1.1 introduction - salek seraj · collapse, foundations may fail. forces evacuation flood (can be...

1.1 Introduction The context of housing in Bangladesh is shaped by theinteraction between people and nature, where nature isbeneficial but also presents hazards. Indeed, natural hazards(and also man-made ones) are an integral part of life inBangladesh, all the more so because a hazard only results in adisaster only if people are vulnerable, this is to say:HAZARD + VULNERABILITY = DISASTER. The povertyof the majority of the people places them in a vulnerableposition where they are unable to cope with the frequenthazards that they face -thus disasters making the headlines.

What constitutes the nature of the housing of thismajority? This is the main question which this chapter seeksto address. Perhaps what sets the tone is the fact that most ofthe existing housing and houses which are going to be built inthe next few decades are likely to be non-engineered. Thisform of housing is clearly vulnerable to various hazards andthus arises the importance of addressing the need to reducethis vulnerability, in other words, "building for safety"; this isa basic principle behind the deliberations of this book, hencethis introductory chapter begins with a general review of thisprinciple. This is supplemented by highlights of some of thekey issues facing building for safety programmes.

Following an overview of general principles in this chapter,some selected aspects are then presented to compose a largerpicture of the housing context. Firstly, the housingcharacteristics and conditions of low-income groups aredelineated through the findings of a demographic survey. Thisshows that although both rural and urban housing arevulnerable to hazards, the urban situation is certainly moreprecarious. Notwithstanding that, because of the preponderanceof rural housing, secondly, it has been chosen to discuss someof its main characteristics. A wide array of rural house types,construction methods and building materials are described

CONTEXT OF HOUSING AND HAZARDS 07

here. Thirdly, an important user-group -women -is dealt with,where the significance of their contribution to housing isunderscored. Similar to selecting women as a specificallyimportant and representative group relating to housing, themost widely used house building material in Bangladesh -bamboo -is also discussed. The report here of diminishingbamboo supply reflects the broader scenario of an overallreduction in the resource base of natural building materials,posing a serious constraint on building adequate and safehouses, and augmenting hazard-vulnerability. Finally, as anexample of unique context within Bangladesh, the housing ofethnic communities in the Chittagong Hill Tracts is described.

1.2 Design,Constructionand Buildingfor Safety

From time immemorial, natural disasters have been causing theloss of millions of lives and resulting in colossal damage to theeconomy. In fact, the terms "natural hazard" and "naturaldisaster" were used almost synonymously. During the last fewyears, a clear distinction has gradually emerged between the two.A natural hazard is a "natural phenomenon or a combination ofphenomena which threaten people or physical assets" while" anatural disaster is an event, sudden or progressive, which impactswith such severity that the affected community has to respond byexceptional measures" (Carter, 1991). Whereas it is extremelydifficult to reduce natural hazards, developments in science andtechnology have now made it possible to reduce natural disasters,i.e. the impacts of natural hazards. This realisation is reflected inthe change in nomenclature of the global efforts now underwayto mitigate natural disasters. Originally it was named illHR(International Decade for Hazard Reduction) when it was firstproposed in 1984, but, later on, when it was adopted by the UNGeneral Assembly in 1987, its name was changed to the illNDR(International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction).

The housing situation in Bangladesh is extremely poor.According to the 1991 housing census, the backlog in housingwas 3.1 million units, composed of 2.15 million units in ruralareas and 0.95 million units in urban areas. By the year 2000,the housing shortage is likely to exceed 5 million (GOB,1996). If we take into account the replacement needs of therudimentary thatched houses, the target will be much more.About 90% of dwellings in rural areas and about 60% inurban areas are non-durable, which implies that even if theyare not subjected to extreme natural hazards, they wouldhave to be replaced within 10-15 years.

08 BUILDING SAFER HOUSES IN RURAL BANGLADESH

Although natural hazards affect developed as well asdeveloping countries, there is a difference in their impact. Inthe developed countries, improved mitigation measures haveresulted in a dramatic reduction in the loss of human lives.For example, a magnitude 7 earthquake in a developingcountry may result in thousands of deaths, but an earthquakeof similar magnitude in a developed country (eg. California inUSA) may kill only a few persons. However, the overall lossto the economy is much higher in the case of developedcountries. For example, in 1992, Hurricane Andrew caused anestimated loss of US$ 15.5 billion in Florida and the GreatHanshin earthquake in Kobe in 1995 resulted in an estimatedloss of US$ 75 billion to physical assets (about 1.6% of GDP).

We have been fortunate that no major earthquake hasaffected Bangladesh during the last 78 years. The last majorearthquake which had its epicentre within Bangladesh was the1918 Srimongal earthquake which caused a lot of destructionin the Srimongal area and damaged houses as far away asKishoregonj. A review of the damage statistics of the 1897Great Indian earthquake shows that most of the brick masonrybuildings in Dhaka collapsed or sustained major damage. Theeffect of a similar earthquake on the city (with a population65 times more than in 1897), which has a large number of 3-5storey brick masonry buildings with very little seismicresistance, would be catastrophic now. Moreover, many ofthese are on fills, with a possibility of ground failure duringearthquakes. The traditional light-weight low-rise buildingsin the north east part of the country (timber frame with thinbamboo mat walling) had excellent earthquake resistance, butthese are unfortunately being replaced by multi-storied brickmasonry with reinforced concrete (RC) floors and roofswhich are extremely vulnerable to earthquake damage.

1.2.1 Types ofNatural Hazards

The various types of natural hazards may be classified asfollows:

Atmospheric Hazards.Tropical cyclones.Stonn surges.Extra tropical cyclones.Tomadoes/Thunderstonns.River floods.Droughts


Geological Hazards.Earthquakes.Tsunamis.Volcanic eruptions.Landslides.Snow avalanches

Other Hazards.River erosion.WildfIres.Locust infestation

It is estimated that about 3 million people around theworld have lost their lives during the last 20 years due tonatural disasters and around 1 billion people have beenaffected. The total damage during the period is estimated tobe US$ 200 billion. Although all sectors of the economy areaffected by natural disasters, destruction of infrastructureconstitutes one of the major components of this loss.

1.2.2 NaturalHazards inBangladesh

Bangladesh is one of the most disaster-prone countries in theworld. The major natural hazards which affect housing inBangladesh are as follows:

.....

EarthquakesT omadoe sfTh un derstormsTropical Cyclones and Storm SurgesRiver FloodsRiver Erosion

1.2.3 Impacts of The effects and consequences of some of the major naturalHazards on Housing hazards on housing are shown in Table 1.1.

1.2.4 Review ofPresent Situationin Bangladesh

Until recently the question of housing for the rural poor hasreceived little attention from national decision-makers. Thereis currently a shortfall of 3.5 million units of adequateaccommodation in Bangladesh. The study titled "Bangladesh2020 -A Long-Run Perspective Study" (World Bank-BCAS,1998) has projected a national population of 170 million bythe year 2020 (medium growth scenario), of which 110million will be living in rural communities; so the existingproblem of rural housing is likely to increase greatly if it isnot addressed as a matter of urgency.


