1935-1945. the nye commission, 1934-1936 blamed wwi on arms makers: “merchants of death” 1935...
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The Nye Commission, 1934-1936 blamed WWI on arms makers: “merchants of death”
1935 Neutrality Act forbade US arms sales to belligerents1936: no US loans to belligerents, either1937: FDR’s exception – “cash and carry”
non-arms, hard-currency payments, no US shipskey: sale of oil to Britain
late 1939: arms allowed – but still no loans & no US ships
Summer 1940: Selective Service registration (21-35)preparation for a draft
Late 1940: “destroyers for bases” & “Lend-Lease”FDR’s efforts to evade the Neutrality Actsallowed dispersal of $50 billion in aid to 30+ countries
Staying Out of War, 1935-1940
Japanese expansion 1931: invasion of Chinese Manchuria 1937: invasion of China; alliance with Germany &
Italy
FDR’s diplomatic efforts encouraged arms sales to China via Britain (lend-
lease) July 1941: cut off oil & rubber exports to Japan
critical resources for Japanese militaryforced Japan to seize French & Dutch colonies attack on US naval base in Hawaii to prevent
US interference
December 7: surprise attack on Pearl Harbor simultaneous with conquest of most of the South
Pacific December 8: US declared war
Dec 11: Germany/Italy declared war on US, & vice-versa
Entry into War, 1941
FDR, Stalin wanted invasion of France, 2nd front in 1942Churchill stalled, fearful of repeat of WWI trenches instead, Nov. 1942 invasion of N Africa, then up Italy1943: USSR turned the tide & began pushing Germany
backJune 6, 1944, US-GB invasion at Normandy
Germany soon caught in pincersMay 8, 1945: Germany surrendered
victory hinged on Russian soldiers & US machineryRussian victories turned back Germans & created time
for US industryfrom 1943 on, US strategy focused on industrial power, not
manpower16 million of 43 million (37%) eligible men served, ~6 million in
combat roles235,000 US battle deaths (both theaters)14 million Russian battle deaths
European Theater of War
Pearl Harbor devastated the US Navy, allowed rapid Japanese expansion seized European/US colonies throughout the southern
Pacific
but the US Navy recovered quickly turned back Japanese at the Coral Sea, May 1942 June 4: US victory at Midway Island marked a major
turning point
by summer 1942, US forces began slowly advancing toward Japan
by April 1945, the US was ready for an invasion of Japan August 6: Hiroshima A-bomb
50-100,000 killedcountless more would die of radiation
August 9: Nagasaki A-bomb36,000 more killed immediately
August 14: Japan surrendered
Pacific Theater of War
Estimates of US losses in an invasion of Japan500,000-1,000,000 soldiers killed
Context: “total war” blurred military/civilian distinctionmobilization of entire populations technological capacity for death & destruction1945: massive Allied bombings of Axis cities
Berlin, February 3: 25,000 killed Dresden, February 13: 35,000 killedTokyo, March 9-10: 90,000 killed, 1 million left homelessMarch-August: 65 Japanese cities bombed
900,000 killed, 1.3 million more wounded, over 8 million homeless
Desire to end the war before the Soviets got too involvedunlike FDR, Truman hated communism and USSRAugust 8: USSR declared war on Japan and invaded
Manchuria with 1 million men – quick victory
The Decision to Use the Bomb
FDR: victory prioritized above all elsemost New Deal programs slashed, phased outwartime production further growth of big
businesscost + 10% contracts – hugely profitablefederal contracts went to biggest suppliers
also directed scarce resources to big companies
Inflationconsumer goods – high demand, low supply
full employment, high wages (real wages +27%)people had money and wanted to spend it
wartime shortagesOffice of Price Administration (1942)
1) prize freeze; 2) rationing (incl. meat, gas, rubber)
prices up 28% total, only 9% after mid-1942
The Home Front
Wartime govt. spending $320 billion – doubled all previous US spending
combinedtaxation paid for 45% of the war’s cost
income tax: from 3% of Americans (4 million) up to 33% (43 million)
1943: withholding systemborrowing paid for the rest (55%) – war bonds
1941-1945: govt. debt rose 500% (to $280 billion)
The Home Front
Effects of War Production on Unions63% of working-age men did their service at homeunions became more accepted than ever
high membership due to AFL & CIO deal with US govt.unions: no-strike pactgovt. mandated “maintenance of membership”
all new employees in union shops made members of the union
pact + patriotism purged unions of radical leadership/influences
The Home Front
Effects of War Production on Migrationgreatest internal migration in US history
in addition to military, 15 million left their county for a jobof those, ½ settled permanently in a new state
1.5 million African Americans left the Southmajor trend was east to west
California’s population rose 72%
The Home Front
Effects of War Production on Women popular image: Rosie the Riveter
women built the weapons, men went off & used them in fact, there were ~2 million women in defense
industries but this was only about 10% of working women
during the war 90% worked in clerical & service (i.e. “female”) jobs and ¾ of US women didn’t join the workforce at all
WWII brought no change in gender roles/expectations1941-1945: 6.5 mil women entered the workforce
about ½ were single – i.e. typical working women difference: 3 million new married female workers
vast majority were middle-aged – why? no children at home could take jobs without violating basic female role
little lasting change by 1947, fewer blue-collar women than prewar but bank tellers now almost all female
The Home Front
FDR generally avoided identifying domestic enemiescommunists left aloneGermans & Italians left alone
Glaring exception: Japanese Americansracism + Pearl Harbor = panic/hysteria
fear of coastal attacks, sabotage, espionageracial stereotypes: sly, ruthless, fanaticalconvenient scapegoat: 1% of CA population (0.1% of US)
Feb 1942: Executive Order 9066by August, 120,000 Japanese relocated to internment
campsmost were under 21; 2/3 were citizens – born in US (14th
amendment)conditions in camps 1943: offered freedom for 1) military service, 2) defense
industry service Japanese American military service in Europe
December 1944 releaseKorematsu v. US (1944) – Supreme Court upheld
internment1948 congressional compensation & 1988
congressional apology
The Home Front