Evaluation(1986). The model states that the observed intake for an individual on any day is equal to thatindividual’s usual intake plus a measurement error. The variance of the usual intakes is thebetween individual variance. The variance of the measurement errors is the within individualvariance, and reflects the day-to-day variation in intakes for an individual.

Estimates for both the within (intra) and the between (inter) individual variances are obtainedunder the measurement error model, under the assumption of normality. The variances areused to estimate the distribution of usual intakes in the normal scale.

d. Back-transformation into the original scaleThe final step in the methodology is to transform the estimated usual intake distribution fromthe normal scale into the original scale. More than “undoing” the transformation into normalityby applying the inverse transformation is required because the original transformation isnonlinear. The inverse transformation makes an adjustment for the fact that the mean of anonlinear function of a random variable is not the nonlinear function of the mean. The inversetransformation is based on an approximation to the mean function. This back-transformation iscalled mean transformation, since it brings the distribution of usual intakes (true individualmeans) back into the original scale.

The programme estimates statistics of interest from the estimated usual intake distribution. Forexample, estimates for the mean and the variance of the usual intake distribution for a nutrient,for a set of percentiles, or for the proportion of the population below (or above) a given thresholdare available.


Adequacy of nutrient intake (probability analysis)The adequacy of vitamin A, riboflavin, folate, vitamin B12, vitamin C, iron, calcium and zincintakes were evaluated by probability analysis (National Research Council Subcommittee onCriteria for Dietary Evaluation 1986). Comparison with the mean requirement (short-cut probabilityapproach) was used to evaluate the intake of these nutrients except iron intakes in menstruatingfemales which were evaluated using full probability analysis (see below). Nutrient requirementsformulated by the United Kingdom Panel on Dietary Reference Values (UK Department of Health1991) were used in the analysis (Table III). Vitamin E, copper, manganese, selenium, phosphorusand potassium intakes could not be evaluated by probability analysis, as there were no suitablemean requirement estimates. Niacin, thiamin and vitamin B6 could not be evaluated by probabilityanalysis, because the mean requirement estimates are based on a ratio, for example, vitamin B6 is13 µg/g protein. The current C-SIDE programme does not allow for ratios to be adjusted for intra-individual variation.

Probability analysis compares nutrient intakes with the corresponding requirement distributionand calculates the likelihood (probability) that a particular nutrient intake would fail to meetrequirement. Lower nutrient intakes are associated with a higher probability of inadequacy asthey are less likely to meet requirement, while higher nutrient intakes have a low probability ofinadequacy.

To perform full probability analysis it is necessary to know the distribution of requirements(symmetry, mean and standard deviation) or to be able to make a reasonable assumption aboutthe distribution. It is reasonable to assume that the distribution of requirements for most nutrientsis normal. The only nutrient for which there is evidence to the contrary is iron requirements inmenstruating females, which are positively skewed. Each nutrient intake is compared to therequirement distribution and the area under the requirement distribution to the right of the intakevalue is the probability that intake is inadequate to meet requirement. The probabilities are thenaveraged to obtain the percentage of the population with inadequate intakes.

The probability approach has been criticised because the variation in requirement (standarddeviation) is not known for many nutrients. However, it has been demonstrated that when therequirement distribution is symmetrical (not necessarily normal) the probability approach isrelatively insensitive to the variance of requirement (National Research Council 1986). Providedthe intake distribution is wider than the requirement distribution, the mean requirement is known,and a symmetrical (not necessarily normal) distribution can be reasonably assumed; the percentageof the population with intakes below the mean requirement will approximate the prevalence ofinadequate intakes determined by full probability analysis (Beaton 1994). In other words, for thosewhose intake is below the mean requirement, the prevalence of inadequacy is over-estimated, andfor those whose intake is above the mean requirement the prevalence is underestimated, as therequirement distribution is symmetrical and the errors of over- and under-estimation tend to canceleach other out.

207Appendix B

Nutrient EAR Basis of requirement

Vitamin A 500 µg RE males Supports all vitamin A dependent400 µg RE females functions & maintains liver storesfor all age groups

Riboflavin 1.0 mg males Saturation of tissues with riboflavin0.9 mg females

for all age groupsFolate 150 µg Adequate red blood cell folate &

for all age and sex groups liver storage levels (NOT therequirement to prevent neural tubedefects)

Vitamin B12 1.25 µg Maintains liver storesfor all age and sex groups

Vitamin C 25 mg Mid-point between requirement tofor all age and sex groups prevent scurvy & intake which

produces measurable plasmaconcentrations

Iron 8.7 mg males 15-18 years Maintains normal clinical function6.7 mg males 19+ years and supply of iron to tissues

5.7 mg non-menstruating females** (includes menstrual loss in womenMenstruating females*** : Iron intakes of child-bearing age)

were converted to absorbed iron(assuming 15 percent absorption). Basal losses of 0.86 mg were subtracted fromthe absorbed iron intakes.These values

were log transformed & comparedwith the log normalised distribution

of menstrual iron losses (-0.734 mean, 0.777 SD, log units)

Calcium 750 mg males 15-18 years Support growth and match any625 mg females 15-18 years obligatory losses

525 mg males & females 19+ years

Zinc 7.3 mg males Match losses5.5 mg females

for all age groups

* The EARs are from the UK Dietary Reference Values (1991)** The requirement of 5.7 mg differs from the published UK value (6.7 mg) as the UK had incorrectly assigned

the same basal loss to men and women over 50 years (G Beaton, personal communication)*** The assumption has been made that all women under 45 years are menstruating and all women 45+ years

are not menstruating.

Table III: Estimated Average Requirements (EAR) per day used in the Probability Analysis*


The requirement estimates from the United Kingdom Dietary Reference Values (United KingdomDepartment of Health 1991) were chosen as they are currently the only recommendations whichdocument the mean requirement (with the exception of some FAO/WHO reports) and they havebeen formulated more recently than the Australian Recommended Nutrient Intakes. As the UnitedKingdom diet is similar to the New Zealand diet in factors affecting requirement estimates (e.g.intake of animal products), the United Kingdom nutrient requirements may be applied to theNew Zealand population. The mean requirements and the criteria the requirements are intendedto satisfy are presented in Table III.

The probability of intake being inadequate was calculated using nutrient intakes first adjusted toremove the effects of day to day (intra-individual) variation. Details of this methodology areincluded in the previous section on C-SIDE. This is important because on any given day a numberof people will have unusually low or high intakes, which are not reflective of their ‘usual’ intake.Nutrient requirements, however, represent the required long-term average (usual) intakes, notamounts that must be consumed each day. Without adjusting for intra-individual variation theprevalence of inadequate intakes would be over- or under-estimated depending on where theintake distribution lies in relation to the requirement distribution.

Evaluating nutrient intakes by probability analysis is preferable to making direct comparisonswith recommended intakes as the variation in requirement between individuals is taken intoaccount (National Research Council 1986). Directly comparing nutrient intakes with recommendedintakes fails to recognise that the recommended intakes are devised to be sufficient to meet theneeds of almost all healthy individuals. Consequently, an individual may still meet their ownrequirement although not consuming the recommended intake.

When interpreting the prevalence of inadequate intakes it is important to note:

• The prevalence of inadequate intakes reflects the criterion on which requirement is based.For example, if the requirement for nutrient X is based on maintaining body stores (assumingnormal losses) and it is estimated 15 percent of the population have inadequate intakes; thisindicates 15 percent are not consuming enough nutrient X to maintain body stores but does notindicate functional impairment or a deficiency disorder. It also does not indicate which specificindividuals in the population have inadequate intakes to maintain their body stores. Table IIIoutlines the criteria on which the requirement estimates were based.

• Accurate assessment of whether dietary intakes are adequate requires a combination ofbiochemical, anthropometric and dietary measurements. The estimates of the prevalence ofinadequate intakes serve to highlight areas which may be of concern. However, the body ishighly adaptable and enhances the absorption and/or decreases the obligatory losses of manynutrients if dietary intake is inadequate. Conversely, it is possible that dietary intake appearsadequate but due to a high content of absorption inhibitors in the diet and/or high nutrientlosses (due to physiological or pathological factors), a deficiency results. In addition, errors inthe nutrient intake data (from over- or under-reporting and the translation of food into nutrientintakes) introduce error into the estimates of the prevalence of inadequate intakes. Therefore,biochemical and anthropometric measurements are required to accurately determine nutritionalstatus as the net effect of dietary intake and the body’s response must be taken into account(Gibson 1990).

209Appendix B

Under-reportingUnder-reporting is an acknowledged problem in all types of dietary surveys. A common methodof estimating under-reporting is to calculate the ratio of energy intake to basal metabolism. Basalmetabolic rate (BMR) is most frequently computed based on height and weight using the agespecific formulas of Schofield, Schofield & James (1985). The Australian Survey (Australian Bureauof Statistics 1998) used a formula based on weight only. However, the population on which theSchofield equations were developed was ‘normal’ (to a maximum weight of 84 kg) and not obese.Extrapolating the calculation of BMR for weights beyond 84 kg has an inherent error as theassumption being made is that Lean Body Mass (the primary determinant of BMR) increases inproportion to absolute mass. Over 25 percent of this survey population had a weight exceeding 84kg, and thus further work will be required before an appropriate BMR can be calculated for the84+ kg group, and an accurate estimation of under-reporting calculated.

211Appendix C

Appendix C Glossary of Terms

Blood Pressure: Blood pressure was measured using an Omron 706c smart-inflate blood pressuremonitor. A large cuff was used for individuals with an upper arm circumference greater than32 cm. The measurement was repeated three times and the measurements averaged.

BMI: Body Mass Index is an indicator of body fatness. It is calculated from the formula weight/height2 where weight is in kilograms and height in metres.

Cholesterol (Serum Concentrations): These data were provided by Southern CommunityLaboratories who used an enzymatic method for total cholesterol (Boehringer Mannheim, on aHitachi 717 automated analyser). High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol was measureddirectly using PEG modified enzymes (cholesterol esterase and cholesterol oxidase) linked to aperoxidase colorimetric reaction (Boehringer Mannheim). These methods were operated withInternational Accreditation New Zealand approved internal quality control procedures andunderwent fortnightly peer review through the Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia QualityAssurance programme.

