1. noun+article+verb (present simple & continuous - past simple & continuous) (1)

Chapter 1

THE NOUN

A noun is that part of speech u1ed.1 ll"-lu*" of a person (girl; John)' an animal

(dog), a place (park, o*ioial' a job title (;il;' ; trting Ooo[)' an action (writing)'

)-q,i'iii,/ tu.averv;,. a state (happiness)'

Nouns can function as:

a) the subject of a verb:

The boY runs in the street'

b) the direct object of a verb:

Jane wrote a letter'

c) the indirect object of a verb:

I offered mother some flowers'

d) the object of a PrePosition:The girl went to school'

e) the comPlement of the verb to be :

MY brother is an engineer'

fl an aPPosition:I sent Miss Smith' my secretary' a telex'

g) direct address:Tom/BoY' come here !

1.1. FORM

Somewordsfunctiononlyasnouns(fog,lion,courage),whileothersmayfunctionas:a)nounsorverbshavingeitherthesamespellingandPlolunciation(answer-

to answer, attempt - io attempt;- nf"-"'l-io u'tu*t ; book - to book; call -

to call; "n*g" -? d;";;; tii'nu - to trinlu; copy - to-copv; cost - to cost ;

dance _ to dance; dream - to dream t"jrr"x-- io ati"r.; ttive - to drive ; end -

to end; fall - to iall; fear - to fear;';tlp : to help; hop: - to hope; ioke - to

ioke ; kiss - t" rti'll ;ff* - to offer. ', ;;- to stop ; try ';

to try ; vote - to vote ';

rvalk - to walk ; wash - to wash ; *i.t, ."io *i'r'i, t, u oift"'"nt pronunciation an(l.

6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE

sometimes, a different spelling : (0 - (v) (belief - to believe ; proof - to prove),lsl - lzl (advice - to advise; use - to use); l0l - /a/ (bath - to bathe; cloth -to clothe), or a different stress: ('abstract - to ab'stract; .conduct - to con'duct;'desert. - to de'sert ; 'export - to ex'port ; ,import - to im'port ; ,permit _to per'mit; 'produce - to pro'duce; 'rebel - to re'bet ; ,record - to re'cord) ;b) nouns and adjectives (cold; light).

1.1.1. Compound Nouns

In English there are nouns which are made up of two or more parts. These compoundnouns may be either single words or they may be made up of two or more separate words.Single-word compound nouns may be made up of :

a) two nouns (butterfly; classroom; cupboard; footprint; footstep l raincoat;saucepan; seaside ; typewriter) ;

b) an adjective and a noun (blackbird; blackboard; greenhouse.longhand; redhead);

c) a verb and an adverb particle or preposition (breakdown ; don.npour ; income ;outcome; upkeep):

d) an adverb particle or preposition and a noun (outlaw; outlook; upgrowth).

A large number of single-word compound nouns are built up wirh rhe help of suffixesand prefixes. The suffixes may be added to:

a) verbs

to abolish - abolitionto accept - acceptanceto accompany - accompanimentto accuse - accusationto acquaint - acquaintanceto act - action/actorto admit - admission/admitanceto adopt - adoptionto advertise - advertismentto allow - allowanceto appear - appearanceto applaud - applauseto apply - applicationto approve - approvalto arrive - arrivalto ascend - ascentto assist - assistance/assistantto attract - attractionto begin - beginning/beginnerto behave - behaviourto bore - boredomto calculate - calculationto cancel - cancellation

heavvweight ;

to choose - choiceto circulate - circulationto clean - cleanlinessto clear - clearanceto collect - collection collectorto combine - combinationto communicate - communicationto compare - comparisonto compel - compulsionto compensate - compensationto complete - connpletionto compose - compositionto confide - confidenceto confuse - confusionto congratulate - congratulationto conspire - conspiracl'to construct - constructionto converse - conversationto correct - correctionto cover - coverage/coveringto create - creationto decide - decisionto declare - declaration

to defend - defenceto defl' - defianceto depart - depanr-to depend - dependto descend - descerto describe - descrito destroy - destruito develop - derelolto discover - discorto disturb - disturtto divide - divisionto employ - emplor