World Bank economists use three economic indicatorswhen assessing individual poverty levels; one of those is thematerial used in constructing the person's house roof. Figure1.1 shows the present situation in Bangladesh.

~~~~~~~~~~:::::'\g Leaf materials~ Single room thatched~ Two/more rooms, thatchedm CI sheet (Tin).Pucca

Figure 1.1: RoofMaterialsCurrently Usedin Bangladesh

Thus, more than half the buildings of Bangladesh haveroofs of natural organic materials. These have a short lifespanof typically less than 5 years, so natural decay is often enoughto destroy them without including the hazards. Therefore, low-cost improvements that increase longevity will have a verysignificant role in developing rural resilience to natural hazards.

1.2.5 GovernmentPolicy

A National Housing Policy was approved by the governmentin 1993 with the prime objective of ensuring housing for allstrata of society including the disadvantaged and shelterlesspoor. However, little action has been initiated to follow-up theabove policy objectives. The current five year plan (1997-2002) has been recently approved by the government andincludes considerable emphasis on rural housing (GOB, 1997),using inexpensive, affordable materials allied to soft loans forlow-income households. For this purpose, a special fundwould be created by the government. In vulnerable coastalareas additional grants will help local bodies to further reducecosts to the homeowner. This policy appears to reflect asignificant shift of emphasis toward the rural poor. Itsimplementation could make a major impact on povertyalleviation.

1.2.6 EngineeredHousing

Buildings which are designed by competent engineers andsupervised by them during construction are termed

"engineered buildings". The design is governed by buildingcodes which specify the loads, the design methodology andthe details to be followed to enable the structure to resist theeffects of natural hazards. In Bangladesh, efforts wereinitiated in 1973 to analyse the hazards due to extreme winds(Choudhury, 1974) and in 1979, to prepare an outline of a


Code for Seismic Resistant Design (GSB, 1979) but it is onlyrecently that a comprehensive National Building Code hasbeen formulated (BNBC, 1993). The Code includes a windspeed map, seismic zoning map and a table giving the stormsurge heights at different locations. The use of these valuesand the provisions of the Code should lead to construction ofbuildings which provide adequate safety against naturalhazards. The Code also includes detailed recommendationsfor strengthening masonry buildings against earthquakes byproviding horizontal as well as vertical reinforcement.

Hazard Effects Impact on Housing

Damage to humansettlements: walls maycollapse, foundationsmay fail. Forcesevacuation

InundationFlood (can be caused byunusually intense rainfallor by changes to earth'ssurface, such asdeforestation upstream)

Tropical cyclone,Tornado,ThunderstorDl

High winds Damage to buildings andother man-madestructures: roofs blownaway, collapse of walls &frames. Collapse offoundation

Stornt surge Inundation andwave action

Collapse of walls due toinundation; foundationfailure; collapse of wallsand roof due to waveaction

Earthquake Tremors (groundshaking)LiquefactionGround failure(horizontaldisplacement)

Damage to buildings,buildings, particularlyunreinforced brickmasonry and mud-walledhousing.

Buildings surface sink intosoil

Damages buildings on therupture lines

Table 1.1: Effects ofMajor NaturalHazards on Housing

1.2.7 Non-EngineeredHousing

River erosion Loss of groundsupport

Collapse of foundation

Most of the existing housing and houses which are going tobe built in the next few decades are likely to be non-engineered, i.e. they would not have the benefit of beingdesigned and supervised by engineers. Most likely, these aregoing to be designed and built, by owners. These are the


houses which are the most vulnerable to natural hazards. Ourefforts should, therefore, be directed towards reducing thevulnerability of these non-engineered constructions.Fortunately, during the last few years, a number of projectshave been undertaken in different parts of the world aimed atdeveloping techniques for reducing the vulnerability of non-engineered construction against extreme winds andearthquakes (NBS, 1977 and IAEE, 1981).

These studies have identified the following four factorswhich have a strong influence on the vulnerability of housing:

....

SitingDesignConstruction MethodsMaterials

Taking all these into consideration, simple guidelines havebeen proposed for use by non-technical people and arepresented in an illustrated booklet titled "43 Rules -HowHouses Can Better Resist High Wind" (NBS, 1977). TheInternational Association of Earthquake Engineering hasprepared a manual for earthquake-resistant non-engineeredconstruction (IAEE, 1981). By following these guidelines, itshould be possible to reduce significantly the damage tohousing due to natural causes, leading to a reduction in theloss of human lives and property.

The guidelines mentioned above have been available forquite a number of years. A question may naturally be asked:

"Why are these not being followed in practice?". The answeris that the fruits of R&D are not being transferred into thefield. As mentioned earlier, most of our houses are designedand built by owners or artisans who do not have access tothese booklets. Obviously, there is a necessity for bridgingthis gap by transferring technology to the people, mostlyliving in the rural areas, who are actually involved in non-engineered construction. The lessons learnt from

"agricultural extension services" may be used in this effort.The following are some of the steps which may be used:

Translating the guidelines into BangIa, including somemodifications to reflect the conditions in Bangladesh.Training of trainers may be arranged by BUET and HBRIii


in association with NGOs involved in housing and banksproviding micro-credit for housing (e.g. Grameen Bank).

ill Training programmes for artisans (masons, carpenters andother building-related technicians). These may beorganised by NGOs.

iv Use of mass media (e.g. TV) to demonstrate good practices.

Figure 1.2:AFlooded RuralSettlement ShowingDamage to theLower Partof Houses

Experience of other countries shows that post disasterreconstruction provides an excellent opportunity for introducingimprovements in housing technology. The experience of Tongamay be cited, where, following the 1985 typhoon, a fewthousand houses were built using the help of BRE (BuildingResearch Establishment), UK. This has resulted in a dramaticimprovement in the building practices in the island.

1.2.8 Housing inFlood-ProneAreas

The obvious measure which may be adopted for flood-proneareas is to raise the floor level above the level of flood-water.This may be achieved by:

a. raising the level of ground on which the building restsb. building on stiltsc. floating house with floor level rising along with the flood

water

The flfst solution is very common in our rural areas whereindividual houses, clusters of houses or a whole village maybe raised above the flood level by earth filling. However,adoption of this solution throughout the whole of the flood-prone areas does not appear feasible under the prevailingsocio-economic conditions. Bu,ildings on stilts are quite


common in the coastal areas as well as along the river banksor roadside ditches (Figure 1.3). The major problem is that,unless properly braced, the unsupported lengths of columnsmay be excessive, leading to reduced resistance to lateralloads due to wind or earthquake. Floating houses supportedon half-cylindrical ferrocement pontoons have beendeveloped in Thailand but appear to be an expensive solution.

Figure 1.3: Houseson Bamboo StiltsAlong Riverbank

lIouses on reinforced concrete stil~ have been used inareas subjected to stonn surge (e.g. Urir Char). lIowever; thecost ofTk. 1 lac for a single room (around 3m x 3m) is beyondthe means of most families. A model house on stilts is shownin Figure 1.4. The use of precast prestressed space frames maylead to a reduction in the cost. Moreover, a structure whichcan be dismantled and re-erected at a new site would enable itsuse in areas subjected to erosion.

1.2.9 Post-ConstructionRepair andRetrofitting

Mitigation techniques to reduce the vulnerability of housing tonatural hazards can be incorporated most economically andeffectively during construction. However, there is a large stockof existing housing which has already been built withoutadequate protection against natural hazards. Techniques forretrofitting have been developed, particularly for brick masonryand mud-wall housing. These include adding a ferrocementveneer, vertical comer reinforcement embedded in mortar,introducing tie beams and adding buttresses (IAEE, 1981).

1.2.10 Mud-WallingTechnologies:Some NOtes

Mud walled construction remains common in North Bengalwhere houses made in this way are vulnerable to the highseismic risk there. There is still work needed in this area.

Mud construction is typically vulnerable also to erosion byboth rainfall and flooding. The addition of a straw binder


helps to increase resistance and, in the 1960s, the well-knownEgyptian architect, Hassan Fathy, experimented withstabilising mud bricks with straw. A series of tests wascarried out at Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee,India, to find out the efficacy of different treatments toincrease the durability of mud walls subjected to rain.Treating the surface of wall with asphalt-kerosene mixturewas found to be effective. In 1979 a BUET research projectfollowed up CBRI's lead and concluded that spraying mixtureof equal parts of kerosene and asphalt at a rate of 740 gramsper square metre onto the mud surface provides optimumstabilisation. The cost of that measure would be a mere 28Taka per 10 sq. m. of wall area.

Figure 1.4: Houseon RC Stilts

1.2.11 Bambooand Thatch

Bamboo frames are often damaged by the poor quality of thejointing arrangements. Considerable work has been done inthe Philippines to develop more rigid joints; that experienceshould be incorporated into Bangladeshi programmes.

The fIfe resistance and water-proofing of thatch can bothbe improved by spraying appropriate chemicals onto thecompleted roof. Research will show us the most cost-effective and appropriate treatments for improving thatchperformance and reducing the serious fIfe-hazard they present.

1.2.12 ImprovedStructures

Many NGOs have developed improved model houses. After atornado devastated villages in Shaturia (west of Dhaka),Enfants du Monde (EDM) set up a programme to distributetheir model houses freely to poor beneficiaries. However,when subsequently surveys we!e carried out to determine


programme impacts, it was found that almost all thedistributed houses had been sold by the poor people torelatively well-off people to realise the considerable capitalthat they represented. This trend has been found by manyother similar programmes and reinforces the need for homeimprovements to be affordable within the means of the owner.

There are particular problems to be overcome in the surge~prone areas where cyclones can generate wind-speeds up to 250kph and surge waves of 6m or more. Stilted house may beappropriate here, although until now no such solution has foundmuch acceptance. One of the reasons is the relatively high cost(around US$2,500 for one room (floor area 18 sq.m.) on stilts.Another problem occurs in river bank areas where land may beeroded away at any time and demountable houses will beneeded. There are thus several particular cases to be considered.

1.2.13 The WayForward

The 1996 International Workshop on Housing and Hazardsgenerated important recommendations. In particular, thefollowing points should be prioritised:

.....

Full scale tests on various house-types to enable thepreparation of design and detailing guidelines;Estimation of costs of improvements;Preparation of manuals -these should be written in simplelanguage with pictorial instructions;Develop a training programme with workshops for alllevels of involvement in the house-building process,including engineers, technicians, craftsmen and owners,with particular emphasis on women;Draw appropriate lessons from dissemination successes inother fields such as oral rehydration therapy andagricultural extension;Involve NGOs and the mass media such as radio and TVin the dissemination process.

.

Although Bangladesh is among the most disaster-pronecountries in the world, its national efforts have not been significant.A large volume of literature exists. What is now required is aconcerted effort to transfer the know-how to people who areactually involved in the design and construction of housing.

1.3 Some Key Statistics show that the numbers of people affected by disasterIssues in Building is growing annually by 6%. However, the impacts of afor Safety disaster will vary according to the circumstances of the


community affected. For example, in 1993 both Latur (India)and Los Angeles (USA) were struck by earthquakes ofmagnitude 6.5 (Richter). 8,240 died in Latur while the deathtoll in Los Angeles was a relatively low 60.

The lesson from the earthquake in Kobe makes anotherpoint: this event killed 5,466 and caused damage totalling$IOObn. This is an illustration of the way in which propertylosses are escalating alarmingly. These issues were addressedin the 1996 INDNR theme "Cities at risk".