C-reactive Protein: The C-reactive protein was measured by Southern Community Laboratoriesusing nephelometry on a Behring Nepelometer (BNA). This method was operated in accordancewith International Accreditation New Zealand approved quality control procedures and peerreviewed through the Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia Quality Assurance programme.

C-SIDE: This is the abbreviation for the Software for Intake Distribution Estimation developedby Iowa State University. This programme allows for the estimations of the distribution of usualintakes of nutrients for a population when daily intake observations are repeated at least twice ona subsample of the individuals in the population (Nusser et al 1996).

EAR: Estimated Average Requirement of a group of people for energy or protein, or a vitamin ormineral. About half will usually need more than the EAR; about half will need less. This EARdefinition and values for EAR were sourced from the United Kingdom Dietary Reference Values(UK DRVs).

Erythrocyte Protoporphyrin: The free erythrocyte protoporphyrin in serum was measured bySouthern Community Laboratories and expressed as a zinc protoporphyrin/haeme ratio using aProtoFluor Z Haematofluorometer (Helena Laboratories). This method was standardised usinghigh and low calibrators as supplied with the Protofluor Reagent Kit (Helena Laboratories).

Ferritin: Serum ferritin was measured by Southern Community Laboratories using a sandwichchemiluminometric immunoassay on a Ciba Coring ACS: 180 automated immunoassay analyser.World Health Organization reference materials were used to standardize the assay which is inaccordance with International Accreditation New Zealand approved internal quality control andpeer reviewed monthly through the Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia Endocrine QualityAssurance Programme.

Food Security: Food security is an internationally recognised term that encompasses the readyavailability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods, and the assured ability to acquire personallyacceptable foods in a socially acceptable way.

Height: Measurements were made without footwear using a portable stadiometer. Twomeasurements were taken to the nearest 0.1 cm. If these differed by more than 0.5 cm a thirdmeasurement was taken. The height measurement for each individual was the average of the twoclosest measurements.


LINZ®: Life in New Zealand Activity & Health Research Unit, University of Otago. This Unitmanaged the NNS97 contract on behalf of the University.

LRNI: Lower Reference Nutrient Intake for protein or a vitamin or mineral. An amount of thenutrient that is enough for only the few people in a group who have low needs. This LRNI definitionand values for LRNI were sourced from the UK DRV.

New Zealand Nutrition Taskforce (1991) Guidelines: Sourced from Food for Health (Departmentof Health 1991). For example, breads and cereals 6+ servings/day; vegetables 3+ servings/day;fruit 2+ servings/day.

NNS97: The 1997 New Zealand National Nutrition Survey.

NNSTAC: National Nutrition Survey Technical Advisory Committee consisting of 12 memberssupported by 18 Ministry of Health officials. The names of these individuals are included in theIntroduction.

Nutrient database: The nutrient composition of foods was supplied by Crop and Food ResearchLtd (Palmerston North) and included the New Zealand Food Composition Data, additionalcomposition data sourced from overseas, brand and product specific food composition of fortifiedfoods, and the nutrient composition of standard and modified recipes used in the survey.

NZDep96: This is an index of deprivation based on the residential address of the individual(Salmond et al 1998). The index is based on eight dimensions of deprivation: income, access to acar, living space, home ownership, employment, qualifications, support, access to a telephone.The usual NZDep96 consists of a principal components score, scaled to a mean of 1,000 with astandard deviation of 100, from which it is broken into 10 equal categories. The Ministry of Healthworked from the principal components score to create four categories (instead of 10) for the 1996/97 Health Survey, and then this NZDep96 category (or quartile) was supplied to LINZ® for theNNS97 analysis. Quartile I is defined as individuals living in the least deprived areas and quartileIV as individuals living in the most deprived areas.

Obesity: This has been defined as a BMI ≥ 32 for NZ Måori and Pacific people and a BMI ≥ 30 forall other New Zealanders (Swinburn et al 1999).

Overweight: This has been defined as a BMI ≥ 26 and < 32 for NZ Måori and Pacific people and aBMI ≥ 25 and < 30 for all other New Zealanders (Swinburn et al 1999).

PCBs: Polychlorinated biphenyls, formerly used in electrical transformers.

PSU: This is a small geographic unit known as a Primary Sampling Unit. New Zealand is dividedinto 18,800 PSUs and most contain between 50 and 100 dwellings, with an average of 65 dwellingsper PSU.

QFFQ: Qualitative Food Frequency Questionnaire. A self-administered questionnaire, whichasks about the frequency of consumption of foods and preparation/cooking practices.

RNI: Reference Nutrient Intake for protein or a vitamin or mineral. An amount of nutrient that isenough, or more than enough, for about 97 percent of people in a group. If the average intake ofthe group is at RNI, then the risk of deficiency in that group is very small. This RNI definition andvalues for RNI were sourced from the United Kingdom Dietary Reference Values.

Safe Intake: A term used to indicate intake or range of intakes of a nutrient for which there is notenough information to estimate Reference Nutrient Intake, Estimated Average Requirement, orLower Reference Nutrient Intake. It is an amount that is enough for almost everyone but not solarge as to cause undesirable effects. This ‘safe intake’ definition and values for ‘safe intake’ werederived from the United Kingdom Dietary Reference Values.

213Appendix C

Skinfolds: Subcutaneous skinfolds were measured with Harpenden calipers at two sites: tricepsand subscapular using standardised procedures (Lohman et al 1988). All measurements weremade to the nearest 0.1 mm. Two measurements were made at each site and if they differed bymore than 0.5 mm a third measurement was taken. The mean of the two closest measurementswas used as the skinfold measure for the participant.

Stadiometer: An instrument for measuring the standing height of an individual.

Therapeutic Database: A database of brand-name foods compiled from manufacturer informationprimarily to produce lists of food products free from certain components (e.g. gluten) and additivesand includes nutrient composition. This database is maintained by Auckland Hospital under acontract with the Ministry of Health.

Transferrin Receptor: The serum transferrin receptor concentration was measured by SouthernCommunity Laboratories using a quantitative immunoenzymetric kit from Orion Diagnostics.There was no commercial control available so the performance of this assay was monitored by:

• in house patient control which is run with each batch,

• comparison of the coefficient of variation of duplicates to the kit manufacturersrecommendations.

Twenty-Four Hour (24hr) Diet Recall: An individualised interviewer administered recall of allfoods and beverages consumed in the previous 24 hours (midnight to midnight), using the threepass technique (quick list, specified probe questions for each item on the quick list, and a review).

UK DRV: United Kingdom Dietary Reference Values resulting from the report of the 1991 Panelon Dietary Reference Values of the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy. These includeEstimated Average Requirements (EARs), Reference Nutrient Intakes (RNIs), Lower ReferenceNutrient Intakes (LRNIs) and ‘safe intake’.

Weight: Measured on a SECA Model 770 scale to the nearest 0.1 kg with the respondent in lightclothing. The reported data have been corrected for a clothing weight of 1.2 kg. Scales werecalibrated with standard weights each day. Two measurements were taken and if these differedby more than 0.5 kg a third measurement was taken. The weight measurement for each individualwas the average of the two closest measurements.

W/H Ratio: Waist circumference/Hip circumference ratio. Waist circumference was measured atthe natural narrowing midway between the last rib and the crest of the ilium. The measurementwas taken at the end of a normal expiration. The hip measurement was taken at the maximumcircumference around the buttocks when viewed from the side (Lohman et al 1988). Bothmeasurements were made to the nearest 0.1 cm. Two measurements at each site were taken and ifthese differed by more than 1.0 cm a third measurement was taken. The measurement used foreach individual was the average of the two closest measurements.

W/H Ratio Excess: The W/H Ratio is judged excessive when the ratio is > 0.90 for males and> 0.80 for females (National Cholesterol Education Program 1994).

1996/97 Health Survey: The New Zealand Health Survey was completed by Statistics New Zealandunder contract to the Ministry of Health. The results are reported in Taking the Pulse (Ministry ofHealth 1999).

215Appendix D

Appendix DPacific People and Community NutrientIntakes

Data in this appendix are presented but not interpreted.

Pacific peoplea. The number of Pacific people (191 females, 116 males) who completed a 24 hour recall was too

small to allow a reliable estimate of usual nutrient intake using the C-SIDE programme. Thus,these nutrient data are not adjusted for intra-individual variation and cannot, therefore, becompared with nutrient data presented in the main body of the text.

b. Interpretation of these nutrient data are compounded by small numbers across the age groups,differences in migrant status, and the heterogeneity of the group given their varying countriesof origin.

For these reasons it is not possible to interpret the Pacific people nutrient data in the same way ashas been done for other ethnic groups or to make comparisons between groups. At best, thesenutrient data provide a broad picture of the nutrient intake of Pacific people and allow a basis onwhich further work can be developed.

Nevertheless, these nutrient data make an essential contribution, ensuring the nutrient intake ofthe New Zealand population as a whole, is representatively described.

CommunityRepeat 24 hour diet recalls were targetted at metropolitan areas only, and therefore, provincialnutrient data could not be adjusted for intra-individual variation using the C-SIDE programme.These nutrient data are, therefore, not comparable with the nutrient data presented in the mainbody of the text.


App

endi

x D

1U

NA

DJU

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ERG

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ND

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gy (k

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217Appendix D

App

endi

x D

2.1

UN

AD

JUST

ED T

OTA

L FA

T A

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l fat

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.


App

endi

x D

2.2

UN

AD

JUST

ED F

ATTY

ACI

DS

I 1

Satu

rate

d fa

t (g)

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g)Po

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e su

rvey

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low

.2

Perc

entil

es.

219Appendix D

App

endi

x D

2.3

UN

AD

JUST

ED F

ATTY

ACI

DS

II 1

Per

cent

ene

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sat

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m p

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ese

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d fo

r int

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divi

dual

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epea

t 24

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cula

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ided

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l ene

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inta

ke.

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tiles

.