employmentto encourage - enc(

to enter - entranceto exclaim - exclamto exhaust - exhausto exist - existenceto expect - expectalto expel - expulsiorto explain - explal,to explode - explos;to explore - explonto expose - exposulto extend - extenticto form - formatiorto grow - grotvthto happen - happerto hate - hatredto hinder - hindrarto imagine - imagirto imitate - imitatirto inform - inform,to inhabit - inhabitto inquire - inquirlto intend - intentioto interfere - interlto introduce - intrito invade - invasiorto invent - inventioto invite - invitatioto judge - judgemeto know - knouledrto laugh - laughterto manage - manalto marry - marrial

proof - to prove),to bathe; cloth -

luct - to con'duct ;

n'port ; (permit -)rd - to re'cord);

i lrese compound::: separate words.

,: t-ilep : raincoat ;

!; heavyweight;

rnpour: income;

:pgrorvth).

---,: :.e.o of suffixes

ia t tonss

:

.n collectortr ationommunicationarisonilonir pensationI etionrsitionnce(,rn

ngratulationra clruc tion,\ationonCo|ering

:lon

THE NOUN

to defend - defenceto defy - defianceto depart - departureto depend - dependenceto descend - descendantto describe - descriptionto destroy - destructionro develop - developmentto discover - discoverer/discoveryto disturb - disturbanceto divide - divisionto employ - employee/employer/

employmentto encourage - encouragementto enter - entrance/entryto exclaim - exclamationto exhaust - exhaustionto exist - existenceto expect - expectationsto expel - expulsionto explain - explanationto explode - explosionto explore - explorationlo expose - exposureto extend - extentionto form - formationto grow - growthto happen - happeningto hate - hatredto hinder - hindranceto imagine - imaginationto imitate - imitationro inform - informationto inhabit - inhabitantto inquire - inquiryto intend - intentionto interfere - interferenceto introduce - introductionto invade - invasionro inyent - inventionro invite * invitationto judge - judgementto know - knowledgeto laugh - laughtert,l manage - managementt0 marry - marriage

to mock - mockeryto move - movementto obey - obedienceto obstruct - obstructionto occupy - occupationto occur - occurenceto oppose - oppositionto organise - organisationto paint - painter/paintingto perform - performanceto permit - permissionto persuade - persuasionto please - pleasureto portray - portrayalto postpone - postponementto prepare - preparationto prescribe - prescriptionto press - pressureto prevail - prevalenceto proceed - procedureto proclaim - proclamationto produce - productionto pronounce - pronunciationto propose - proposal/propositionto prosper - prosperityto provide - provisionto publish - publisher/publicationto punish - punishmentto qualify - qualificationto rebel - rebellionto recognize - recognitionto reduce - reductionto rely - relianceto remain - remainderto repeat - repetitionto resemble - resemblanceto reside - residenceto resign - resignationto resist - resistanceto resolve - resolutionto reveal - revelationto revise - revisionto revive - revivalto revolve - revolutionto satisfy - satisfactionto seize - seizure

Nounst:

to serve - serviceto subscribe - suirscriPtionto tempt - temPtationto thrill - thriller

b) adjectives

active - activitYabsent - absencedemocrat - democracY

c) other nouns

art - artistbehaviour - behaviourismBerlin - Berlinerboy - boyhoodchild - childhoodDarwin - Darwinismfarm - farmerfriend - friendshiPhand - handful

Some of the most frequent

following:ante-anti-dis-

im-in-inter-non-over-super-sur-under-

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE

to train - trainerto translate - translationto transmit - transmissionto warn - warning

free - freedomkind - kindnesshappy - haPPiness

historY - historianimpression - imPressionismLondon - Londonermouth - mouthfulmember - membershiPowner - ownershiPphilosoPhY - PhilosoPherpiano -' PianistRomania - Romanianvillage - villager

prefixes used in building up single-word nouns are the

f

= rgerund+anounrlIt must be underlinediorm is stressed ('Parpreceded bY a Present

'bear);i other Parts of sPeech

T.2. TYPES OF }i

1,!.1. ProPer Nour

Itel are used for Pani;i:: spelt with a caPital

ftu: personal names 1 -.' (su

: dtles : Mr. Jackson :