Much of the death toll from earthquakes results fromcollapsing masonry and buildings. The reality is that thesedeaths primarily occur in the dwellings of low-incomefamilies. Since such families are normally well below thethreshold of engineered structures built by qualified builders,there is a clear need for more community-based trainingprogrammes in hazard-'resistant housing. The various issuessurrounding vulnerability must be examined to determine anysocial, cultural or maybe political reasons for unsafe practices.

1.3.1 RiskAssessment

In assessmg the risks affecting them, a community will needto consider three elements:

1. What preparedness measures are in place or can bedeveloped. Have they the necessary knowledge, resourcesand authority to put them in place? Who will takeresponsibility?

2. Are there ways of reducing the risk by, for example,moving homes out of flood-prone areas (or above them onmud platforms) or mitigating winds by the use of windbreaks.

3. Can realistic warnings be issued that will enable the mostvulnerable to take effective action before a disaster tomitigate its likely effects.

Building stronger houses is one way of reducing the riskscreated by a hazard. Building for safety includes better basicconstruction and the retrofitting of existing structures withstrengthening elements.

1.3.2 Buildingfor Safety

The objective of a Building for Safety programme should beto promote community self-reliance and to create a culture ofsafety. There is no need to make major changes in buildingtechnology; indeed this should be resisted, since Bangladesh

BUILDING SAFER HOUSES IN RURAL BANGLADESH18

and many other hazard-prone countries are littered with failedprojects that attempted fundamental changes.

Rather than physical changes in technology, the objectiveshould be to create a team of experienced local builders andcraftsmen. Supply of components and materials should beassociated with advice and explanation of their uses andbenefits so that the culture of safety is built up gradually.

This process should focus on and involve the mostvulnerable social groups.

Figure 1.5 illustrates diagrammatically the importance ofincreasing participation of a participant in effective learning.

1.3.3 Effective

Training

High Doing by repetitionApplying training in future projects

Doing by practiceon-the-job training andguided observation ofbuilding failure

Hearing and SeeingAudio-visual aids

SeeingPosters I diagrams

HearingClassroom training

DEGREIOF

RETENTIONFigure 1.5: Formatof Training forBuildingImprovementProjects (AfterAsyan etal., 1995)

Low~ = Knowledge &skililevel

Hearing

Passive learning Passive to active learning Active learning

This diagram highlights the fact that effective learningmust be based on direct experience. Therefore, trainees needto avoid class-room based theoretical training approaches.Students retain more of the message for longer by activeinvolvement, ideally including repetition of activities.

Training needs to include everyone -the building users aswell as the builders. Conducting building for safety trainingprogrammes provides opportunities for incorporating a rangeof other skill training.

By linking Building for Safety programmes with incomegeneration activities it is possible to enable participants togenerate the funds necessary for improving their homes. Thishas been done, for example, in Anhai Province in China.

1.3.4 Community Although the risks from earthquakes are not so severe inBased Programmes Bangladesh as those from floods or cyclones, it is still vital to

design and construct safer dwellings for poor families.Probably the only way to do this is through community

training.


The best time to introduce safe building training is after adisaster as part of the reconstruction process. This timepresents a unique window of opportunity. Probably the nextbest time to introduce improvements will be when newdwellings are being built. However, the most difficult thingwill probably be to address the need to make existingbuildings safe. This is expensive and socially disruptive aswell as often technically difficult.To be effective, training needs to be experiential -whereadvice is given on the job -rather than in a passive classroom situation. Community-based training in buildingsafety is best organised in conjunction with otheropportunities for developments in leadership, skills, localpreparedness planning and income generation as new skillsin building can be marketted and general communitydevelopment is seen as a positive outcome of the process(Figure 1.6).

Figure 1.6: Comm-unity-BasedTraining Workshopin Dinajpur

Here, it has been challenged that the most effective way tobuild houses for low-income families in hazard-prone areas isby using building contractors. Building for Safety community-based programmes may take longer than those undertaken bylarge building firms and they may be less tidy. Also,opposition may be expected from vested interests in moderntechnology, such as contractors. However, communityprogrammes offer significant benefits, in terms of social gains,which decision-makers should consider very carefully.


1.4 Low-IncomeHousing Pattern

Low-income urban and rural communities are the primaryvictims of natural hazards here in Bangladesh, as in otherdeveloping regions. Therefore, investigations have to be madeto understand the process that creates this state ofvulnerability of the low-income community and its influenceon the housing pattern of these people.

1.4.1 Methodof Study

The study aims at investigating the process leading to thevulnerable housing pattern of low-income rural and urbancommunities. The study, therefore, is based on relevant datacollected through a field questionnaire survey.

1.4.2 Questionnaire In preparing the questionnaire the following things wereconsidered: (i) the difficulty of the field questionnaire surveyexercise, (ii) length of the questionnaire, (ill) simplicity of thequestions asked, and (iv) the circumstances in which thequestionnaire would be completed. A typical questionnaire sheet(translated from BangIa) used during the field survey ispresented in Table 1.2. Questions were asked regarding therespondent's profession, place of residence, housing type,rent/ownership status, length of stay, number of family members,experience of hazards, reason for living in a hazardous house,efforts to improve housing safety, whether benefited by anygovernment/official help, daily income and age.

Table 1.2:QuestionooireSheet


40

80

30

60

~cQ)~0-!!II. 20

40

10

020 30 40

Age (yrs)

(a)

50 60 70 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Number of family members

(b)

Figure 1.7: (a) Age Distribution of the Respondents, and (b) Number of Family Members ofRespondents' Families

1.4.3 DataCollection Area

While the ultimate target was to cover a few regional cities ofBangladesh and a number of rural regions in different comersof the country, due to financial and time constraints, the areascovered were the Dhaka City area and rural areas includingChar Hijli, Char Motto, Gopalpur, Dashara, Bhabanipur,Malancha and Bolta of Manikgonj district. However, cross-section of most of the low-income target groups has beencovered in the questionnaire survey.

1.4.4 Analysis A total of 198 low-income persons have been interviewedwith only about ten percent female respondents; one canwell understand the difficulty of interviewing women in thisconservative society. The respondents' age distribution hasbeen presented as a frequency histogram in Figure 1.7(a). Itcan be observed that the majority of respondents are in the30-40 years age band. The number of family members ofthe respondents has been presented in another histogram inFigure 1.7(b). This reflects the well-known low acceptanceof population control measure among this group. It can beseen that the majority of the families are of 5-7 members.Having this sort of family size and an average daily income


as shown in Figure 1.8 as a frequency histogram, one caneasily imagine the financial hardship of these low-incomecommunities. For the majority of families the average dailyincome is in the range of Taka 50 to 100 and for the ruralsubjects it is only about Taka 50. It is understandable thatwith such a low income level, it would be difficult to savemuch for housing cost/improvement after meeting otherhousehold costs.

The occupation of respondents is shown in Figure 1.9. Hereit can be seen that the majority of respondents are rickshaw-pullers and hawkers with a considerable proportion of dailylabourers. Other groups covered are earthworkers, smallshopkeepers, servants/maids, street children and sweepers.

1.4.5

HousingPattern

The analysis of survey data shows that about 90% of the low-income respondents live in rented accommodation, while only12%, especially in rural areas, own their accommodation.This reflects that the low-income urban community is mainlycomposed of a migrant population. The respondents were alsoasked about their duration of stay at their present places andthis is presented as a frequency histogram in Figure 1.10. Itcan be observed that more than three fourths of therespondents were living for less than five years at theirpresent address. The subjects were also asked about thehazards they had faced in their houses. Almost all therespondents admitted that they have faced one or morehazards. The types of housing hazards experienced by therespondents are presented in a frequency histogram in Figure1.11. It can be observed that majority of these poor peoplesuffered from floods, rainwater logging and leaking ofrainwater through roofs. A water-logged low incomesettlement is shown in Figure 1.12. A considerable portionalso suffered from cyclonic storms while only a few sufferedfrom fIre hazard. The types of housing for low income peopleare presented in a frequency histogram in Figure 1.13. Here itcan be seen that only a few live in brick-built pucca houses,especially, domestic workers/maids; most of the respondentslive in sapra type unsafe houses made of bamboo, polythene,thatch/leaves and occasionally having metal roofs. Whenasked why they had chosen such places of accommodation,more than half answered that they have no other places to goto or to take, indirectly reflecting their financial and socialvulnerability. But a considerable proportion (about 30%)


blamed their financial hardship for choosing their unsafe andcheap accommodation. About 10% of the respondentsanswered that they lived there as these were their familiarplaces.

30

i20I

10

Figure 1.8: Histogramof Daily Incomeof the Respondents

50 100 150Daio/ Income (Taka)

200 250

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Figure 1.9.. Occupationsof the Respondents

Note: Rpuller meansrickshaw-pulle1;Dlabor meansday-basis labourer

~0'~'1V

11-0'-?-~...

ov' 0\ -0

~~ 00~ ~~~ ~ "'~r;s:.° ~~-J c;>0

The respondents were also questioned whether they hadasked their landlords to make their house safer; only about23% percent answered in the affIrmative. The rest were eitherafraid or did not bother to ask. But the rural community withdweller-ownership invariably blamed their financial hardshipfor not having improved their houses which normally wereconstructed by them with partial involvement of local artisans.They admitted that they solely depended on the artisans forany sort of safer construction technique. However, the groupin urban areas which had solicited the landlords, did notachieve any better housing condition other than experiencing


the red-eye of the landlords or their hoodlums. The majorityof the subjects opined that they were almost bound to acceptwhat their landlord/employer offered them; this also reflectsthat the low-cost houses, especially in Dhaka, were notenough in number to meet the growing demand of migrants.When asked whether any political, community or governmentmembers have inquired about their well-being, only about 5%answered in the affIrmative. A portion of the respondents alsoadmitted the occasional armed threat in their neighborhood toestablish the sheer authority of landlords.

40

30

>-gOJ"0-~u.

20

10Figure 1.10:Frequency Histogramof Duration of Stay atthe Respondents'Present Dwelling

00 10 40 6020 30

Duration of stay (years)

160

120

100

80

60

40

20

00

Figure 1.11:Frequencyof Types ofExperiencedHousing Hazards

1.4.6 Implications

Flood Rain Storm Fire

It has been found that the factors influencing the low-incomehousing pattern were: ownership of the land/house;government/community regulation scheme; duration of stay at


a certain place; income level; familiarity with a certain area;and work requirements. This study has revealed that there is aserious lack both in the people's attitude and in commitmentsfrom political/community/government side for ensuringreduced hazards in the house. In addition, government levelinspectory regulation is necessary to ensure minimum level ofsafety in low-income housing. In rural areas, where asignificant portion of low-income people own their dwellings,they can be benefited by local artisans well-trained in the low-cost safer house building techniques. With an average dailyincome of only Taka 50, they need a government/non-government organization-managed housing [fiance scheme inorder to improve their financial capability for safer housing.Also, a campaign to increase the safety awareness of theselow-income communities will go a long way towards thetarget of reduced hazards in their housing.

~

Figure 1.12: AWater-LoggedLow-IncomeSettlement