App

endi

x D

3.1

UN

AD

JUST

ED C

ARB

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TE A

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2.1*

35*

46*

60*

29%

*17

7*16

.5*

84*

153*

294*

25–4

432

226

.410

031

454

945

2.7

3044

6533

%19

216

.746

205

316

45+

249*

25.2

*13

7*18

6*42

1*43

*2.

8*20

*40

*68

*32

%*

171*

20.5

*53

*13

8*32

6*To

tal

306

15.8

116

289

520

451.

630

4462

32%

183

10.8

5815

931

1Fe

mal

es15

–24

312*

18.2

*16

0*31

5*49

5*56

*2.

3*38

*59

*68

*78

%*

165*

10.2

*85

*15

6*24

6*25

–44

235

13.9

116

209

366

491.

335

5064

52%

146

11.5

5812

128

345

+24

1*18

.7*

109*

230*

373*

50*

2.7*

30*

51*

71*

52%

*15

0*15

.8*

66*

136*

271*

Tota

l25

810

.612

024

638

851

1.3

3551

6860

%15

27.

267

144

266

Com

mun

ityM

ales

Met

ropo

litan

313

5.1

168

292

484

450.

432

4558

34%

174

3.2

8716

127

7Pr

ovin

cial

323

7.1

170

299

519

440.

632

4456

24%

180

4.5

8717

228

6Fe

mal

esM

etro

polit

an22

22.

812

020

933

648

0.3

3548

6041

%11

61.

560

109

181

Prov

inci

al22

14.

512

220

833

647

0.5

3447

5837

%11

52.

654

107

180

*Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.1

Thes

e da

ta w

ere

not a

djus

ted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion.

Rep

eat 2

4 ho

ur d

iet r

ecal

ls w

ere

not c

ompl

eted

in p

rovi

ncia

l are

as, a

nd th

e nu

mbe

r of P

acifi

c pe

ople

who

parti

cipa

ted

in th

e su

rvey

was

low

.2

Perc

ent e

nerg

y fro

m c

arbo

hydr

ate

for e

ach

parti

cipa

nt w

as c

alcu

late

d as

the

ener

gy fr

om c

arbo

hydr

ate

(con

vers

ion

fact

or =

16.

7 kJ

/g) d

ivid

ed b

y th

e to

tal e

nerg

y in

take

.3

Perc

entil

es.

4Th

e N

ew Z

eala

nd N

utrit

ion

Task

forc

e (1

991)

gui

delin

e re

com

men

ds c

arbo

hydr

ate

prov

ides

≥ 5

0.0%

of e

nerg

y in

take

.

221Appendix D

App

endi

x D

3.2

UN

AD

JUST

ED S

UG

ARS

I 1

Tota

l sug

ars

(g)

Gluc

ose

(g)

Fruc

tose

(g)

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Paci

fic P

eopl

eM

ales

15–2

414

6*19

.4*

44*

114*

327*

20*

3.7*

1*14

*51

*20

*4.

0*1*

14*

51*

25–4

412

916

.031

9925

520

2.8

216

4721

3.1

118

5545

+78

*9.

0*19

*66

*15

5*12

*1.

5*2*

11*

27*

13*

1.7*

2*12

*31

*To

tal

123

10.1

3191

251

181.

82

1440

192.

02

1548

Fem

ales

15–2

414

6*12

.6*

46*

148*

262*

27*

4.7*

4*25

*58

*27

*4.

4*3*

26*

55*

25–4

488

6.3

2977

165

151.

53

1233

171.

62

1337

45+

90*

9.8*

32*

73*

194*

16*

2.3*

4*12

*35

*17

*2.

5*5*

12*

35*

Tota

l10

56.

333

8818

918

1.9

314

4420

1.8

315

43Co

mm

unity

Mal

esM

etro

polit

an13

83.

153

121

244

240.

76

2048

250.

76

2151

Prov

inci

al14

24.

154

123

260

240.

96

2048

250.

95

2152

Fem

ales

Met

ropo

litan

105

1.8

4197

181

190.

54

1635

200.

54

1740

Prov

inci

al10

53.

242

9217

919

0.8

517

3520

0.8

517

38*

Lim

ited

sam

ple

size

, 25

≤ n

< 50

, cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in in

terp

reta

tion

of d

ata.

1Th

ese

data

wer

e no

t adj

uste

d fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

varia

tion.

Rep

eat 2

4 hou

r die

t rec

alls

wer

e no

t com

plet

edin

pro

vinc

ial a

reas

, and

the

num

ber o

f Pac

ific

peop

le w

ho p

artic

ipat

ed in

the

surv

ey w

as lo

w.

2Pe

rcen

tiles

.


App

endi

x D

3.3

UN

AD

JUST

ED S

UG

ARS

II 1

Sucr

ose

(g)

Lact

ose

(g)

Mal

tose

(g)

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Paci

fic P

eopl

eM

ales

15–2

492

*16

.5*

19*

63*

209*

10*

2.2*

0*4*

25*

4.4*

0.61

*0.

3*3.

8*8.

4*25

–44

7310

.015

4616

810

1.8

06

235.

91.

340.

13.

016

.745

+41

*6.

3*3*

31*

96*

7*1.

4*0*

5*18

*4.

4*1.

03*

0.0*

3.7*

11.4

*To

tal

727.

315

4517

89

1.1

06

235.

10.

700.

23.

212

.3Fe

mal

es15

–24

77*

7.9*

24*

65*

152*

10*

1.7*

0*8*

30*

4.3*

0.49

*1.

5*3.

9*7.

6*25

–44

463.

813

4086

81.

01

516

2.9

0.46

0.3

2.0

7.2

45+

47*

6.1*

13*

38*

104*

7*1.

2*0*

5*17

*2.

8*0.

65*

0.1*

2.1*

8.3*

Tota

l55

3.6

1445

110

80.

70

618

3.3

0.29

0.4

2.3

7.3

Com

mun

ityM

ales

Met

ropo

litan

681.

919

5613

416

0.5

213

334.

90.

141.

14.

09.

6Pr

ovin

cial

712.

818

5714

317

0.7

313

335.

50.

231.

44.

410

.2Fe

mal

esM

etro

polit

an50

1.1

1342

9314

0.3

211

283.

10.

100.

82.

45.

8Pr

ovin

cial

491.

812

4196

140.

62

1027

3.1

0.13

0.7

2.4

5.7

*Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.1

Thes

e da

ta w

ere

not a

djus

ted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al va

riatio

n. R

epea

t 24 h

our d

iet r

ecal

ls w

ere

not c

ompl

eted

in p

rovi

ncia

l are

as, a

nd th

e nu

mbe

r of P

acifi

c pe

ople

who

par

ticip

ated

in th

e su

rvey

was

low

.2

Perc

entil

es.

223Appendix D

App

endi

x D

4U

NA

DJU

STED

FIB

RE 1

Diet

ary

fibre

(g)

Inso

lubl

e no

n-st

arch

pol

ysac

char

ides

(g)

Solu

ble

non-

star

ch p

olys

acch

arid

es (g

)M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2

Paci

fic P

eopl

eM

ales

15–2

417

*2.

1*5*

16*

25*

8*1.

2*2*

7*14

*9*

1.0*

3*8*

13*

25–4

421

1.9

623

3510

1.0

311

1611

1.0

312

1945

+19

*2.

1*7*

17*

38*

9*0.

9*3*

8*17

*10

*1.

2*3*

8*19

*To

tal

201.

36

2033

90.

73

915

100.

73

1018

Fem

ales

15–2

421

*1.

3*9*

22*

32*

11*

0.7*

4*10

*18

*11

*0.

6*5*

12*

16*

25–4

418

1.0

716

329

0.5

38

169

0.5

48

1645

+21

*1.

9*11

*18

*35

*11

*1.

1*6*

9*19

*10

*0.

8*5*

9*16

*To

tal

190.

99

1832

100.

54

918

100.

44

916

Com

mun

ityM

ales

Met

ropo

litan

240.

411

2338

120.

35

1121

110.

26

1118

Prov

inci

al24

0.6

1223

4013

0.4

611

2312

0.3

611

19Fe

mal

esM

etro

polit

an18

0.3

917

2910

0.2

49

169

0.1

48

13Pr

ovin

cial

180.

410

1728

100.

25

916

90.

24

813

*Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.1

Thes

e da

ta w

ere

not a

djus

ted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion.

Rep

eat 2

4 ho

ur d

iet r

ecal

ls w

ere

not c

ompl

eted

in p

rovi

ncia

l are

as, a

nd th

e nu

mbe

r of P

acifi

c pe

ople

who

par

ticip

ated

in th

e su

rvey

was

low

.2

Perc

entil

es.


App

endi

x D

5U

NA

DJU

STED

ALC

OH

OL 1

Alco

hol (

g)Pe

rcen

t ene

rgy

from

alc

ohol

2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

Mea

nSE

M10

th 3

50th

390

th 3

Paci

fic P

eopl

eM

ales

15–2

419

*11

.9*

0*0*

102*

3*2.

0*0*

0*16

*25

–44

3113

.10

015

76

2.9

00

3145

+10

*4.

9*0*

0*74

*3*

1.4*

0*0*

24*

Tota

l23

7.7

00

106

51.

60

024

Fem

ales

15–2

43*

2.3*

0*0*

0*1*

0.5*

0*0*

0*25

–44

20.

70

00

10.

30

00

45+

0*0.

4*0*

0*0*

0*0.

2*0*

0*0*

Tota

l2

0.8

00

01

0.2

00

0Co

mm

unity

Mal

esM

etro

polit

an20

1.5

00

655

0.4

00

16Pr

ovin

cial

212.

40

066

50.

50

016

Fem

ales

Met

ropo

litan

80.

60

027

30.

20

011

Prov

inci

al10

2.2

00

283

0.5

00

10*

Lim

ited

sam

ple

size

, 25

≤ n

< 50

, cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in in

terp

reta

tion

of d

ata.

1Th

ese

data

wer

e no

t adj

uste

d fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n. R

epea

t 24

hour

die

t rec

alls

wer

e no

t com

plet

ed in

pro

vinc

ial a

reas

, and

the

num

ber o

f Pac

ific

peop

le w

ho p

artic

ipat

ed in

the

surv

ey w

as lo

w.