Lord BYron; Sir Cl

: calendar items : Sul

: geograPhical names

- countries: '{- continents : '- lakes' ocears'

The Black S

., titles of books, ne*United Nations Or

i names of nationaliri

1.2.2. Common N

Tbey are all those nou

Such nouns maY be ei

Ftween countable and

ri it has a Plural foru

-r r it can be Preceded:, it can be preceded

friend has a few o

,l r it can be Preceded

independence

supertax

a)

b)c)

under-

Some compound nouns are made up of two or more separate words:

two nouns (chair-teg; department store , grammar book) ;

an adjective and a noun (common sense; blue print);a possessive case and a noun (artist's model; traveller's check; lady's maid)'

Sometimes the apostrophe is omitted from the first noun (a womens college; a

citizens bank);a noun * a prepositional phrase (mother-in-law ; editor-in-chief ; coat-of-arms) ;d)

tslationtimission

a

]:

)ressionismiIq!

'Jl

\;rshin

" r:l -'sopher

.:nianr

':- .i..td nouns are the

!L{omfort ; discontent;

nnour : disinclination ;

*iuse

pcrstructure ; smPertax

I underdog; under-t,:rn e

, ,t, OfdS :

, check; ladY's maid)'a \lomens college ; a

i-cbiel : coat-of-arms) ;

asTHE NOUN

: : aenlrd + a noun (dancing-shoes; frying p"l' botli'*t"o; walking stick)'

-.must be underlined that' when -ing + noun is a compound noun' only the -ing

.-.rm is stressecl ('parking area)' while when it is not a eompound noun' but a noun

: receded Uy a fresleit p"rii"ipf", Uorfr purau ut. tt..rttO ('running owater ; 'dancing

'bear);-.therpartsofspeech(forget-me-not;merry-go-round).

1.1. TYPES OF NOUNS

, ProPer: Bngland; John

INounsl fcountable:

I tunt'non ' {lt u,t.ou"toblt

'{

concrete

t abstract :

Nouns

: bread; milk

hate; advice

The Pacific Ocean; The Danube;

Gone witlt the Wind, The Guardian' The

English ; Greek ; Italian; Polish ; Spanish'

personal names

L,2.2. Common Nouns

lhey are all those. nouns which do not designate a particular-person, thing, place, idea.

Srchnounsmaybeetthercountabt,o,un,*n.uut".tnordertomakethedistinctionre rween countable ".d

;;;";;ie nouns, i, -usiu" shown that a noun is countable if :

. it has a plural form (girls; schools) I ^-

:. i;;;; be preceded bv aian (a dog; an-apnle);

: , it can be preceded uy gow many or (") f#iH;tt rnany books have you got ? ; Your

friend has a few oranges'1 ;

:r it can be preceded-uv-"nu*uttt (one pencil; three pencils);

l0

a)

b)c)

d)

ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE

and it is uncountable if :

it has not a plural form: (blood; gold; sugar);it cannot be preceded by a/an (What fine weather ! ) ;

it can be preceded by How much or (a) Iittle : (How much sugar do you want ? Yourfriend has little luggage);it cannot be preceded by numbers.

However, there are some nouns that can be both countable and uncountable. Whenthey refer to single items they are countable and when they refer to an object made fromthat matter they are incountable:

I drink a coffee every morning.

Grandfather never drinks coffee.

I have corrected all your papers.

Paper is made from wood.

The most frequent uncountable nouns in English are:

accomodationadviceangerapplauseassistancebehaviourbreadbusiness

(: trade)capital

(: money)cardboardcashcheesechesschinaclothingcoalconductcookerycountryside

I.2.3. Partitives

couragedamagedancingdirteducationevidenceflufoodfunfurnituregossipgrasshappinessharmhomeworkhospitalityhouseworkinformationjealousyjeweleryknowledge

seasideshoppingsmokingsoapspellingsteamstrengthstuffstupiditysunshinethundertimbertoast

(: bread)traffictransportunderwearviolencevocabularywealthwork

e crust of breada cube of ice

a dash of soda

a droP of oilirain wat

a flash of lightilightena grain of corn''dirt r

a head of hair/cattlelettuce

e heaP of coal/dirt nan item/a Piece of nen

a jar of jamr jet of watera loaf of breada lumP of coali sugar

e pat of buttera claP of thunder

: :"lntainers :

a barrel of beerr basket of fruita bottle of milk win'

a packet of cigaretttr flask of tea

r glass of water

: -:ames : a game of b

l :easures: a gallon t

e Pint of beerimilk '

: ;,resisPecies: a bndrug; a varietl of

' l:slract nouns: a biof anger; a Piece o

rrouble; a sPell of

; :airs : a Pair of boo

scissors/shears sho

trousers.