80

70

6050

40

30

20

10

0

Figure 1.13.. Typesof Housing of theRespondents

Note: BB meansbamboo, PL meanspolythene,L roofmeans roof madeof leaves/thatch

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-<..~V


1.5 RuralHousingTypology,ConstructionTechnologyand IndigenousPractices

Housing is a more complex commodity than most peoplerealise. Safety and comfort are still the basic essentials forhousing. Housing is a composite social entity. There are singlefamily houses, duplexes, apartments, row houses, permanent,semi-permanent and temporary houses. A housingenvironment can be an index of the social health, happiness,social justice and dignity of the inhabitants. Housing hasmultifaceted economic and social characteristics and it alsohas social benefits. Housing can contribute to communitydevelopment by improving equity and efficiency in society.Income earning opportunities can be improved by locatinglow-income housing areas near employment concentrations.

1.5.1 RuralHousing inBangladesh

About 80% people of Bangladesh live in rural settlements and86% of the dwelling units are located in rural areas (GOB,1993). There has, however, been very little public sectorinvolvement in rural housing. There is virtually no land useplan for the rural areas of the country, which comprise about 85percent of the total land area. The present facilities in respect tohousing and physical infrastructures are very inadequate in therural regions of Bangladesh (GOB, 1997). Traditionally, ruralhousing has been taken care of by the villagers themselves.The government could not make any significant contribution inthis respect except from the distribution of some buildingmaterials, as relief measures in areas ravaged by naturalcalamities, such as flood and cyclone (Hasan, 1991; 1998).

Because of the subsistence nature of the economy, 85% ofthe dwelling units in the rural areas are in the form of shelters,which do not provide adequate protection from wind, rain andflood. Presently, there is only one tube-well for every 105persons to supply drinking water in the rural areas. Thesanitation coverage in the rural areas is only 36 per cent of thepopulation (GOB, 1997). Due to the natural process of wearand tear, lack of repair, and due to the poverty of the ruralpopulation, rural housing conditions have deterioratedseriously. At present, about 30% of the rural families do nothave their own homestead. They live in 'Ijmali' (sharedproperties), mortgaged or rented homesteads. The majority ofthe houses in rural areas are built inadequately in terms ofstructural qualities (GOB, 1993). The housing shortage in therural areas is increasing rapidly, and it is projected that thisshortage might exceed 5 million units by now, if the currenttrend continues (GOB, 1997).


1.5.2 SomeImportantCharacteristics

In rural Bangladesh housing processes are more vernacularin nature which evolved through ages. Housing typesdeveloped in the rural areas in relation to the physicalenvironment, socio-economic and cultural development. Thecultural change which followed the Industrial Revolution inmost developing countries has had little impact on thetraditional way of life; thus little impact on the housingprocesses in the developing world. Only recently, anaccelerating growth of population in a number of developingcountries has brought about a change in some of theassociations of the functional characteristics of housing foraccommodating more population in limited housing spaceinherited though generations. An example of such a changeof this type is the use of courtyard in rural farm houseswhich was formerly an essential part of these houses for itsmanifold uses (e.g. for better air circulation, recreation andfor household and other farm related functions). Thecourtyard has functional utility for husking of cereals, dryingof jute fibers, clothes, etc. This space is gradually beingdecreased by the construction of new housing units andmany of the post-harvest operations are being performednow in mills or even on the roadside.

1.5.3 DesignProcess

Physical control is quite apparent in the housing processes inrural areas. Land level is one of the major criteria in selectinghousing site. Bangladesh is predominantly a flood plain/deltaterrain. For this reason, a major part of the high lands arepreferred for building a house. Where high lands are notavailable or scarce, as in the Haor areas, houses are built onartificially raised ground. Moreover, the availability ofhousing materials and their regional differences have animpact on housing construction and design. Climatic impactcharacterizes the roofing design of rural houses. Pitched roofis the common design to drain off rainfall quickly.

Social and economic determinants of the housingprocesses encompass a number of factors, such as the income,status and size of the family in the household. Besides, anumber of cultural practices influence the design and form ofa house, particularly, the orientation or location of individualhousing units. For example, sleeping units in the householdsare generally made south-facing by both Muslims and Hindus(two major religious groups of Bangladesh), while kitchensare normally constructed west-facing. The Hindus have the


tradition to build cattle sheds and latrines away from thehousing complex. However, in some parts this practice is alsocommon among the Muslims. The salient features of a typicalrural house is shown in Figure 1.14.

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)Figure 1.14.. Salient Features of a Typical Rural House

1.5.4 HousingLayout

The house is the symbol of position and status among therural inhabitants of Bangladesh. Thus housing design variesaccording to socio-economic status of the household. But thismight not be the rule, since often the houses are generallyinherited and their structure and design tend to be thereflection of aspiration and status of the ancestors.Nevertheless, large farmers usually possess a more elaboratehousing structure than those economically less well off.


A house in rural Bangladesh may consist of one or morerooms, depending mainly on the socio-economic status of theowner. Rooms are different in sizes and shapes, thoughrectangular is the common shape. Housing units /rooms areconstructed around a rectangular or square courtyard (Figure1.15). In order to get rid of smells, it is regarded sanitary tobuild the cowshed and latrine away from the main housingarea to one comer of the housing perimeter. Kitchens,normally smaller in size, are built separately. In dry seasonsand among the poorer families, cooking is usually done in thecourtyard and the space is rarely roofed. Kitchen, cowshed,poultry pen and latrine are less emphasized in the totalhousing layout, as are reflected in their inherent designs andlocations. These are usually built of inferior materials and arealso poorly constructed.

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~tI~=Figure 1.15.. A TypicalCourtyard Layoutof a RuralHomestead

In some parts, as in northern and mid-western Bangladesh,the houses in rural areas tradionally have inner and outercourtyards. This practice exists in favour of the farmhouseoperations. Since such households belong normally to largefarmers, they compose a self-reliant functional entity. Butmore recently, as a result of the pressure of population on landas well as the development of community and village-based


commerce and agricultural services, this tradition is graduallyeroding. In some parts of the country, especially in the south,a pond is an essential part of the house and has manifold uses.A house is surrounded by perennial trees giving protectionfrom sun, storms and cyclones and they also offer somedegree of privacy. A house often has a boundary wall toensure privacy of the inmates, which is normally made ofbamboo, palm leaves, straw or corrugated iron sheets, etc.depending on the social and economic status of the owner. Insome areas, as in northwestern Bangladesh, rooms are builtaround a courtyard instead of a wall for maintaining privacyfor the household. A typical rural homestead is shown inFigure 1.16.

Ifo"'~~e.~ be-.,,;~/c.lit"\1 m~i~ V"i"t;

iAJdi t ;Ot1al uni t;f; ~..e-"1/; It; arour!d ihe. c,c1J1"t4QY'~ove.t* t;itn~ ago l1utJ ;1t"'i'~~::A-

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Figure 1.1.6: Salient Features of a Typical Rural Homestead

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1.5.5 HouseFonn

The form of a house manifests the complex interaction ofmany factors, which is revealed in variations of theconstruction designs. The family owning a house made ofcorrugated iron sheets (CI sheets) is very common inrural areas. There are variations in the design and size ofCI sheets. Shape of the roof is related to the status andwealth of the family (Figure 1.17). Roofs with foursfacets of CI sheets, chouchala (four pitched) and with twofacets, dochala (gabled), show two major variations in thedesign and indicate the position of the farmer in the ruralsociety. The high roofed chouchala with an attachedverandah is aesthetically more attractive than a samesized dochala house. The rooms in these houses havehigh windows. The plinth of these types of houses aresometimes made of cement. Two-storied houses built withCI sheet built house, although very rare, are highlyprestigious in rural areas. Such houses, which are made ofmud/CI sheets, are owned mainly by affluent farmers andhouseholds.

~~

Figure 1.17: Typical Roof Forms of Rural Houses

1.5.6 Amenitiesand Services

Amenities and services such as water supply, latrine, sewerage,drainage, electricity, etc., do not seem to have priority in thehousing structure in rural Bangladesh. Natural sources of waterare still vital in rural livelihood, but other sources, such astubewell and dugwell, are gradually being considered importantnowadays. About 54 percent of the households use a pond as


general source of water followed by tube well (21 percent).Drinking water is mainly fetched from tube-well (53 percent)followed pond (21 percent). About one-third of the rural housesdo not have any arrangement for latrine. Most houses do nothave any drainage facilities (GOB, 1997).

1.5.7 ConstructionMaterials andTechnology

Houses in rural areas are mainly made of locally availableindigenous materials such as bamboo, straw, grass, jute sticks,golpata (palm fronds), mud and CI sheet. The wall is made ofstraw, jute stick, bamboo, mud and CI sheets, while thatch orCI sheet roofmg, and sometimes roofing with tiles is used, asin some parts of Rajshahi, Kushtia, Bogra and Jessore.Bamboo is widely used as a common house building material.

CI sheets and thatch/leaves (like golpata) roofing is foundin majority of houses in rural Bangladesh. In most cases thefloor is made of mud (i.e., kutcha). Cemented floor, brickbuilt wall and concrete roofing (i.e., pucca) used to be rare inthe rural areas of the country. However, pucca buildings areincreasingly becoming common in many villages ofBangladesh. Previously, the houses of the big landowners andthe former zamindars (landlords) were mainly included in thisgroup. Brick built mosques or temples are not uncommon inthe country. About 35 percent of roofs of rural houses are builtof strong materials which range from cement and mortars toCI sheet and wood, and only 13 percent of the walls of thehousing units are made of permanent and semi-permanentmaterials, such as CI sheet and cement/brick. A largeproportion of dwelling structures in the rural areas istemporary in nature; this type of construction is called 'kutcha';it accounts for about 80 percent of the total rural houses. Thephysical conditions of most of these may be described asmoderate to poor (GOB, 1997).

It has been observed that straw and bamboo are the mostcommonly used building materials in the construction ofhousing in rural areas of the country. These are used as thechief construction materials for walls. Straw, and bambooform the main housing materials for the construction of bothwall and roof. In Pabna and Sirajganj districts CI sheet ismainly used for construction of walls. In Dhaka District, theuse of cement and brick is quite common as materials used forboth walls and roofs, perhaps due to the nearness to thecapital city and also to relatively better economic condition ofthe inhabitants as a result of the degree of urban exposure.


Cement and brick walled house is also prevalent in the borderregions of Jessore district, which may be due to longsettlement traditions adjacent to old human habitats near toWest Bengal. In this area, mud-walled and tiled-roof houseswith spacious courtyards are also quite common.

Mudlkutcha brick is commonly used in the walls of thehouses in some parts of north Bengal where the elevation isabove flood level and the soil has the right characteristics forbrick-making. Similar houses are also prevalent in KushtiaDistrict where the house are built with high plinth andspacious verandah and have an inner courtyard toaccommodate storage units. Tiles are predominantly used forroofing of houses in Naogaon district and also in westernareas. CI sheet forms the common material of houses insouthern Bangladesh (Hasan, 1999).

The above description portrays only the key characteristicsof building materials in rural Bangladesh, and someexceptions are not unlikely. However, the generalised pictureof the materials used for housing can be broadly classifiedunder: (a) kutcha, (b) semi-pucca, (c) pucca. It should benoted that the pattern obtained through the categorization ofrural dwellings into these three main classes closely followthose obtained earlier.