2Pe

rcen

t ene

rgy f

rom

alc

ohol

for e

ach

parti

cipa

nt w

as c

alcu

late

d as

the

ener

gy fr

om a

lcoh

ol (c

onve

rsio

n fa

ctor

= 29

.3 kJ

/g) d

ivid

ed b

yth

e to

tal e

nerg

y in

take

.3

Perc

entil

es.

225Appendix D

App

endi

x D

6.1

UN

AD

JUST

ED V

ITA

MIN

A 1

Vita

min

A e

quiv

alen

ts (µ

g RE

)Re

tinol

(µg

)β-

caro

tene

(µg)

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Paci

fic P

eopl

eM

ales

15–2

485

7*16

1.0*

176*

601*

1837

*49

2*73

.8*

115*

328*

1117

*21

92*

783.

6*52

*77

2*71

25*

25–4

411

6442

8.2

177

684

1618

756

317.

965

369

1067

2435

706.

516

296

964

7445

+71

2*94

.2*

163*

616*

1547

*32

5*41

.9*

47*

298*

662*

2336

*47

9.9*

168*

1219

*51

04*

Tota

l97

621

6.8

178

616

1575

585

158.

365

328

1013

2342

429.

711

988

650

57Fe

mal

es15

–24

734*

98.8

*28

7*60

9*14

08*

311*

41.6

*61

*27

0*69

4*25

34*

465.

6*46

1*15

39*

6506

*25

–44

665

60.9

8954

913

8330

540

.044

239

665

2162

285.

912

910

1765

4645

+74

4*15

4.9*

104*

660*

2479

*30

7*72

.2*

24*

204*

999*

2620

*58

6.0*

24*

1892

*80

49*

Tota

l70

356

.015

754

813

9430

729

.340

241

681

2377

248.

717

213

8267

02Co

mm

unity

Mal

esM

etro

polit

an11

9553

.835

085

721

9657

242

.317

042

085

437

3818

5.7

367

1886

9217

Prov

inci

al13

4611

0.2

327

953

2457

681

99.2

176

495

979

3986

243.

544

920

8710

809

Fem

ales

Met

ropo

litan

941

59.8

276

678

1633

435

56.0

102

308

626

3033

99.4

310

1753

7410

Prov

inci

al96

941

.931

172

817

3942

231

.811

333

166

732

7616

1.4

405

1760

7792

*Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.1

Thes

e da

ta w

ere

not a

djus

ted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion.

Rep

eat 2

4 ho

ur d

iet r

ecal

ls w

ere

not c

ompl

eted

in p

rovi

ncia

lar

eas,

and

the

num

ber o

f Pac

ific

peop

le w

ho p

artic

ipat

ed in

the

surv

ey w

as lo

w. A

s th

ese

nutri

ents

are

con

cent

rate

d in

rela

tivel

y fe

w fo

ods,

one

day

inta

kes

are

high

ly s

kew

ed. T

here

fore

, the

est

imat

e of

inta

ke h

as la

rge

stan

dard

err

ors.

2Pe

rcen

tiles

.


App

endi

x D

6.2

UN

AD

JUST

ED V

ITA

MIN

S C

AN

D E

1

Vita

min

C (m

g)Vi

tam

in E

(mg)

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Paci

fic P

eopl

eM

ales

15–2

410

4*23

.6*

6*55

*28

1*9.

7*1.

21*

0.9*

11.0

*16

.9*

25–4

413

117

.49

9533

014

.01.

843.

810

.430

.845

+10

5*20

.0*

21*

93*

291*

11.2

*1.

78*

3.7*

9.3*

23.5

*To

tal

118

11.9

1390

306

12.1

1.07

3.6

9.5

23.6

Fem

ales

15–2

411

2*12

.4*

20*

105*

265*

9.3*

0.74

*3.

9*8.

8*16

.7*

25–4

494

9.7

1257

221

10.4

1.21

4.1

7.4

25.7

45+

110*

12.5

*23

*10

1*22

1*9.

1*1.

55*

2.9*

7.2*

19.1

*To

tal

103

7.0

1775

219

9.8

0.69

4.1

7.6

18.8

Com

mun

ityM

ales

Met

ropo

litan

127

4.3

2395

279

11.7

0.22

5.1

10.4

19.7

Prov

inci

al11

35.

028

8223

611

.90.

385.

211

.020

.1Fe

mal

esM

etro

polit

an10

42.

821

7821

88.

70.

164.

07.

714

.1Pr

ovin

cial

111

7.9

2483

220

9.2

0.23

4.4

8.1

15.2

*Li

mite

d sa

mpl

e si

ze, 2

5 ≤

n <

50, c

autio

n sh

ould

be

exer

cise

d in

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

dat

a.1

Thes

e da

ta w

ere

not a

djus

ted

for i

ntra

-indi

vidu

al v

aria

tion.

Rep

eat 2

4 ho

ur d

iet r

ecal

ls w

ere

not c

ompl

eted

in p

rovi

ncia

l are

as, a

nd th

e nu

mbe

r of P

acifi

c pe

ople

who

par

ticip

ated

in th

e su

rvey

was

low

.2

Perc

entil

es.

227Appendix D

App

endi

x D

7.1

UN

AD

JUST

ED B

VIT

AM

INS

I 1

Thia

min

(mg)

Ribo

flavi

n (m

g)N

iaci

n eq

uiva

lent

s (m

g N

E)M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2

Paci

fic P

eopl

eM

ales

15–2

41.

5*0.

17*

0.5*

1.3*

2.7*

1.8*

0.26

*0.

8*1.

4*3.

4*45

*3.

8*22

*45

*75

*25

–44

1.5

0.14

0.4

1.3

2.5

1.8

0.20

0.5

1.4

3.5

505.

114

3910

045

+1.

2*0.

13*

0.4*

1.1*

2.3*

1.4*

0.11

*0.

6*1.

5*2.

4*47

*5.

5*19

*41

*98

*To

tal

1.4

0.09

0.4

1.3

2.4

1.7

0.13

0.6

1.4

3.4

483.

116

4291

Fem

ales

15–2

41.

3*0.

07*

0.8*

1.3*

1.8*

1.3*

0.08

*0.

6*1.

3*2.

2*29

*1.

7*16

*26

*44

*25

–44

1.1

0.09

0.4

0.9

2.2

1.3

0.10

0.4

1.2

2.2

333.

711

2666

45+

1.1*

0.15

*0.

4*0.

9*2.

4*1.

3*0.

14*

0.5*

1.3*

2.4*

35*

4.0*

17*

35*

75*

Tota

l1.

10.

060.

41.

12.

01.

30.

070.

51.

22.

232

2.1

1327

56Co

mm

unity

Mal

esM

etro

polit

an1.

70.

030.

81.

62.

72.

10.

041.

01.

93.

543

0.8

2239

70Pr

ovin

cial

1.8

0.05

0.9

1.6

2.8

2.2

0.05

1.1

2.0

3.5

461.

224

4373

Fem

ales

Met

ropo

litan

1.2

0.02

0.6

1.1

1.9

1.6

0.03

0.7

1.5

2.5

300.

415

2745

Prov

inci

al1.

20.

020.

61.

21.

91.

50.

030.

81.

42.

529

0.6

1526

46*

Lim

ited

sam

ple

size

, 25

≤ n

< 50

, cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in in

terp

reta

tion

of d

ata.

1Th

ese

data

wer

e no

t adj

uste

d fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

varia

tion.

Rep

eat 2

4 hou

r die

t rec

alls

wer

e no

t com

plet

ed in

pro

vinc

ial

area

s, a

nd th

e nu

mbe

r of P

acifi

c pe

ople

who

par

ticip

ated

in th

e su

rvey

was

low

.2

Perc

entil

es.


App

endi

x D

7.2

UN

AD

JUST

ED B

VIT

AM

INS

II 1

Vita

min

B6

(mg)

Vita

min

B12

(µg)

Fola

te (µ

g)M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2

Paci

fic P

eopl

eM

ales

15–2

41.

6*0.

24*

0.6*

1.2*

3.6*

5.8*

1.07

*0.

6*4.

6*11

.6*

211*

22.9

*73

*19

3*31

3*25

–44

1.8

0.17

0.4

1.5

3.8

6.7

1.16

1.0

3.7

16.7

258

22.6

5026

745

045

+1.

5*0.

14*

0.5*

1.5*

2.3*

6.4*

1.38

*1.

4*4.

8*22

.2*

209*

19.6

*90

*20

9*33

5*To

tal

1.7

0.11

0.6

1.5

3.2

6.3

0.71

1.2

4.2

12.5

234

13.4

6523

039

3Fe

mal

es15

–24

1.8*

0.28

*0.

4*1.

6*3.

8*3.

0*0.

34*

0.9*

2.4*

5.7*

217*

21.1

*94

*20

2*35

9*25

–44

1.4

0.11

0.4

1.2

2.5

4.4

0.74

0.5

3.0

9.4

195

11.6

7818

732

945

+1.

6*0.

17*

0.6*

1.5*

2.8*

4.7*

1.00

*0.

8*3.

8*15

.4*

226*

22.0

*10

8*18

7*38

5*To

tal

1.6

0.12

0.4

1.4

3.0

4.1

0.45

0.8

3.2

7.8

209

10.5

9319

435

9Co

mm

unity

Mal

esM

etro

polit

an1.

70.

030.

71.

63.

05.

50.

221.

64.

010

.228

55.

313

126

145

6Pr

ovin

cial

1.7

0.04

0.8

1.6

2.7

7.2

0.58

1.7

4.6

14.6

287

6.8

147

275

434

Fem

ales

Met

ropo

litan

1.3

0.02

0.5

1.2

2.2

4.0

0.21

1.0

2.8

6.4

222

3.4

105

207

349

Prov

inci

al1.

20.

030.

51.

12.

13.

70.

141.

12.

86.

721

64.

211

319

933

6*

Lim

ited

sam

ple

size

, 25

≤ n

< 50

, cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in in

terp

reta

tion

of d

ata.

1Th

ese

data

wer

e no

t adj

uste

d fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

varia

tion.

Rep

eat 2

4 hou

r die

t rec

alls

wer

e no

t com

plet

edin

pro

vinc

ial a

reas

, and

the

num

ber o

f Pac

ific

peop

le w

ho p

artic

ipat

ed in

the

surv

ey w

as lo

w.