: :.4. Collective I

l:q; are used for a gri

i :eoPle :

an arm!'an assembll'audience

laughterleisurelighteningIinenluckluggagemachinerymeatmoneymudmusicnewsnonsensepatiencepermissionpoetryproduceprogressrubbishsafetyscenery

They are those nouns which refer to :

a) specific items or amounts:

a bar of chocolate/soap/metala blade of grassa block of marble/iceiwooda box of matches

a book of stampsa breath of aira bar/cake of soapa cloud of dust

ar .jo )'ou want? Your

: -:.;ountable. When..- .rbject made from

THE NOUN

a crust of breada cube of ice

a dash of soda

a drop of oil/rain/watera fl ash of light/lightening/inspirationa srain of corn/dirt/rice/sanda tread of hair/cattle/cabbage/

lettucea heap of coat/dirt/rubbishan item/a piece of news/information

a jar of jama jet of watera loaf of breada lump of coal/sugara pat of buttera clap of thunder

:ontainers :

a barrel of beera basket of fruita bottle of milk/winea packet of cigarettesa flask of tea

a glass of water

',,2.4. Collective

. rey are used for a

. people :

an armyan assemblYaudience

Nouns

group of people, animals, things considered as a whole:

a piece of wood/furniture/PaPer/glass/chalk/cotton/bread/advice/information/ gossiP/scandal/

wisdom/knowledgea pile of eartha pinch of salt

a portion of food

a puff of smoke/wind

a roll of PaPera sip of tea

a scrap of PaPera speck of dusta slice of bread/cake/meata sheet of PaPera splash of soda

a stick of chalka strand of hair/wool

a jug of watera mug of cocoa

a tin of souP

a tube of Pastea vase of flowers

a band (of musicians/Pilgrims)a bench (of bishoPs/magistrates)

a bevY (of ladies)

seasideshoppingsmokingsoapspellittgsteamstrelrgthstuffstupiditysunshinethundertimbertoast

(: bread)traffictransportunderwearviolencevocabularyrvealthu ork

'games:agameofbilliards/bridge/cards/chess/cricket/darts/terrnis/volleyball;

-measures:agallonofpetrol;alengthofcloth;alitreofoil;anounceofgold;a pint of beer/milk , "

p"""a of cofiee ; a spoonful of medicine ; a yard of cloth ;

.t,vpes/species:abrandofsoap;akindofbiscuit;aspeciesoffish;atypeof- ii"g t a variety of pasta; a make of car; a sort of cake;

. abstractnouns: abit/pieceof advice;abitof knowledge;agrainof truth;afit

of anger; a piece oi t"'"u'"t'; a shred oi evia"t'ce; a period of calm; a spot of

troub-ie ; a spell of work ; a wink of sleep ;

:pairs:apairofboots/braces/glasses/gloves/jeans/knickers/pants/pliers/pyjamas/scissors/she"rrlrn*./,hortsiskates/rt i,lstipptts/socks/stockings/tights/tongs/

trousers.

r-

_, 1p


a board (of directors)a choir (of singers)

a class (of pupils/scholars)a company (of actors)a crew (of sailors)a gang (of labourers/thieves)a horde (of savages)

a commiteea congregation (of worshiPers)a councilcrowdenemyfamily

b) animals, birds, insects:

a brood (of chickens)a coYey (of grouse)a down (of hares)

a drove/herd (of cattle)a fall (of woodcoks)a flock (of birds/sheeP)a litter (of cubs/PuPs)

a nest (of mice/rabbits)a pack (of rascals/wolves)a plague (of insects/locusts)a padding (of ducks)

c) plants and fruit:a bouquet/bunch (of flowers)a bunch (of grapes)