1.5.8 RuralHouse Types

In the plain lands of Bangladesh, although there is moresimilarity than difference in geographic conditions, there aresome variations in housing characteristics. Houses are oftenconstructed of organic materials and have varying sizes andshapes. The majority of these houses is temporary in nature. Inthe rural areas of Bangladesh, the following types of houses arecommonly found in different parts of the country (Hasan, 1999).

1.5.9 BambooWalledHouses

In some areas in the eastern and northern part of Bangladesh,the houses are mainly bamboo walled, with thatched curvedroof built on high plinths (Figure 1.18). Shapes arepredominantly oblong.

A small verandah with wood or bamboo support is thecommon design. Plaited bamboo plastered with a thick layerof mud is often used for walls for house construction insouthwestern and northern parts of Bangladesh. The sametype of housing style is also common in the islands and in thecoastal regions of Chittagong. In the latter case, the onlydifference is found in the roofing design, which is usually


constructed as double facet and the main roof is separatedfrom that of the verandah. The houses are mostly one and ahalf storied in height. In the rural areas, in and around Dhaka,Narayanganj, Chandpur and Pabna, bamboo walled houseswith CI sheet roofing are quite common.

Figure 1.18: Bamboo-Walled House

1.5.10 MudWalled Houses

The northwestern regions of Bangladesh have a distinctivecharacteristic of mud-walled housing. Oblong shaped mudwalled houses with thatch and tile roof are common in Bogra,Pabna, Khushtia and Jessore. In Chapai Nawabgangj, the roofof a mud walled house is moulded by brick dust mixed in withlime, which is peculiar to this area. In the region from Bogra toKushtia, mud-walled houses with CI sheet roofing are anothercommon type. Relatively taller mud-walled houses of about 15feet high are found along the southwest border of Bangladesh.Bamboo fenced outer boundary walls of houses is thecharacteristic housing feature of the region between Darshanaand Jessore. Above flood level land, relatively less rainfall anddry climate, and the lateritic soil are the main reasons for thedevelopment of mud walled housing structure in these regions.

Mud-walled houses with two to three level roofs arecommon in Chittagong region. A two-storeyed mud-walledhouse is shown in Figure 1.19. The walls are made of sun-dried mud of one to two feet thickness. The heights of thesehouses can vary: one type is about ten feet high, and theothers are around double its height. The roofs of the houseare thatched, tiled or made of CI sheet.

1.5.11 TimberHouses

A relatively small population group of Bangladesh buildtimber houses. In the Mogh communities of Cox's Bazar,Teknaf and Moheshkhali, timber houses represent a different


cultural heritage with distinctive architectural tradition. Thehouses are normally built on a wooden platform above theground, to keep away poisonous snakes and ferocious animals.The reasons for this may lie in the existence of forests insurrounding regions, which are infested with wild animals andreptiles. These forests also provide ample timber for houseconstruction. The space beneath the platform allows freeairflow, and is also used for various household purposes. Thehouses are generally painted black, and have woodcarvings oncornices and doors (Figure 1.20).

Figure 1.19: Two-Storeyed Mud-Walled House

1.5.12 Timberand BrickHouses

Figure 1.20:.Timber House

In the eastern part of Sylhet, often the floor, bottom section ofwalls and the plinth are made of brick, and the rest of the wall ismade of reed or bamboo matting, plastered with cement or mudon both sides. These houses have timber frames and columns.The roof is normally made of CI sheet or straw. Figure 1.21shows a timber and brick house.


Figure 1.21: Timberand BrickHouse in Sylhet

1.5.13 CorrugatedIron (CI)Sheet Houses

In regions, especially in the north-eastern part where rainfall isvery high, houses with CI sheet roofmg are very common.Figure 1.22 shows a CI sheet house. The development of thishouse may have its origin in the British colonial past, whensuch houses were built in tea plantations and for administrativeheadquarters. These houses also provide effective protectionagainst heavy tropical rain, and the sheets are damp-proof,light, and durable.

In north-eastern Bangladesh, particularly in Sylhet, houseshave boundary walls made of CI sheet or bricks. Some of theboundary walls are colorful and have high gates, which areconsidered prestigious in this region. Often the owners ofthese houses reside abroad, mainly in the UK.

Figure 1.22:C1 Sheet House

In the southwestern part of Bangladesh; in Faridpur, Madaripur,Barisal, Patuakhali and Bhola, CI sheet houses are also


common, where sheets are used both for roofing and wallconstruction. In central Bangladesh, such as in Dhaka, Comillaand Mymensingh, CI sheet is mainly used for the roof, whilemud or mud blocks are used for walls (Figure 1.23). In thesouthern part of Khulna, especially in the Sundarban region,golpata (palm fronds) is commonly used as a roofing materialfor bamboo walled houses.

Figure 1.23: Housewith Mud Wallsand CI Sheet Roof

1.5.14 Thatch!Straw Houses

In the Haor basin and in areas along major rivers of Bangladesh,organic building materials such as reeds, long grass, thatch, andjute sticks are widely used for roofing and wall construction.This is mainly because reeds and long grasses are abundantlyavailable in char areas and on riverbanks. Moreover, these areasare often flood-prone and subject to various hazards and riskslike river bank erosion, which forces people to use cheapmaterials for house building. Figure 1.24 shows a typicalthatched house In relatively flood free areas, such as in Bograand Tangail district, temporary roofmg materials like thatch orlong grass are used upon mud walls.

1.5.15 IndigenousPractices inRural Housing

In rural areas of Bangladesh, the housing processes arevernacular in nature, which evolved through ages. Thesehousing processes manifest the agrarian economy of thecountry, and have developed in relation to its physical andcultural set up. Rural houses are generally constructed oflocally available indigenous materials, and these arecharacteristically less variable. The majority of rural housesare apparently temporary in nature, particularly with respectto the materials used for their construction (Hasan, 1999).


Vernacular building fonDS are well developed in ruralBangladesh, but these are undergoing rapid changes because ofindustrialized building materials. The use of corrugated iron(CI) sheets has become quite popular and widespread, and theproduction and use of traditional building materials isdiminishing consequently (Ahmed, 1994). Vernaculararchitecture in rural Bangladesh has evolved corresponding toits main physiographic regions. A number of techniques forhouse building using indigenous materials exist in the country.The layering technique involves building with large earth blocksor sun-dried bricks. There is another commonly used technique,which is plastering bamboo mat walls with mud. This methodadds sturdiness to the otherwise flimsy though highly developedbamboo construction techniques (Ahmed, 1994).

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Figure 1.24:Thatched House

As discussed, different kinds of indigenous practices arefound for house construction in rural areas of Bangladesh. Inthe northwestern region, particularly in the Barinda highland,houses are often made of mud and earth. At fIrst, mud iscollected and kept in a mound and wetted regularly bypouring water. The people themselves soften the mud bypressing it with feet. In the end, the softened mud is placed atdifferent layers for building the walls of houses. In someareas, particularly in the southwestern region, construction ofhouses with sundari tree as support material and golpata asshading material is very common. At fIrst, the frame of thehouse is made using sundari planks or poles of differentthickness. Outside cover is then attached to this frame. Thechoice of building materials for this depends upon


affordability. Some people use galvanised iron (GI) sheet,some use thatch, and some use bamboo mat or wood. Oftenthe bottom portion of the walls is constructed of 5-inch thickbrick walls (sometimes the entire walls). For rural housing,the common practice in most areas of Bangladesh is to use abamboo frame. Bamboo poles are fIrst dug deep into theground and then fixed strongly by compressing earth aroundthe bottom of each pole. Then transverse bamboo rafters aretied to the vertical poles. These are tied either by steel wire orrope. Finally, the frame for the roof is made. In the end,different kinds of materials are used for covering the frame.For example, CI sheet can be used for both walls and roof.Bamboo mat for walls and CI sheet for roof. Alternatively,bamboo mat for walls and either straw, grass or thatch can beused for roof. A number of indigenous constructiontechniques are also found in the rural areas of the country.Phasing construction over a period of time is very common.Often the walls and frame of the house are constructed in oneseason or year, and the roof is made in another year or season.Upgrading or extension of the house over time is anothercommon practice. Often thatch roof is replaced by CI sheetroof when households have enough money at hand. For ruralhouses, the common practice is to build a one-room housefIrst. Then incremental additions are made to the house: e.g., afew more rooms, a verandah, a permanent kitchen, or betterquality windows are added. However, the toilet is generallyplaced a little away from the main house. Attached toilet isstill very uncommon in the rural areas of Bangladesh. In ruralareas, most of the houses are placed around a courtyard. Thisinner court provides light, ventilation, seating and cookingarea and a private space for family members. This is a veryvernacular, fundamental and indigenous concept of housebuilding in the country, and has been practiced in Bangladeshfrom generation to generation.

1.5.16

Prospects Housing processes in the rural areas of Bangladesh are morevernacular in nature than in the cities. They have evolvedover a long period. Houses are often constructed of organicmaterials and have varying sizes and shapes. In some areas inthe eastern and northern part of Bangladesh, the houses aremainly bamboo walled with thatched curved roof built onhigh plinths. The north-western regions of Bangladesh havedistinctive characteristics of mud-walled houses. A relatively


small population group of Bangladesh build timber houses. Innorth-eastern Bangladesh, particularly in the Sylhet region,houses have roofs and walls made of CI sheets or bricks. Inthe southern part of Khulna, especially in the Sundarbanregion, golpata is commonly used as a roofing material forbamboo walled houses.

In Bangladesh, very little government attention is given torural housing except for a few NGO assisted houses. Still thehousing situation in the rural areas of Bangladesh is by farbetter than in the urban slums and squatter settlements. Oneimportant reason can be that rural householders are generallythe owners of their homes. Therefore, they try to maintain andclean their houses as much as possible within their affordablelimits. But in urban slums and squatter settlements, occupantshave very few rights on the houses where they live.Unfortunately, in recent times, there is a phenomenon of ruralslum formation in many areas of Bangladesh. Increasingpopulation density, lack of space for house construction,dwindling land-to-man ratio, and persistent poverty are themain causes for such development. The government couldcome forward to provide land (particularly khas land) to theserural slum dwellers, especially for house building.

In most cases, rural people know better how to buildtheir houses, when to build, and what materials to use thanprofessional builders or engineers. They have a keen senseof resource management for house building within theirmeager means, which calculative and strategic planning maynot be able to work out. This is basically by virtue of theirindigenous knowledge passed on to them from generation togeneration. Therefore, professional planners, architects andengineers could learn from them. What is necessary is toprovide rural people with adequate finance, buildingmaterials, technical know-how, information andinfrastructural support. For example, most of the rural areasof Bangladesh are beyond the electricity andtelecommunication coverage of the country. Provision ofinfrastructure including transport networks, water supplyelectricity and telecommunications facilities woulddefinitely increase the quality of life of rural people. Finally,financial assistance (either in the form of credit or grants)would eventually enable rural people to build safe andpermanent houses according to their own needs andresources.

CONTEXT OF HOUSING AND HAZARDS

41

1.6 Role of Women In Bangladesh women represent about half of the totalin Rural Housing population. Various indicators reveal that the status of women

is lower than that of men. Traditional socio-cultural practiceslimit their opportunities in education, skill development,employment and participation in the national developmentprocess. Their literacy rate is 38.1 % and life expectancy is58.1 years. There are also sharp differences between boys andgirls, women and men, in the national status (BBS, 1993).