2Pe

rcen

tiles

.

229Appendix D

App

endi

x D

8.1

UN

AD

JUST

ED M

INER

ALS

I 1

Calc

ium

(mg)

Phos

phor

us (m

g)M

agne

sium

(mg)

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Mea

nSE

M10

th 2

50th

290

th 2

Paci

fic P

eopl

eM

ales

15–2

461

2*86

.5*

171*

522*

1210

*15

75*

170.

6*84

9*14

62*

2510

*30

5*31

.5*

163*

298*

521*

25–4

465

289

.916

159

311

3917

4116

5.2

540

1422

3280

443

58.8

154

368

914

45+

541*

70.2

*19

7*46

9*11

54*

1474

*12

1.1*

869*

1376

*24

41*

389*

80.5

*16

2*31

6*48

8*To

tal

616

51.4

171

508

1144

1634

101.

167

514

1528

6839

135

.816

031

660

0Fe

mal

es15

–24

512*

53.1

*22

4*41

6*91

6*11

10*

75.4

*73

8*10

25*

1742

*30

8*21

.3*

133*

283*

514*

25–4

449

442

.318

341

781

411

4484

.541

410

5520

7132

230

.299

255

712

45+

453*

50.8

*14

4*37

1*94

8*12

93*

179.

5*52

5*12

33*

1999

*29

4*28

.6*

126*

302*

513*

Tota

l48

927

.818

341

290

711

7064

.852

510

5619

6531

117

.912

627

053

8Co

mm

unity

Mal

esM

etro

polit

an91

019

.835

480

315

3317

7827

.791

216

7826

5837

35.

619

434

857

1Pr

ovin

cial

912

27.2

365

801

1559

1875

43.3

998

1760

3015

377

9.1

210

355

576

Fem

ales

Met

ropo

litan

740

13.2

283

659

1281

1297

19.8

697

1228

2009

276

3.8

149

257

416

Prov

inci

al72

319

.428

864

512

5812

6923

.569

611

6719

5627

34.

515

726

040

4*

Lim

ited

sam

ple

size

, 25

≤ n

< 50

, cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in in

terp

reta

tion

of d

ata.

1Th

ese

data

wer

e no

t adj

uste

d fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

varia

tion.

Rep

eat 2

4 hou

r die

t rec

alls

wer

e no

t com

plet

edin

pro

vinc

ial a

reas

, and

the

num

ber o

f Pac

ific

peop

le w

ho p

artic

ipat

ed in

the

surv

ey w

as lo

w.

2Pe

rcen

tiles

.


App

endi

x D

8.2

UN

AD

JUST

ED M

INER

ALS

II 1

Iron

(mg)

Zinc

(mg)

Pota

ssiu

m (m

g)M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2M

ean

SEM

10th

250

th 2

90th

2

Paci

fic P

eopl

eM

ales

15–2

413

.0*

1.44

*6.

6*13

.0*

24.0

*13

.0*

1.10

*6.

0*13

.6*

20.4

*28

01*

242.

9*12

50*

2728

*50

24*

25–4

416

.01.

505.

514

.530

.619

.72.

926.

113

.445

.342

5039

5.2

947

4500

7937

45+

12.5

*1.

08*

6.5*

11.9

*23

.8*

16.7

*2.

90*

6.8*

10.7

*37

.6*

3623

*34

4.1*

1826

*36

42*

5931

*To

tal

14.4

0.84

6.7

13.3

24.4

17.1

1.61

6.1

13.3

32.4

3689

242.

110

7233

7264

72Fe

mal

es15

–24

10.9

*0.

68*

6.5*

9.6*

16.8

*10

.5*

1.13

*5.

0*7.

6*20

.3*

3195

*22

4.7*

1269

*33

28*

4966

*25

–44

10.8

0.88

3.8

8.6

21.1

13.7

1.73

4.0

9.5

36.9

2869

197.

310

9225

3656

4745

+12

.2*

1.62

*4.

0*10

.3*

28.8

*13

.1*

1.76

*5.

5*11

.4*

31.0

*34

06*

408.

6*12

51*

3244

*65

92*

Tota

l11

.20.

604.

69.

619

.412

.70.

995.

09.

626

.730

9016

2.8

1152

3009

4966

Com

mun

ityM

ales

Met

ropo

litan

14.6

0.26

7.4

13.4

22.8

14.9

0.31

7.0

13.1

24.0

3898

57.3

1969

3619

5879

Prov

inci

al16

.20.

477.

714

.526

.616

.10.

517.

414

.127

.541

7810

3.4

2249

3958

6444

Fem

ales

Met

ropo

litan

10.3

0.18

5.1

9.5

16.1

10.3

0.18

4.8

9.1

17.2

2995

39.4

1582

2857

4491

Prov

inci

al10

.30.

205.

49.

416

.410

.10.

245.

08.

716

.630

1452

.716

4628

5145

27*

Lim

ited

sam

ple

size

, 25

≤ n

< 50

, cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in in

terp

reta

tion

of d

ata.

1Th

ese

data

wer

e no

t adj

uste

d fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

varia

tion.

Rep

eat 2

4 hou

r die

t rec

alls

wer

e no

t com

plet

ed in

pro

vinc

ial

area

s, a

nd th

e nu

mbe

r of P

acifi

c pe

ople

who

par

ticip

ated

in th

e su

rvey

was

low

.2

Perc

entil

es.

231Appendix D

App

endi

x D

8.3

UN

AD

JUST

ED M

INER

ALS

III 1

Sele

nium

(µg)

2M

anga

nese

(µg)

Copp

er (m

g)M

ean

SEM

10th

350

th 3

90th

3M

ean

SEM

10th

350

th 3

90th

3M

ean

SEM

10th

350

th 3

90th

3

Paci

fic P

eopl

eM

ales

15–2

478

*17

.4*

21*

49*

173*

3603

*45

2.0*

965*

3980

*62

71*

1.3*

0.12

*0.

5*1.

2*2.

0*25

–44

106

27.5

1260

185

4523

426.

514

3741

6783

732.

00.

240.

41.

83.

745

+77

*8.

9*20

*80

*13

6*40

29*

527.

6*10

18*

3453

*95

72*

1.5*

0.17

*0.

7*1.

5*2.

5*To

tal

9214

.918

5815

741

4629

0.3

1024

3979

7545

1.7

0.13

0.5

1.4

2.9

Fem

ales

15–2

434

*3.

0*16

*30

*57

*32

62*

188.

2*20

23*

3049

*54

63*

1.2*

0.09

*0.

7*1.

2*1.

9*25

–44

506.

610

3011

136

4020

4.9

1214

3435

6906

1.4

0.10

0.6

1.1

2.4

45+

65*

10.9

*16

*51

*15

2*34

96*

280.

9*16

87*

3709

*57

40*

1.2*

0.13

*0.

7*1.

0*2.

5*To

tal

494.

312

3311

135

0014

2.3

1562

3091

5869

1.3

0.06

0.7

1.1

2.2

Com

mun

ityM

ales

Met

ropo

litan

592.

320

4410

851

2211

0.0

2117

4633

8745

1.7

0.03

0.9

1.6

2.6

Prov

inci

al64

3.1

2149

114

5269

159.

621

0546

2190

101.

80.

060.

91.

62.

8Fe

mal

esM

etro

polit

an43

1.5

1531

7940

9571

.417

2137

6067

401.

30.

030.

61.

12.

0Pr

ovin

cial

453.

614

3082

4040

100.

917

8537

4764

731.

30.

030.

71.

12.

0*

Lim

ited

sam

ple

size

, 25

≤ n

< 50

, cau

tion

shou

ld b

e ex

erci

sed

in in

terp

reta

tion

of d

ata.

1Th

ese

data

wer

e no

t adj

uste

d fo

r int

ra-in

divi

dual

var

iatio

n. R

epea

t 24

hour

die

t rec

alls

wer

e no

t com

plet

ed in

pro

vinc

ial a

reas

, and

the

num

ber o

f Pac

ific

peop

le w

ho p

artic

ipat

ed in

the

surv

ey w

as lo

w.

2Th

ese

data

are

unr

elia

ble,

ple

ase

refe

r to

the

text

.3

Perc

entil

es.


Dietary Supplement Questions

1. Did you take any vitamin and/or mineral capsules/tablets at any time during the year?

YES

NO ➤ Q3

DON’T KNOW ➤ Q3

Appendix EQuestionnaires

233Appendix E

2. What vitamins and/or minerals did you take? Use Supplement Show Card 1

Typ

eB

rand

No.

Dos

eU

nits

Fre

quen

cyN

ame

Take

n

Less

1–3

Onc

eM

ore

Dai

lyE

piso

dic

Don

’tth

antim

espe

rth

anK

now

once

ape

rw

eek

once

mon

thm

onth

per

wee

k

Mu

lti/v

itam

ins

or

min

era

ls

Mu

lti/v

itam

ins

with

iro

n

Mu

lti/v

itam

ins

with

oth

er

min

era

ls

Vita

min

A o

r ca

rote

no

ids

Th

iam

in (

B1

)

Rib

ofla

vin

(B

2)

Nia

cin

(B

3)

Vita

min

B6

Vita

min

B1

2

B C

om

ple

x V

itam

ins

Vita

min

C

Vita

min

D

Vita

min

E

An

ti-O

xid

an

t Vita

min

Ca

lciu

m

Iro

n

Po

tass

ium

Fo

lic A

cid


3. Did you take any vitamin and/or mineral capsules/tablets at any time during the past24 hours?

YES

NO ➤ Q5

DON’T KNOW ➤ Q5

4. Which vitamins and/or minerals did you take?

USE SUPP LEMENT SHOW CARD 1

Type Brand Name Number Taken Dose Units

Multi/vitamins or Minerals

Multi/vitamins with Iron

Multi/vitamins with otherMinerals

Vitamin A or Carotenoids

Thiamin (B1)

Riboflavin (B2)

Niacin (B3)

Vitamin B6

Vitamin B12

B Complex Vitamins

Vitamin C

Vitamin D

Vitamin E

Anti Oxidant Vitamin

Calcium

Iron

Potassium

Folic Acid

5. Did you take any other dietary supplements such as plain wheat bran (unprocessedbran, not ‘Albran’ or breakfast cereal), fibre tablets, lecithin, evening primrose oil,performance enhancers, etc. at any time during the last year?