Women's participation in the development process is acommon phenomenon allover the world. They play animportant role in each sector of national activity. Ruralwomen are mostly engaged in their household work,especially in house management. They ~e also involved inhousing development such as construction, repair, etc.

In the study area (Gonali village, Khulna), most of thehouses were kutcha and constructed with mud, straw, golpata(kind of palm leaf available in the Sundarbans), etc, whichneed regular repair and maintenance. Rural women playavital role in this respect. They collect local building materialsand build, repair or maintain their own houses with the help offamily members (Figures 1.25 and 1.26). But theircontributions of time and labour generally tend to beundervalued. This study has investigated the contribution ofwomen in rural housing development and the causes of theirinvolvement in this field.

Figure 1.25:Rural WomanConstructing thePlinth ofher House

1.6.1 Objectivesof the Study

Women constitute a power by both their direct and indirectinvolvement in development work. They also participate for thedevelopment of their own dwelling units. The potential of womenin this field should be better understood and their increasing rolesin this field should be clearly identified by this study.


The specific objectives of this study are:

I. To explore women's contribution to rural housingdevelopment

II. To find out the causes of their involvementill. To search the problems faced by women duringconstruction, repair and maintenance of their houses.

1.6.2 Methodology The study is based on fieldwork in Gonali village in DumuriaThana, Khulna. Gonali is a Muslim-Hindu village and male-female ratio 1.219 (national figure is 1.04). Data has beencollected from observation and in most cases collectedthrough a structured questionnaire. Out of 295 households(BBS, 1991), 112 households were taken as samples, about 38% of total households. The sample consisted of 50% Hinduand 50% Muslim households.

Figure 1.26: RuralWomanMaintainingthe Mud Plinth ofher House

1.6.3 Analysis ofFindings ofthe Study

Status of Education: Obviously, education has empoweredwomen in various stages of housing development activitiessuch as the plan, foundation, construction materials, etc. ofthe houses. In the study area, it is seen that 20.69% of thewomen were literate and 24.14% were non-literate. Table 1.3shows that women were less educated than men. Theinvolvement of women was found to decrease in housingdevelopment activities with the increase of educational status.


Level of education TotalSex Frequency% non-literate %Literate

Male

Female

Total

283(54.95)

232(45.05)

515(100.0)

158

90

36.32

20.69

82

105

18.851 240(55.17)

24.141 195(44.83)

248 57.01 187 42.99! 435(100.0)Table 1.3:Level of Education

Monthly Income: Table 1.4 reveals that 9% women had noincome and were completely dependent on men. Most ofthese women had some sources of income. The majority(58%) earned Tkl00 -500 and only 2.5% earned Tk 1000 -3000 per month. They estimated that they sold theirvegetables, eggs, milk, etc., and earned small sums of money.But the lion's share was spent on house construction, repairand maintenance. Some of the women who earn more than Tk1000 had taken loans from NGOs. So it can be said that ifloan programmes are implemented by the GOs and NGOs,then the income level of women increases. Consequently theywill be able to follow an important role in rural housingdevelopment. Although some women were empowered byloans in the study area, the overall income level of womenwas unsatisfactory.

~onthly income range (Tk) No. of households

10

23

28

37

10

3

Percentage8.93

20.54

24.99

33.04

8.93

2.68

0.98

No income

Less than Tk 100

100 -300

301 -500

501-1000

1001 -2000

2001-3000

3000 +

Total 112 100.0

Table 1.4: MonthlyIncome of theFemale Members

1.6.4 Interval andInvolvementof FamilyMembers inConstruction,Repair andMaintenance

In addition to construction, women have involvement in houserepair and maintenance activities. They have the duty ofprotecting houses from various natural disasters such as rain,cyclone, tornado, water logging, etc. Along with men, theycontribute in keeping the house clean, thus protecting the housesfrom becoming dilapidated. In this village 30.9% male and65.9% female were engaged in construction, repair andmaintenance activities. This shows the great helping hand ofwomen in maintaining the houses. Table 1.5 shows that children


also sometimes help in various stages of housing developmentactivities. So women's involvement is clearly significant inhousing development as well as in rural economic development.

Types of Work Averageinterval(days)

Involvement of the famlly members I Total

Female(%) I Chlld(%) IMale(%)

59(20.3)

21(7.2)

10(3.4)

90(30.9)

Construction

Repair

Maintenance

Total

74 44(15.2)

52(17.9)

95(32.8)

191(65.9)

2(0.7)

4(1.4)

3(1.0)~

105(36.2)

77(26.5)

108(37.2)

290(100.0)

Table 1.5:Average Intervaland Level ofInvolvement ofFamily Members

10

107

There are various types of work in which women areengaged such as soil carrying, mixing, layering, polishing,foundation, etc. (Table 1.6). In the study area, the womenwere engaged 4.2 hours per day, i.e. 17.5% of a day. For earthworks (soil carrying, mixing and foundation preparation)about 23% women were involved. For polishing and structurepreparation 25% and 20% women were involved respectively.In fact, they mainly spent their time in maintenance activitieslike floor polishing and mud collection. If a woman'sparticipation of each day is converted to monetary value (i.e.wage rates), then women can save Tk 36.75 (considering Tk70 for 8 hours) per day, obviously an illustrative contributionof rural women.

Types of work

Floorpolishing( % )

22

03

01

26

Averageworking

hourper day

ParticipantsEarth I

works(%) ,Structure

preparation(%)

Housewives

Others female members

Others

Total

17

06

02

25

13

07

04

24

3.1

1.1

0.5

4.7

Table 1.6: Types ofWork and AverageWorking HourPer Day

1.6.5 Sources ofFunds and Typesof Problems Facedby Women DuringConstruction,Repair andMaintenance

Funding is an important aspect of housing development. Inthe study area, the major sources of funds (45.53%) constitutefamily savings and only 2.68% have taken NGO loans forconstruction, repair and maintenance of their houses. Table1.7 shows that 21.43% and 30.36 % respondents have built orrepaired their houses with the help of relatives and personalsavings respectively. Table 1.7 also indicates that thegovernment's involvement in rural housing development isalmost nil, as indicated in the National Housing Policy (GOB,1993) and Fifth Five Year Plan, (1997-2002) of GOB (1997).


Construction, repair and maintenance of houses aretedious tasks. In the study area, 18.75% women considered itas physical suffering. The majority of the respondents(33.93%) identified excess rain as a major problem, becausemost of the walls were constructed with mud. About 11 %claimed that the natural courses of Beel Dakatia (a largenatural water body), blocked by human action, results ininundation as a common phenomena in the study area,especially in the rainy season. Table 1.6 also shows thatwomen face financial problems (28.57%) for the construction,repair and maintenance of their houses. So, this indicatesagain the need of involvement of GOs and NGOs forfinancial and technical support for better participation ofwomen in rural housing development.

Sourcesof fund

Frequency % Frequency I %

Banks

Types ofproblemfaced

Saltproblem

Excessrainfall

Financialproblem

Physicalsuffering

Others

09 8.04

NGOs 03 21.68 38 33.93

Relatives 24 21.43 32 28.57

34 30.36 21 18.75Personal

savings

Familysavings

51 45.53 12 10.71

Total 112 100.0 Total 112 100.0

Table 1.7:Sources of Fundsand Types ofProblems Facedby Women

1.6.6 Women'sContribution

Without the contribution of women, the entire infrastructureof rural society would collapse. If women obtain equal rightsthey too can participate positively along with men for ruralhousing development and also playa critical role in thenational economy of Bangladesh. The study findings provedthat women contribute money and physical labour during theperiod of construction, repair and maintenance. However theircontributions are not recognized by society. Their contributionin rural housing development is appreciated in terms ofmoney (average Tk 36.75 daily). Without the contribution ofwomen, most of the dwellings would fall into miserablecondition. It is essential to empower women through someincome-generating activities by the government and NGOs.


1.7 BambooCultivationand RuralHousing

Bamboo cultivation is significantly important for ruralhousing in Bangladesh because bamboo is the most widelyused natural building material. In the 1991 census it wasfound that bamboo was used in walls of more than 56% ofhousing throughout Bangladesh and even more in rural areas:nearly 60%. More than 47% and more than 51% of roofs ofhousing throughout Bangladesh and in rural areas respectivelyused bamboo (BBS, 1993).

Bamboo is an easily transportable building material(Hodgson and Carter, 1999) and is used for making numerousitems and implements for regular use. It may be noted thatthere are more than 70 items that can be made with bamboo,which are not only linked to housing but to various differentitems catering to people's needs (Choudhury, 1984) andwhich provide a livelihood to many people in rural areas(Figure 1.27). Some of its uses in buildings other than directlyas a building material are scaffolding, shuttering and laddersfor various construction works (SKAT, 1991), Figure 1.28.Bamboo rhizomes are used as fuel in brick kilns (Abedin andQuddus, 1990; Johnson and Ritchie, 1993). Small ruralbridges are commonly made of bamboo and it is also the mainraw material for paper and pulp factories (Choudhury, 1984;SKAT, 1991). It can nevertheless be accepted that one of thevital uses of bamboo is for construction and that it is the mostcommonly used building material in rural housing ofBangladesh. A rural house buit of bamboo is shown in Figure1.29.

Figure 1.27:Bamboo Artisansat Work


Figure 1.28:Bamboo Scaffoldingis Used Extensively inConstruction ofUrban Buildings.

1.7.1 Scarcity ofBamboo

Bamboo is a distinctive and important plant in the ecosystemand economy of Bangladesh. There is however evidenceshowing diminishing supply of bamboo in Bangladesh and anaccompanying steep increase in price. Yet bamboo is animportant natural resource and widely utilised for makingnumerous articles for daily use. Bamboo is used as a buildingmaterial in more than 60% of houses in Bangladesh andespecially in rural areas its use is significant. Studies in thefield of low-income housing show that that the phenomenonof declining supply and increasing price of bamboo has a two-pronged effect on low-income communities (Ahmed, 1998).For households that can afford it, the alternative is to opt forbuilding materials such as CI (corrugated iron) sheet, RCposts and brick. These products have adverse environmentalimpact during their production and embedded energy cost intransport, and whether they are environmentally appropriateas building materials can be questioned. On the other handpoor households are unable to afford even bamboo tomaintain their houses regularly. A bamboo house requiresfrequent maintenance, failing which a household is compelledto live in a weakened and hazardous structure. The alternativeis to build with weaker, smaller and cheaper pieces of bambooor other more flimsy materials, thus representing a decline inquality of housing of the poor. Recent studies show that inBangladesh "extreme" compared to "moderate" poverty isreducing more slowly, indicating growing inequality (DFID,2002); the qualitative difference in housing between that ofthe "moderate" and "extreme" poor resulting from diminishingbamboo resources is illustrative of this increasing inequality.


As most of the rural population is poor and live below thepoverty line, it is important to develop low-cost andaffordable building materials for rural housing. If the cost ofbuilding materials is too high, it presents tremendousdifficulty for low-income villagers to afford and build houses.Additionally, frequent natural disasters compound theproblem greatly. About a few decades earlier most ruralhomesteads had a small bamboo garden (bash jhar) in thebackyard (Figure 1.30). At that time the population ofBangladesh was lesser and there was enough space for mosthouseholds to have a little bamboo garden growing withoutmuch attention or nurturing. Over time with high populationgrowth, cultivable land in Bangladesh has become scarcer. Onthe other hand, bamboo continues to playa vital role as abuilding material and also for many other purposes, and thereis still high demand for it. However, there has been very littleserious initiative to improve bamboo cultivation processes inthis context of demand and scarcity.

'~1''; ~~ ~r ~'"'~'-~~~ii~~~~

~.~-~~ ',---

Figure 1.29:A Rural HouseBuilt of Bamboo -."';",,'~

Wells et al. (1994) have documented the increasing scarcityand resulting rise in the price of bamboo in Bangladesh. This hasalso been widely observed by various experts (Abedin andQuddus, 1990; Boa and Rahman, 1987; Choudhury, 1984;Dunham, 1992; Dunham, 1991; Haque, 1986; Johnson andRitchie, 1993; SKAT, 1991). The price of bamboo and timberhas almost tripled in the decade 1980-90 at a greater rate thaninflation (SKAT, 1991) (Figure 1.31). More recent figures showthat the price of a bamboo pole has increased further from Tk 80


in 1990 to Tk 100 in 1997 to Tk 120 in 200 1. This price increasereflects the supply constraint, which is also evident from thegreater distances travelled by traders for village bamboo supplies(Abedin and Quddus 1990; Johnson and Ritchie 1993) ( Figure1.32), and from the lesser number of bamboo traders, harvest ofimmature poles, smuggling in from India and illegalappropriation from state forests (SKAT 1991).

Figure 1.30:Rural BambooStand (Bash Jhar)

Various factors are causing this scarcity. Population increaseis attributed to as the obviously main reason (Abedin andQuddus, 1990; Choudhury, 1984; Johnson and Ritchie, 1993;Dunham, 1992; Dunham, 1991; SKAT, 1991), but other factorsare also responsible. Poor management of bamboo resources,both in villages and forests, has led to declining production. Itappears that while there is increased demand for bamboo, thereis lack of management skills in the villages (Abedin andQuddus, 1990). For example, new poles are harvested from theedge of clumps, leaving old poles at the centre. These are thenprone to disease that eventually affects the whole bash jhar(Johnson and Ritchie, 1993). In fact, the disease, bamboo blight,is common in Bangladesh (less common in other bamboo-producing countries) and due to poor management it hasreduced bamboo supply greatly (Boa and Rahman, 1987). Thisdoes not imply that villagers are completely negligent abouttheir bamboo plantations; they do apply simple managementtechniques. However, the increased demand and poverty leadsto over-harvesting and cutting immature bamboo, adding to thescarcity and increasing the chance of disease (Johnson andRitchie, 1993). This is a vicious cycle: more demand leads toover-harvesting, which then leads to scarcity and further


pressure of demand. Not only in villages, but also in forests,bamboo is declining by about 3% per year (Wells et al., 1994;Johnson and Ritchie, 1993). Combined with over-exploitationand encroachment of agriculture due to increased population,poor management is also responsible (Johnson and Ritchie).The lack of management is compounded by over-harvesting ofeasily accessible areas of the forests, while remote areas are leftalone (Choudhury, 1984), thus affecting the overall stock.

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

-Bamboo price

--General price index

Figure1.31: Increasein Bamboo Price inDhaka, 1980-90(Source: SKAJ; 1991)

""N,.,-.t"'\Ot-~O\O~~~~~~~~~O\0 ~ N ;.; ~ it=; \0 r:: 00 '0;~~~~~~~~~~

Year

Figurel.32 :Bamboo is

TransportedOver Lon&Distances

The principal effect of bamboo scarcity on householdswith lower income is that they use inferior quality and lesserquantity of bamboo for building houses. Because of this, suchhouses require frequent repair and maintenance. Additionally,because such houses tend to be flimsy and not durable, itpresents a safety hazard for their occupants (Ahmed, 1999).

CONTEXT OF HOUSING AND HAZARDS

51

1.7.2 RedressingBamboo Scarcity

Two main remedial measures to prevent decline of bamboosupply have been suggested. Firstly, a chemical treatment ofbamboo to prolong its life and thus reduce pressure on existingstock has beensed (Dunham, 1991; Dunham, 1992; Proshika,1993). Application in Bangladesh has so far been piece-mealand safety issues related to toxicity of chemicals have not beenaddressed adequately. Secondly, the regeneration of bamboosupply through improved cultivation and management has beenproposed (Farrelly, 1996). There are many afforestation andsocial forestry programmes in Bangladesh, but none particularlyaddress bamboo cultivation. Inadequate disease prevention andmismanagement of existing resources contribute further todecline in stock. There thus seems to be potential forintroducing hazard-free bamboo treatment as a sustainableprocess for the utilisation and consumption of the resourcewithin the framework of a wider initiative for its improved andsustainable regeneration, production and management. Variouslivelihoods are linked to bamboo and an initiative for bambooregeneration would also regenerate these livelihoods.

During the Housing & Hazards International Workshop in1999 at BUET, Dhaka, recommendations were formulated forresearch into the regeneration and improvement of supplies ofnatural building materials. Research into socio-economicfactors was another major recommendation of the H&Hworkshop. These two recommendations inspired one of theauthors to conduct research on bamboo cultivation. Themethodology followed was Participatory Action Research(PAR), emphasising the importance of involving the end-user inthe research. This research was a learning-by-doing type, wherethe principal research investigator, a rural inhabitant himselfwas the end-user. The research was primarily concerned withsocio-economic factors, such as awareness building andmotivation of rural people for improved bamboo cultivationrather than purely technical matters.

1.7.3 BambooResearch -

Stage 1

At the end of February 1999, through consultation withvillagers, a local person who knows how to cultivate bamboowith his indigenous knowledge was identified and consulted.At the outset, the villager cut a little piece of bamboo (2 feethigh) from an existing bamboo garden. Then the root, calledguri in BangIa, was planted by the edge of a pond for twomonths. The guri was planted there because the environmentof that place is the best for growing new bamboo shoots. Theshoots are called gei in BangIa. In April the gei was


transplanted into the bamboo garden by digging a hole of 3inches by 3 inches. The depth of the hole was one and a halffeet. After transplanting the gei, necessary organic (mainlycow dung) and also some chemical fertiliser was mixed intothe soil. The little bamboo (gei) was watered until the peakrainy season at the end of August. There were now more geisin the bamboo. Once more shoots start coming out from thebamboo, it starts growing longer and longer. One of this newlygrown bamboo plants will produce more bamboo in thecoming years. In 3-5 years, one of the grown plants wouldproduce about 30 new bamboo plants around it (Rasul 2000).

1.7.4 BambooResearch-Follow-up

During the first phase of the research the geis were notplanted in an organised manner because it was the fIrSt suchexperiment. The principal researcher did not have much priorexperience on cultivating bamboo and had to begin almostfrom scratch; thus quick and good results could not beexpected.

Additionally, the monitoring method was notformulated earlier: the geis' growth needs to be measuredevery two months and the thickness attained in different partsof the pole (base, stem and tip) should be recorded, as well asthe amount of fertiliser used for each gei per week.

Beginning in April 2002, this time a piece of raised land,measuring 20 feet by 20 feet (400 square feet) was selectedadjacent to the existing bamboo garden. Figure 1.33 showsthe bamboo plantation pattern adopted during the course ofthe research. After acquiring this land, it was dug up to adepth of 1.5 feet. After digging, the research investigatoradded 40 kilograms of cow dung and 10 kilograms offertiliser or mati shar (consisting of TSP, urea, etc). The soilwas thus fixed with these fertilisers. Four pieces of bamboo,each about 2 feet long, were buried into the soil for 15 daysby the side of a pond where it was a bit moist. The land wasdivided into quadrants, each quadrant measuring 10 feet by10 feet, and the four bamboos were transplanted with eachbamboo at the centre of each quadrant at a distance of 10feet from each other. These were watered throughout thewhole month of June 2002, 27 times in 30 days. At the timeof writing this paper in July 2002, the planted bamboos hadstarted growing and the leaves and shoots were beginning tocome out. One gei was observed and more was to come. Itis important to remember that during the dry season, theplants need to be watered more intensively. Each bamboo


plant should be given 1-2 kilograms urea fertiliser inaddition to regular watering. The harvest from eachindividual bamboo is expected to be 30 poles in 3 years.This method produces more harvest than traditional bambooproduction techniques and by separating the stands reducesrisk of bamboo blight.

'- J'.. J

cC:;C'

~~ I '~ I

Figure 1.33:BambooPlantation Pattern

1.7.5 NeedforInitiatives

I~ 20' -0" ~

Raising awareness of bamboo cultivation is very important forrural housing in Bangladesh. The cultivation process is verysimple indeed. It can be done easily in villages and the ruralpeople of Bangladesh can be benefited by efforts for promotingimproved bamboo cultivation. Economic benefit, access tobamboo as a building material and opportunity for generatinglocal employment would be possible if such bamboo cultivationinitiatives are taken. There is a need to establish bamboo farms todemonstrate the potential of improved and sustainable bambooproduction and to address the environmental implications of thedecline of this local resource. Other than improved bamboofanning, some of the main activities of these farms could beresearched, such as the development of bamboo cultivation andpropagation methods, bamboo treatment with adequate safetymeasures and the production and marketing of treated bamboobuilding products (furniture, household and agriculturalimplements and handicrafts). Such a farm founded on theprinciple of sustainable production of bamboo should allow forgenerating sustainable livelihoods for local cultivators, artisans,manufacturers and entrepreneurs. It could work as a model ofhow bamboo can fit into the rural environment and serve avariety of domestic and community needs of a village. Thebamboo farm could also work as an educational centre fordocumentation, research, exhibition"and dissemination.


The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CRT) is renowned for its indigenousculture, which enriches the cultural diversity of Bangladesh. It isthe native land of 20 different ethnic groups. This region also hasnatural diversity consisting of hills, forests, water bodies andwildlife. Housing is an important component of the culture ofCRT ethnic groups, which is remarkably unique in this area.Their housing pattern is different from that of the mainstream(Bangalee) culture in terms of design, technology and buildingmaterials. As with other components of their culture, forcenturies CRT ethnic people have been fostering this housingpattern traditionally. House or habitation is the core element inethnic society. It maintains the relation between the border ofculture and nature and plays a significant role in knitting thefoundation of culture. The house acts as the base from whichCRT ethnic groups act upon nature. It is the labour space of CRTethnic culture. Through living in a house, members of the ethniccommunity adapt to nature and cope with the inimicalenvironment. To understand the adaptation and coping strategiesof CRT ethnic people, their housing pattern has to be studied.This section focuses on three issues -understanding the patternof ethnic housing, assessing the relation between housing patternand ecological system, and analysing resistance capacity andadaptive value of ethnic houses in hazards, disasters and otherinimical situations.

1.8 EthnicHousingPattern in theChittagongHill Tracts

This section is based on an anthropological study of nine smalland big ethnic groups in Bandarban district of the CRT. Thesegroups are -Marma, Murang, Bowm, Lusai, Tongchoinga,Tripura, Kheang, Khumi and Chakma. During the 16th centurythe ancestors of CRT ethnic groups first settled in this area(Hossain, 1993). Some anthropologists termed them as'Mongoloid' people (Resely, 1891). Their social structure ispatriarchal and patrilineal, although women playa major role inthe household and economy. They believe that supematur~power creates them. Diversified religious customs exist in theircommunity. Most of them are nature worshippers and animist,observed more than a century ago -"They worship the terreneelements and have vague and undefined ideas of some divinepower which overshadows all" (Lewin, 1869). Some areBuddhists. Recently a few of the ethnic people have converted toChristianity. Although the hilly terrain is not favourable foragricultural activity, the people nevertheless have to subsist onagriculture by terracing and tilling the hillsides, since other

1.8.1 Socio-CulturalAspects of theEthnic Population


economic activities are not well-developed. On the flattened,terraced surface of the hills and also on gentle slopes, shiftingcultivation is carried out, locally known asjhum. This is the mainsubsistence system of CRT ethnic society. Interpersonal relations,social institutions and customs relating to gender, family and clanhave been developed on the basis of kinship and lineage system.Para (hamlet) is the intennediary administrative unit that consistsof 10-50 households and led by a chief named Karbari. The paramaintains the relation among individuals, families andinstitutions of the state. In the revenue system, para is under themouza (neighbourhood) which is controlled by a 'Headman'. AllHeadmen are controlled by the circle chief named Raja(Monarch). Karbari, Headman and Raja are hereditary appointedposts. Every single group possesses an individual mother tongue,art and literature, mostly in verbal and folk forms.