YES

NO ➤ Q7

DON’T KNOW ➤ Q7

235Appendix E

6. Which fibre etc. supplements did you take?

Typ

eB

rand

No.

Dos

eU

nits

Fre

quen

cyN

ame

Take

n

Less

1–3

Onc

eM

ore

Dai

lyE

piso

dic

Don

’tth

antim

espe

rth

anK

now

once

ape

rw

eek

once

mon

thm

onth

per

wee

k

Wh

ea

t B

ran

Oa

t B

ran

Wh

ea

t G

erm

Fib

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Le

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rlic

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He

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7. Did you take any other dietary supplements such as plain wheat bran (unprocessedbran, not ‘Albran’ or breakfast cereal), fibre tablets; lecithin, evening primrose oil,performance enhancers, etc. during the past 24 hours?

YES

NO ➤ End

DON’T KNOW ➤ End

8. Which fibre supplements etc. did you take?

USE SUPP LEMENT SHOW CARD 2

Type Brand Name Number Taken Dose Units

Wheat Bran

Oat Bran

Wheat Germ

Fibre Tablets

Lecithin

Garlic

Kelp

Herbal Supplement

Codliver Oil

Primrose Oil

Yeast

Performance Enhancer

237Appendix E

SUPP LEMENT SHOW CARD 1

Examples Include:

Multivitamins or Minerals

Vitamin A

Thiamin (B1)

Riboflavin (B2)

Niacin (B3)

Vitamin B6

Vitamin B12

B Complex Vitamins

Vitamin C

Vitamin D

Vitamin E

Calcium

Iron

Potassium

SUPP LEMENT SHOW CARD 2

Examples Include:

Wheat Bran

Oat Bran

Wheat Germ

Fibre Tablets

Lecithin

Garlic

Kelp

Herbal Supplement

Codliver Oil

Primrose Oil

Yeast

Performance Enhancers


Please MARK LIKE THIS:

NOT LIKE THIS:

• Use the pencil provided• Do not use red pen or felt tip pen• Erase mistakes fully• Make no stray marks

INSTRUCTIONS:

✔ ✘

How can you help?

Identification Number:

This survey will help us to find out about New Zealander's food patternsand assist with health promotion and health policy development.

• By telling us what YOU usually eat (not someone else in your household!)

• Please fill out the form yourself.

• Be accurate, but don’t spend too much time on each food.

• Please answer EVERY question.

• If you don’t know the answers to the cooking questions, please ask the person

who usually cooks your food.

• Answer by FILLING the OVAL that best applies to you.

If you have any questions, please ring:

0800 78 75 74

Thank you for contributing to this important project.© Ministry of Health

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PENCIL ONLY

Qualitative Food Frequency Questionnaire

239Appendix E

How to answer:

Here are some examples:

Please answer by filling in the oval which best describes how often you eat ordrink a particular food.Please use the pencil and rubber provided. Ensure that only one oval is filledin per food item for computer scanning.

How often do you usually eat these foods?

If on average you . . .

Never Lessthan

once amonth

1–3timesper

month

Onceper

week

2–4timesper

week

5–6timesper

week

Onceperday

2 ormoretimes

per day

Never eat any sort of mince dishthen you would mark

Eat cooked porridge 5 timesper week in the winter, but neverin the summer, then you would mark

Eat fresh peaches about 3 timesa week when they are in season,then you would mark

Eat onions or leeks; onions 4 timesper week, but leeks only once amonth, then you would mark


First of all, we have some questions about your general eating habits

1. How would you describe your eating pattern? (Please mark one only)Eat a variety of all foods, including animal productsEat eggs, dairy products, fish and chicken but avoid other meatsEat eggs and dairy products but avoid all meats and fishEat eggs but avoid dairy products, all meats and fishEat dairy products but avoid eggs, all meats and fishEat no animal productsOther (please specify)

2. On average, how many servings of fruit (fresh, frozen, canned or stewed) do you eat per day? Do not include fruit juice or dried fruit. (Please mark one only)

(a ‘serving’ = 1 medium piece or 2 small pieces of fruit or 1⁄2 cup of stewed fruit)

e.g. 1 apple + 2 small apricots = 2 servings

I don’t eat fruitPer Day

Less than 1 per day1 serving2 servings3 or more servings

I don’t eat vegetablesPer Day

Less than 1 per day1 serving2 servings3 servings4 or more servings

3. On average, how many servings of vegetables (fresh, frozen, canned) do you eat a day? Do not include vegetable juices. (Please mark one only)

(a ‘serving’ = 1 medium potato/kumara or 1⁄2 cup cooked vegetables or 1 cup of salad vegetables)

e.g. 2 medium potatoes + 1⁄2 cup of peas = 3 servings

241Appendix E

4. On average, how many slices or rolls of bread (or toast) do you eat per day?

I don’t eat bread or toast ➞ Go to question 6

Per Day

Less than 1 per day1–23–45–67 or more

I don’t eat these foodsPer WEEK

Less than 4 per week4–6 servings7–9 servings10–12 servings13–15 servings16 or more servings

WhiteWhite – high fibreWholemeal or wholegrainOther (please specify)

5. What type(s) of bread, rolls or toast do you eat most often? (Please mark only those you usually eat.)

6. On average, how many servings of foods such as pasta, rice, muesli, porridge, or breakfast cereal do you eat per week? (Please mark one only)

(a ‘serving’ = 1 cup cooked rice/pasta or porridge or cornflakes or 1⁄2 cup muesli or 2 weetbix)

e.g. 1 cup of rice 3 times per week + 2 weetbix 4 times a week = 7 servings per week


No ➝ If no, go to question 8Yes ➝ What breakfast cereal(s) do you have most often?(Please mark only those you usually have.)

7. Do you usually eat breakfast cereal?

WeetbixCornflakes or Rice Bubbles

Untoasted muesliSpecial K

Just Right, Light and Tastyor Good Morning

Puffed Wheat or Mini-Wheats

Other (please specify)Porridge

Toasted muesli

All-Bran, San-Bran, Bran Flakesor Weetbix – ‘Hi-Bran’

Nutrigrain, Cocoa Pops or Honey Puffs

No ➝ If no, go to question 9Yes ➝ What type(s) of fat or oil do you use most often?(Please mark only those you usually use)

8. Do you eat meat or chicken fried or roasted in fat or oil?

ButterMargarineButter margarine blendLard or drippingOlive or canola oil

Other oils e.g. sunflower, corn oil,safflower oil etc

Other (please specify)Don't know

No ➝ If no, go to question 10Yes ➝ What type(s) of fat or oil do you use most often?(Please mark only those you usually use)

9. Do you eat vegetables fried or roasted in fat or oil?

ButterMargarineButter margarine blendLard or drippingOlive or Canola oil

Other oils e.g. sunflower, corn oil,safflower oil etc

Other (please specify)Don't know

243Appendix E

How often do you usually eat these foods or drinks?

Please fill one oval for each food or drink.

Dairy Foods

Never Lessthan

once amonth

1–3timesper

month

Onceper

week

2–4timesper

week

5–6timesper

week

Onceperday

2 ormoretimes

per day

Flavoured milk(e.g. milkshake, iced coffee)Milk as a drinkMilk on breakfast cerealsMilk added to hot beverages madewith water (e.g. coffee, tea, milo)Hot beverages make with milk(e.g. milo, cocoa, hot chocolate drinks)Cream or sour creamIce creamCustard or dairy foodYoghurt, plain or flavoured(including fromage frais)Milk puddings(e.g. rice, semolina, instant)Cream CheeseCottage or ricotta cheeseMozzarella, feta, or camembertEdam or Gouda cheeseColby, Mild, Tasty cheeseBrie, blue and other specialty cheeses

10.

We would now like to ask in more detail about the foods you eat.

No ➝ If no, go to question 12Yes ➝ What type(s) do you have most often?(Please mark only those you usually have)

11. Do you drink or use any type of milk?

Standard, homogenised milk(blue top)

Trim milk (green top)Super TrimSkim milk or low-fatpowdered milkLight Blue

Whole or powderedwhole milk (silver top)'Calci-trim''Slim and Fit'Soy MilkOther (please specify)


No ➝ If no, go to question 14Yes ➝ What type(s) do you use most often?(Please mark only those you usually use)

13. Do you use butter or margarine on bread or crackers?

ButterUnsalted butterButter and margarine blendLow salt margarine

‘Miracle’, ‘Sunflower’ etc.(ie Polyunsaturated margarines)Reduced fat margarine e.g. ‘Slimarine’

Other (please specify)‘Praise’ or ‘Olivo’ margarine

No ➝ If no, go to question 15Yes ➝ Do you trim any excess fat off these meats?(Please mark one only)

14. Do you eat pork, beef, mutton, hogget or lamb?

AlwaysOften

OccasionallyNever cut the fat off meat


Please fill one oval for each food.

Bread and Cereal Foods

Never Lessthan

once amonth

1–3timesper

month

Onceper

week

2–4timesper

week

5–6timesper

week

Onceperday

2 ormoretimes

per day

Focaccia, bagel, pita or otherspeciality breadsParaoa Parai (frybread)Rewena breadDoughboys or Maori breadCrumpet or croissantWaffle or doughnutFruit or iced bunsSavoury or dry biscuits, crispbread,or crackersCooked porridgeBreakfast cereal (including muesli)Rice (including white or brown)Pasta eg. spaghetti, ravioli,macaroni, noodles

12.

245Appendix E

No ➝ If no, go to question 16Yes ➝ Do you remove the skin from chicken?(Please mark one only)

15. Do you eat chicken?

AlwaysOften

OccasionallyNever remove the skin from chicken

How often do you usually eat these foods?Please fill one oval for each food.

Meat and Fish

Never Lessthan

once amonth

1–3timesper

month

Onceper

week

2–4timesper

week

5–6timesper

week

Onceperday

2 ormoretimes

per day

Beef mince dishes(e.g. rissoles, meatloaf)Beef or veal mixed dishes(e.g. casserole, stir-fry)Beef or veal – roast, chop, steak,schnitzelCorned beef (including canned)or brisketHogget or mutton mixed dishes(e.g. stews)Hogget or mutton – roast, chopsLamb mixed dishes(e.g. casserole, stir-fry)Lamb – roast, chop, steakPork mixed dishes(e.g. casserole, stir-fry)Pork - roast, chop, steakPork - boiled bonesSausage, frankfurter or saveloyBacon or hamLuncheon meats, salami or brawnLiver (including pate)Other offal (e.g. kidneys)Chicken mixed dishes(e.g. casserole, stir-fry)Chicken – roast, fried, steamed, BBQTurkey or duckVenison

16.




Meat and Fish

Mutton birdCanned tuna, salmon, sardinesEelFish, batteredFish, fried (including fish fingersor fish cakes)Fish, steamed, baked, grilled or rawShellfish (e.g. mussels, oysters,paua, kina, pipis)Other seafood (e.g. prawns)

16. (Cont. . .)



Miscellaneous

Never Lessthan

once amonth

1–3timesper

month

Onceper

week

2–4timesper

week

5–6timesper

week

Onceperday

2 ormoretimes

per day

Cakes, scones or pikeletsMuffins - all typesSweet pies or sweet pastriesOther puddings or desserts(not including milk-based puddings)Plain sweet biscuitsCream filled and/or chocolate biscuitsCanned or packet soup (in winter)Home-made soup (in winter)

18.

No ➝ If no, go to question 18Yes ➝ Not counting eggs used in baking cakes etc, how many eggs do you usually eat per week? (Please mark one only)

17. Do you eat eggs?

Less than 11 egg

2 eggs3 eggs

4 eggs5 or more eggs per week

Per WEEK

Never Lessthan

once amonth

1–3timesper

month

Onceper

week

2–4timesper

week

5–6timesper

week

Onceperday

2 ormoretimes

per day

247Appendix E


Miscellaneous

HamburgerMeat pie, sausage roll or othersavoury pastriesPizzaMuesli barsChocolate (including chocolate barse.g. Moro bars)Other confectioneryJam, honey, marmalade or syrupPeanut butter, other nut spreadsVegemite or marmiteNutsPotato crisps, corn chips, Twisties etc.

18. (Cont. . .)



Dressings and Sauces

Never Lessthan

once amonth

1–3timesper

month

Onceper

week

2–4timesper

week

5–6timesper

week

Onceperday

2 ormoretimes

per day

MayonnaiseLow-calorie salad dressingSalad dressingTomato sauceGravyWhite sauce/cheese sauce etc.Coconut cream

19.

Never Lessthan

once amonth

1–3timesper

month

Onceper

week

2–4timesper

week

5–6timesper

week

Onceperday

2 ormoretimes

per day


How often do you usually eat these foods?(If your intake varies with season, how often do you usually have them when in season?)


Vegetables(including fresh, frozen or canned)

Never Lessthan

once amonth

1–3timesper

month

Onceper

week

2–4timesper

week

5–6timesper

week

Onceperday

2 ormoretimes

per day

Potato; boiled, mashed, bakedor roastedHot potato chips or kumara chips/french fries/wedgesPumpkin; boiled, roast or mashedKumara; boiled, roast or mashedPeasMixed frozen vegetablesGreen beansSilver beet, spinachCarrotsCabbage, coleslawSweet cornMushroomsTomatoesBeetrootTaroTaro leaf (e.g. palusami)Green bananasWatercressPuhaSprouts (e.g. alfalfa, mung)Turnips or swedes

20.

249Appendix E

How often do you usually eat these foods?(If your intake varies with season, how often do you usually have them when in season?)


Vegetables(including fresh, frozen or canned)

Never Lessthan

once amonth

1–3timesper

month

Onceper

week

2–4timesper

week

5–6timesper

week

Onceperday

2 ormoretimes

per day

ParsnipKarengo (seaweed)Onions or leeksSoybeans, tofuBeans (including baked beans), lentilsCauliflowerBroccoli or broccoflowerBrussel sproutsCourgette/zucchini, marrow,eggplant, squashKamo kamoPacific Island yamsYamsCapsicum (or peppers)CeleryCassavaAsparagusBreadfruitCucumberAvocadoLettuceOther green leafy vegetablese.g. Whitloof etc.

20. (Cont. . .)



Fresh Fruits– when they are in season

Never Lessthan

once amonth

1–3timesper

month

Onceper

week

2–4timesper

week

5–6timesper

week

Onceperday

2 ormoretimes

per day

ApplePearBananaOrange, mandarin or tangeloGrapefruitPeach, nectarine, plum or apricotMango, paw-paw or persimmonsPineappleGrapesStrawberries and other berriesor cherriesMelon(e.g. watermelon, rockmelon etc.)KiwifruitFeijoasTamarillos

21.


Other Fruits

Never Lessthan

once amonth

1–3timesper

month

Onceper

week

2–4timesper

week

5–6timesper

week

Onceperday

2 ormoretimes

per day

Sultanas, raisins or currantsOther dried fruit(e.g. apricots, prunes, dates)Preserved or canned fruit in syrupPreserved or canned fruit in wateror juiceStewed fruit

22.

251Appendix E

(Please note that the possible categories you

have to choose from have changed.)

Well done, just one more question!

How often do you usually have these drinks?Please fill one oval for each drink.

Drinks

Neveror

rarely

3 timesa

monthor less

1–2timesper

week

3–6timesper

week

1–2timesperday

3–5timesperday

6 ormoretimes

per day

Fruit juice e.g. Just Juice, Fresh-up, Robinson'sor Rio Gold etc.Vegetable juice (e.g. tomato juice)Fruit drink e.g. Choice, Rio Splice etc.Powdered drinks (e.g. Raro, Vita-fresh etc.)Low-calorie cordialCordialDiet carbonated drink (e.g. diet sprite)Carbonated drinks (e.g. coke, lemonade etc.)Sport's drinks (e.g. Gatorade, Powerade etc.)Water (including unflavoured mineral water,soda water, tap water)CoffeeCoffee – decaffeinatedCoffee substitute (e.g. Inka)KokoTeaHerbal teaSoy beveragesBeer – low alcoholBeer – ordinaryRed wineWhite wine or champagne / sparkling wineWine coolerSparkling grape juiceSherry or portSpirits, liqueurs

23.


Are there any other foods, not included in this questionnaire,that you eat at least once a week? If so, please tell us:

Thank you for your time and effort in completingthis questionnaire.

It is much appreciated.

Who completed this questionnaire?

Today’s date is: 19

MyselfInterviewerSomeone else

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JANFEBMARAPRMAYJUNJULAUGSEPOCTNOVDEC

199619971998199920002001200220032004200520062007

DATE

253Appendix E

Barriers to Dietary Change Questions

INTERV I EWER TO COMPLETE :

1. Servings of fruit per day? number

See Q2 in QFFQ

2. Servings of vegetables per day? number

See Q3 in QFFQ

3. Servings of bread per day? number

See Q4 in QFFQ

Servings of cereals per week? number

See Q6 in QFFQ

(Totals per day number)

4. I’d now like to ask you some questions about changes to your choice of foods.

Are you trying at present to make any changes to your choice of foods?

(For example, trying to change the amounts or types of foods you eat)

Yes ➤ Q5

No ➤ Q10

Don’t Know ➤ Q10


5. We’d now like you to think about four particular groups of foods.

For each group of foods, can you tell me if you are trying at present to change the amountyou eat?

(Interviewer to show each card in turn then note all positive responses that apply)

DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 1 fruits

DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 2 vegetables

DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 3 breads and cereals

DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 4 butter, margarine, oils, and other foods high infat

fruits ➤ Q6

vegetables ➤ Q7

breads or cereals ➤ Q8

butter, margarine, oils and other foods high in fat➤ Q9

IF NONE OF THESE ➤ Q10

Comments

If in answering Q5, the subject has already described whether they are trying to eat more or less of thefood group, simply record the answer below rather than asking Q6-9 unnecessarily.

6. About fruit, in what way are you trying to change? (ask as open-ended question).

USE D I E TARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 5

more

less

don’t know

If respondent indicates a change in fruit only ➤ Q10

7. About vegetables, in what way are you trying to change? (ask as open-ended question).


more

less

don’t know

If respondent indicates a change in fruit and/or vegetables only ➤ Q10

255Appendix E

8. About bread or cereals, in what way are you trying to change? (ask as open-ended question).


more

less

don’t know

If respondent indicates a change in fruit and/or vegetables and/or bread and cereals only ➤ Q10.

9. About butter, margarine, oils or other foods high in fat, in what way are you trying to changeyour choice of foods? (ask as open-ended question; note: subject to answer both questions).


9a

Eat more foods high in fat

Eat less foods high in fat

No change in amount eaten

9b

Change type of butter, margarine or oils used

No change in type eaten

Comments

If the respondent is presently changing a food group, then you are unable to ask about an intendingchange to that food group.


10. In the last question, we asked about any changes you are making now.

We’d now like to ask about whether you are thinking about making any changes to the foods you eatin the future.

We’re interested in whether you intend or plan to make any changes over the next 6 months.

Are you intending to change the amount you eat of any of these groups of foods?

(Interviewer to show each card in turn, then note all positive responses)

(DO NOT ASK , SHOW SHOW CARDS 1 -4 )

DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 1 fruits

DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 2 vegetables

DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 3 breads and cereals

DIETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 4 butter, margarine, oils, and other foods high infat

Tick all that apply:

fruits ➤ Q11

vegetables ➤ Q12

breads or cereals ➤ Q12

foods such as butter, margarine, oils and other foods high in fat➤ Q14

IF NONE OF THESE ➤ Q15

Comments

___________________________________________________________________________

If in answering Q10, the subject has already described whether they are intending to eat more or lessof the food group, simply record the answer below rather than asking Q11-14 unnecessarily

11. About fruit, in what way are you intending to change? (ask as open-ended question).


more

less

don’t know

If respondent indicates that they are intending to change fruit only ➤ Q15.