1.8.2 Worldview,Rituals andHousing

Ethnic people view their world through beliefs on supernaturalbeings such as deb (god), debi (goddess) and dehota (deity).Some deities control everything of their life including householdand household-based activities. It is believed that these deitieshad roles in constructing houses in the prehistoric age. Even now,these beings are active within their household life. Existingpattern of their houses is believed to have been firstly introducedby these deities, mentioned in their text. They relate all things oftheir life with the divine. The profane life of ethnic people is intwo worlds -para and hilly forests. Divine beings create theseworlds. House is the 'core' of the para-centric world. Some deitiesare believed to stay in the para and are responsible for protectingthe para or houses from attack of evil beings.

In the ethnic groups, it is clearly manifested as Haviland(2000) suggests: "Rituals is the means through which personsrelate to the sacred; it is religion in action." Certainindividuals are specially involved and active in dealing withthe above mentioned deities and spirits through ritualactivities. The majority of these rituals are either exercised inhouses or household-orientated. One of the objectives ofexercising these rituals is to activate the above spirits ordeities for protecting households from attack by wildlife,calamities or hazards. Totems are used for denoting animal orplant apical ancestors of a clan. Ethnic people display totemsin their houses. This has two objectives -fIrstly, to expresstheir clan identity and secondly, to protect them and theirhouses from evil beings.


1.8.3

Land System In the CRT area, land consists of forests, uneven hills and waterbodies including natural fountains, canals, etc. Ethnic people usethe land for jhum (shifting) cultivation, house settlement,gardening, etc. The Bangladesh government owns the land of thisarea.

The chief of Bomang circle Raja is responsible forcollecting land revenue on behalf of the state through theHeadman and Karbari. Every couple is entitled to use 2-4 acresfor jhum cultivation and has to pay Taka 5 as jhum kar (revenue).

1.8.4 Settlementand HousingPattern

Due to their kin-based society, ethnic people follow a lineagesystem in knitting the family and constructing habitation. Themembers of one or two individual clans settle in each para. Clanindicates the unilineal descent group based on stipulated descent(Kottak, 2000). Their houses are internalised in the para. A paraconsists of 10-50 households or families. There are two types offamilies -nuclear (consisting of parents and children) andextended (including three or more generations).

The settlement pattern of this region is influenced by itstopography. Since the CRT is sparsely populated, settlementstend to be scattered. Although settlements can be seen on topof hills, on slopes or in the valleys, ethnic people prefer toestablish a para at the hilltop in deep forest having adjacentarea of water bodies. Forming a para on the hilltop in forestsis supported by their divine texts. This type of para ischaracterised as agglomerated habitation (Baqee, 1998),shown in Figure 1.34.

Because of the uneven terrain, houses are raised on bambooor wooden posts to site them on the hilly terrain. Every familygenerally owns one house. The floor of the house is on a raisedwooden or bamboo platform generally built at about 1.5-4.5metres height from the ground (see Figure 1.35). These housesare locally known as machang ghor or tong ghor. The CRTethnic people have used this type of house for centuries, inharmony with their ecology. Each house is divided into two mainparts -balcony and inner portion. The typically long openbalconies serve as a social area and also to carry out activitiessuch as weaving with handloom. As per function, the innerportion is divided into several rooms that also vary fromcommunity to community, shown in Figure 1.36. It can be seenthat ethnic houses often consist of up to 10 rooms. Each room isused for a specific purpose. In some cases, houses are divided bybamboo partitions into rooms when members of the extendedfamily get married and require their own private space. For


example, if there are three married members in a family thenthere would be four rooms. Unmarried members or guests usethe outermost room, which is also used for sitting or cooking(Shaft, 1997). The house is accessed by a wooden or bambooladder which leads on to the wide raised platform. The openspace under the platform is used for rearing poultry, goats orpIgS.

Figure 1.34:Mapping of ParaPrepared with anEthnic Community


Figure 1..35:Ethnic Houses(Chakma Group)in the CHT

1.8.5 BuildingTechnology

As suggested by Handwerker (1981), technology "...is the realmof culture that most importantly defines the conditions to whichindividuals and social units adapt. Technologies link individualsand social units to the physical environment, and individuals andsocial units are linked to technologies through the activities...These activities constitute the functional niches of a technologicalsystem. ...". In the CHT ethnic communities, house buildingtechnology is a traditional system existing from generation togeneration through verbal and practical transmission. Buildingtechnology includes three major aspects -knowledge, techniciansand elements-tools. It is a 'science' of the community.

As with other aspects of their culture, ethnic people acquireknowledge on house building from their social institutions. Theybelieve that many years ago the progenitors of their society tookshelter on a hilltop in deep forest. They learn from this belief howto build houses. There is no professional group for constructinghouses. They build their houses themselves. Various kinds ofchoppers are the main tool for constructing houses. Other thanthat they use spade, machete, axe, hammer, etc. For the mainelements of the houses, ethnic people use the following rawmaterials, which are available locally:

Wood and bamboo for making platform, walls and posts;Leaves of bamboo, wooden shingles, a kind of tall grass andhill reeds for roofing and thatching;Cane and rattan for binding.


1

3

I ~.

--1--1004-.g ~

1 foa.,._I1t.-, ~~D'"~ ahild.._~ ~~ ~D~-4 ~1I&_i--'~ ~..,...,~ O¥&f'I~ Kit;M1en'if Wa*,-- ~~&rying 1ecD...is' &&_bil1.3 ~~~...q o.p ~.I""'"!J10 W-del1 ;;.t;..,.-

f'-~r p",i--r_=-

@

11;2.

G~.3

CDg

@

1 -Pal-_v~ -Rodm2. ~;ld.._~-Room~ l<iVcMe+14- O\le-~!'"" $9'(t!-"I'I-Y

'" ~3'i"5.fo.. ~t"3

Figure 1.36: Layout of Ethnic Houses (Machang Ghor)a) Marma Group b) Murong Group c) Tripura Group d) Chakma Group

1 ~ac.e. f'.". 'FI...~e..vjns !IWa1Feo.-

~ &18eE;~ A..ea -/'0.. I~I.I 'Pscf'le. I

~ ""'8.1- A_a !-+ HIl~ ~ W.fe~ -R_"' j' ~ G,.~n."g

'" Kiv~en":{ f5i.s 1"iJ...,ac-e-~ Gleering A..e.a ./'0..

~o""S (;;...1*q ~~... G-p...e.10 ~&6e- Po.. ~;'\3 ';h.-11 W60den ~&;"5- -j;.,r 1:'.,;""8


1.8.6

Aesthetics Aesthetics is a specialisation of ethnic houses. In theanthropological sense, it pertains to "appreciation of the qualitiesperceived in works of arts; the mind and emotion in relation to asense of beauty" (Kottak, 2000). On the basis of this viewpoint ofbeauty the aesthetic aspects of ethnic houses can be describedfrom three different angles, described as follows:.Combination of elements: Several elements of houses at

different points are framed with each other in rhythmic form.Posts, platform, roofmg, hedge, etc. are made with elementswhere there is no maladjustment in their combination. Thus,externally, this projects harmony.

.Artistic works in wood and bamboo: Ethnic people sketch andcut the figures of birds, domestic animals, wildlife, flowers,trees, fountains, hills, etc. on the front side of houses,specially on windows or door frames and hedges of houses.

.Demonstrating 'beautiful' things: To make houses beautiful,dwellers display different types of apical of animal, trees andflowers with houses. After hunting, they make these withhead, horn and skin of wildlife -tiger, dog, cow, snake, etc.Expressing the clan identity of house dwellers is anotherobjective of displaying apical.

1.8.7 Usageof House

Mentioned earlier, the profane world of ethnic people is intwo-life types -fIrstly 'para'-centric inner life and secondlyhill/forest orientated outer life. In the inner life, almost alldaily activities are performed within the area of houses. Thehouse is used by its dwellers in ethnic communities forvarious purposes. During the whole period of the life of aperson the house is widely used. The house area is used for

resting, sleeping, enjoying conjugal life, guest entertainment,seating, cooking, p.reserving water, storing belongings,cleansing, perambulation, crop processing, husking, childcaring, storing fuel wood, nursing and treating patients, etc.

The house is important as a post-marital residence. In CHTethnic community two types of post-marital residence exist -

uxorilocality (residence with wife's relatives after marriage) andvirilocality (residence with husband's relatives). Practice of thefIrSt type is minor and temporary.

Adaptation indicates the process by which organisms cope withenvironmental stresses. Ethnic people cope with and adapt to theenvironment that is made of hills, trees, natural calamities,wildlife, etc. through their pattern of houses. For centuries they

1.8.8 AdaptiveValue


have lived in machang ghor. Basically houses are the only shelterand ecological niche in their community. Due to the naturalcondition of their environment, ethnic people have to maintainclose and balanced relations with the environment for survival,development and continuing the complete life system includinghouses and settlement.

In the CHT locality, ecosystem is developed by balancingthe relationship between natural elements (hills, plants, forests,wildlife, fountain, rivers, etc.) and cultural traits. Housingsettlement is one of the components of the ecosystem.Settlements and existing ecosystems are not threatening toeach other. Ethnic people have their own indigenoustechnologies to build their houses within the givenenvironment. They use locally available natural resources asraw materials for housing. They do not damage nature incollecting and utilising raw materials. Their lineage and kin-based habitation and housing are favourable for theirsubsistence system and modes of production. Ethnic houseshave resistance capacity to protect the dwellers from hazardsand natural disasters such as storms, floods, attack of wildanimals, fire, etc. and have adaptive value to face any inimicalsituation. For example, ethnic people use bamboo leaves forroofing because they do not catch fIre easily. This pattern ofhousing and habitation has adaptive value for survival anddevelopment of ethnic groups within a certain environmentaland ecological niche.

Building machang houses on bamboo or wooden stilts is atraditional practice of the CHT ethnic communities. A reasonis that the machang helps to protect them from attack ofwildlife and snakes, and is suitable for coping with theenvironment and natural hazards; it gives protection fromheat, cold and water run-off from the hillsides. It allowsprivacy and thus provides opportunity for enjoying family life.

1.8.9 OtherHousingTypologies

Other than indigenous ethnic communities, there are alsosome Bengali settlers in the CHT with different housingtypologies. Stilted machang houses are uncommon among thisgroup and houses are instead built on mud plinths as donetypically in the plains. Nonetheless, the use of local resourcessuch as bamboo and mud creates buildings with regionalcharacter. An example of adaptation to local environment isfound in houses built on hilly slopes that have large pitchedroofs with very low eaves almost reaching the ground,


somewhat similar to a tent (Figure 1.37). This is done so as toresist strong winds on the exposed hillsides. These houses arevery large with several rooms accommodating joint families,representing a cultural expression of joint family livingpatterns.

1.8.10 Importanceof Ethnic Housing

In the developing national context of Bangladesh, CHT ethnichousing is one of the major cultural resources, which is inendangered situation. The influx of mainstr~am Bengalisettlers is a source of conflict. This population group istraditionally not adapted to living in a hilly area andconsequently hampering the balance with nature and theecosystem so characteristic of the ethnic people. Deforestationof the wooded hills and over-exploitation of natural resourcesis rampant in many parts of the CHT.

The continuity of ethnic housing, an important componentof ethnic culture, would ensure the cultural diversity andheritage of Bangladesh. Not only that, but ethnic housescontain the quality of sustain ability due to the appropriate useof local resources for building and adaptation to theenvironment. As a representation of cultural diversity, theethnic housing pattern of CHT should be studied widely; thiscould provide inputs into programmes for sustainable and

environment-friendly housing.

Figure 1.37: Houseof a BangpleeSettler in the CHT(continued on page I


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Figure 1.37: House of a Bangalee Settler in the CHT (continuedfrom page 62)

1.1 introduction - salek seraj · collapse, foundations may fail. forces evacuation flood (can be...

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