257Appendix E

12. About vegetables, in what way are you intending to change? (ask as open-ended question).


more

less

don’t know

If respondent indicates that they are intending to change fruit and/or vegetables only ➤ Q15.

13. About bread or cereals, in what way are you intending to change? (ask as open-ended question).


more

less

don’t know

If respondent indicates that they are intending to change fruit and/or vegetables and/or breads andcereals only ➤ Q15.

14. About butter, margarine, oils or other foods high in fat, in what way are you intending tochange your choice of foods? (ask as open-ended question; note: subject to answer both

questions).


14a

Eat more foods high in fat

Eat less foods high in fat

No change in amount eaten

14b

Change type of butter, margarine or oils needed

No change in type eaten

Comments


15. If Q1 < 2 OR Q6 = ‘eat more fruit’ (ask this question).

People often find it hard to increase the amount of fruit they eat. We’re interested in the sorts ofthings that people find most difficult about making this change.

Here is a list of things that people have found difficult about eating more fruit.

Would any apply to you?


FRUIT

Cost too much

I don’t like fruit

Can’t store fruit for long

It’s a hassle to try and eat more

Often of poor quality

Fruit causes stomach upsets or indigestion

It’s hard to chew

Causes allergy or other bad reaction

Not enough time

Don’t always have fruit at home

Contains too much sugar

Fruit is not good for me

Would need willpower to eat more

Pesticides or chemicals on fruit

I would not find it hard to eat more

Other (describe)

➤ Q16

259Appendix E

16. If Q2 < 3 OR Q7 = ‘eat more vegetables’ (ask this question).

People often find it hard to increase the amount of vegetables they eat. We’re interested in the sortsof things that people find most difficult about making this change.

Here is a list of things that people have found difficult about eating more vegetables.



VEGETABLES

Cost too much

I don’t like vegetables

Can’t store them for long



They cause stomach upsets or indigestion

Vegetables are hard to chew


Take too long to prepare

Don’t always have them at home

It’s hard to prepare vegetables

I have nowhere to cook vegetables

Not enough time


They’re not good for me

Pesticides or chemicals on vegetables


Other (describe)

➤ Q17


17. If Q3 < 6 (total) OR Q8 = ‘eat more breads or cereals’ (ask this question).

People often find it hard to increase the amount of breads and cereals they eat (Use DIETARYCHANGE SHOW CARD 3 to remind them of foods in this group). We’re interested in the sorts ofthings that people find most difficult about making this change.

Here is a list of things that people have found difficult about eating more breads and cereals.



BREADS AND CEREAL FOODS

Cost too much

I don’t like them

They’re fattening


They’re too filling

They upset my stomach

They’re too heavy

They provide too many calories

They’re too starchy


They cause wind



Other (describe)

➤ Q18

261Appendix E

18. ALL subjects to answer:

People often find it hard to cut down the amount of butter, margarine, oils or other foods high infat. We’re interested in the sorts of things that people find most difficult about making this change.

Here is a list of things that people have found difficult about cutting down on butter, margarine, oils orother foods high in fat.



BUTTER, MARGARINE, OILS OR OTHER FOODS HIGH IN FAT

They taste good

It’s hard to prepare meals with less fat

They’re convenient

There are few low-fat alternatives

Cheap

The people I live with would have to eat less too

Would need willpower

It’s hard when I eat out a lot

My body needs fat

Preparing meals with less fat takes too long

I like to eat these foods for comfort

It’s a hassle to try and eat less

I wouldn’t enjoy food as much

None of the above, I’m happy with my fat intake

Other (describe)

End Barriers Questions


D IETARY CHANGE SHOW CARD 1

FRU ITS

Also includes:

coconut

pawpaw

watermelon

figs

mango

guava


VEGETABLES

Also includes:

manioc/cassava

taro

kumara

puha

green bananas

choko


BREADS AND CEREALS

Also includes:

breakfast cereals

porridge

muesli

rice

pasta


Butter, margarine, oils, and

OTHER FOODS HIGH IN FAT

For example:

FRIED FOOD AND PASTRIES


EAT MORE

EAT LESS


FOODS HIGH IN FAT

AMOUNT

EATING MORE

EATING LESS

EATING THE SAME

TYPE OF BUTTER, MARGARINE OR OILS

CHANGED THE TYPE

HAVEN’T CHANGED

263Appendix E


FRUIT

Cost too much

I don’t like fruit

Can’t store fruit for long



Fruit causes stomach upsets or indigestion

It’s hard to chew


Not enough time

Don’t always have fruit at home

Contains too much sugar

Fruit is not good for me


Pesticides or chemicals on fruit


Other


VEGETABLES

Cost too much

I don’t like vegetables

Can’t store them for long



They cause stomach upsets or indigestion

Vegetables are hard to chew


Vegetables take too long to prepare

Don’t always have them at home

It’s hard to prepare vegetables

I have nowhere to cook vegetables

Not enough time



Pesticides and chemicals on vegetables


Other



BREAD AND CEREALS

Cost too much

I don’t like them

They’re fattening


They’re too filling

They upset my stomach

They’re too heavy

They provide too many calories

They’re too starchy


They cause wind



Other


BUTTER, MARGARINE, OILS OROTHER FOODS HIGH IN FAT

Taste good

It’s hard to prepare meals with less fat

They’re convenient

There are few low-fat alternatives

Cheap

The people I live with would haveto eat less too

Would need willpower

It’s hard when I eat out a lot

My body needs fat

Preparing meals with less fat takes too long

I like to eat these foods for comfort

It’s a hassle to try and eat less

I wouldn’t enjoy food as much

None of the above, I’m happy with myfat intake

Other

265Appendix E

Food Security Questions

INTRODUCT ION

I now want to ask you some questions about particular foods you choose, and the buying of food orgifting of food. We are interested in whether you feel you always have sufficient resources to have thefood you need for yourself and the people you live with. We are not concerned with your budget, orhow you spend your money, but we are more interested in finding out about how people get the foodthat they need for their household to eat and share.

(In all questions ‘we’ refers to the household, unless it is a one-person household).

First of all, we know that some people can’t afford to eat properly and we are interested in whetheryou think you eat properly. It’s what you think eating properly is - not what I or anyone else thinks.

USE FOOD SECUR I TY SHOW CARD 1

I / WE CAN AFFORD TO EAT PROPERLY

Always

Sometimes

Never

Don’t Know

2. We are interested in whether you run out of basics, like bread, potatoes, etc. because you donot have enough money. We are NOT referring to treats or special foods.


FOOD RUNS OUT IN MY / OUR HOUSEHOLD DUE TO LACK OF MONEY

How often has this been true for you (or your household) over the past year?

Often

Sometimes

Never

Don’t Know


3. Now we are interested in whether a lack of money leads you to sometimes have smaller mealsthan you would like or whether a lack of money means there isn’t enough for seconds or yousometimes skip meals?


I / WE EAT LESS BECAUSE OF LACK OF MONEY


Often

Sometimes

Never

Don’t Know

4. Now we are going to talk about the variety of foods you eat. By variety we mean the numberof different kinds of foods you have.


THE VARIETY OF FOODS I AM (WE ARE) ABLE TO EAT IS LIMITED BY A LACKOF MONEY


Often

Sometimes

Never

Don’t Know

5. Some people rely on support and assistance from others for supplying their regular food andwe are interested in find out how many people fall into this group.


I / WE RELY ON OTHERS TO PROVIDE FOOD AND/OR MONEY FOR FOOD, FORMY / OUR HOUSEHOLD, WHEN I / WE DON’T HAVE ENOUGH MONEY


Often

Sometimes

Never

Don’t Know

267Appendix E

6. Also, some people have to rely on other sources of help such as food grants or food banks.


I / WE MAKE USE OF SPECIAL FOOD GRANTS OR FOOD BANKS WHEN I / WEDO NOT HAVE ENOUGH MONEY FOR FOOD


Often

Sometimes

Never

Don’t Know

7. We know that some people get quite stressed and worried about providing enough food eventhough they don’t actually go without food.


I FEEL STRESSED BECAUSE OF NOT HAVING ENOUGH MONEY FOR FOOD


Often

Sometimes

Never

Don’t Know

8. We recognise that for some people food and sharing food with others is important, to thepoint that they won’t have enough food for themselves. In this question we are only interestedin social situations which are gatherings within, or outside, the household. As a result peoplemay find themselves stressed/whakama (embarrassed) about their koha (gift) when providingfood for others.


I FEEL STRESSED BECAUSE I CAN’T PROVIDE THE FOOD I WANT FOR SOCIALOCCASIONS


Often

Sometimes

Never

Don’t Know


FOOD SECUR I TY SHOW CARD 1

I / WE CAN AFFORD TO EAT PROPERLY

Always

Sometimes

Never

Don’t Know


FOOD RUNS OUT IN MY / OURHOUSEHOLD DUE TO LACK OF MONEY

Often

Sometimes

Never

Don’t Know


I / WE EAT LESS BECAUSE OF LACK OFMONEY

Often

Sometimes

Never

Don’t Know


THE VARIETY OF FOOD I AM (WE ARE)ABLE TO EAT IS LIMITED BY A LACKOF MONEY

Often

Sometimes

Never

Don’t Know


I / WE RELY ON OTHERS TO PROVIDEFOOD AND/OR MONEY FOR FOOD FORMY / OUR HOUSEHOLD, WHEN I / WEDON’T HAVE ENOUGH MONEY

Often

Sometimes

Never

Don’t Know


I / WE MAKE USE OF SPECIAL FOODGRANTS OR FOOD BANKS WHEN I / WEDO NOT HAVE ENOUGH MONEY FORFOOD

Often

Sometimes

Never

Don’t Know


I FEEL STRESSED BECAUSE OF NOTHAVING ENOUGH MONEY FOR FOOD

Often

Sometimes

Never

Don’t Know


I FEEL STRESSED BECAUSE I CAN’TPROVIDE THE FOOD I WANT FORSOCIAL OCCASIONS

Often

Sometimes

Never

Don’t Know

269Appendix E

1999 nz food: nz people€¦ · nz food: nz people ‘...are more likely to choose lower fat dairy...

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