a crate (of fruit)

d) thingsa bale (of cotton)a batch (of bread)a budget (of PaPers)a clutch (of eggs)

a collection (of pictures)a fleet/flotilla/squadron (of ships)

a flight (of aeroPlanes/stePs)

a forest (of trees)

a hail (of fire)

folkgoYernmenta host (of angels)

a jurya mob (in a riot)nationorchestraa party (of friends)publica staff (of servants/teachers)a team (of players)a tribe (of natives)a troupe (of dancers/minstrels)

a posse (of policemen)a pride (of lions)a rag (of colts)a school (of whales)a shoal (of herring)a sloth (of bears)

a stud (of horses)

a s\ilarm (of bees/insects)a string (of horses)

a team (of horses/oxen)a tribe (of goats)

a troup (of lions/monkeYs)

a sheaf (of corn)a strack (of hay)a tuft (of grass)

a library (of books)a pack (of cards)a peal (of bells)a sheaf (of arrows)a set (of china)a string (of pearls/beads)a suit (of clothes)a suite (of furniture/rooms)a skein (of silk/wool)

.],.3. GENDER

-:i:: 3ie four genders in E:

l;'.=.ng to the first r$o i

:{i'i.*:en the biological cale

--'1 r;. lfltsculina nguns rriIfl.-ms uncle) and feminine

uutut. nidorv). The disdn

l::l-erent words:'rtachelor - maidlsPilsthoar - sow

:o1'. - girlbrave - squaw

brother - sisterb'uck - doe

5ull - cowrltrb - swancrrck (rooster) - hen

rult - fillYtuster - donahatad daddY - mum mr

dog - bitchdrake - duckdrone - bee

Earl - countess

father - motherfor - vixenfriar - nun (monk I

- \dding suffixes to tbt

: -P\

\

abbot - abbess

actor - actress

adventurer - advent

ambassador - ambs

ruthor - authoressbaron - baroness

benefactor - benefa

god - goddess

heir - heiress

bost - hostess

hunter - huntressinstructor - instrutJes' - Jewess

J, GENDER" : :: jre four genders rn English : masculine' feminine' neuter and common !1i3?-:.: irirq to the first two ones, we must emphasize that there is a close connectlon

:3n rhe biological category of ..sex,, uno it-,. grammatical category of "gender""

,_r rrasculine nouns witibe all those nouns of irasculine sex (bachelor; fafhes';

-:. r uncle) and feminine nouns will be those nouns of feminine stlx (aunt ; queen ;

:::r . \Yidow). The distinction between masculine and feminine can be made by;

--.. .lerent words :

THE NOUN

: rchelor - maidlsPinsterlL-rif - SOW

- .1v - girl:rave - squaw: rother - sister: uck - doe

:ull - cow::rb - swan; -,ck (rooster) - hen

:0lr - filly:DSter - donahiad/daddy - murn/mummYiog - bitchlrake - duckirone - bee

.arl - countessfather - motherfor - vixenfriar - nun (monk)

- {dding suffixes to the masculine form:

:r -gSS

abbot - abtress

actor - actressadventurer - adventuress

ambassador - ambassadress

author - authoressbaron - baronessbenefactor - benefactress

sod - goddess

heir - heiressht-rst - hostess

hunter - huntressi-nstructor - instructressJew - Jewess

lion - lioness

manager - rnanageress

rnister - mistressmayor - mayoress

nnillionaire - rnillionairessmurder - rnurderess

Negro - Negress (usually offenstve ln

meaning)ogre - ogress

patron - Patroruesspeer - peeress

poet - Poetesspriest - Priestess

a:: nefS)

:-. instrels)

_'-;\ ).t

, - !- r;;u) /

--.rmq)

gauder - g00se

husband - wifeking - queen

lad - lass

lord - ladY

rnale - fernale

rnan - womallnephew - niece

papa - mam(mlararn - ewe

sir - rnadamsloven - slutson - daughterstag - hindstallion - nraresteer - herfertutor - goveraress

uncie - auntwizard - witch

1A ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE

3.

4.

prince - princessprior - prioressprophet - prophetetessproprietar - proprietressprotector - protectressshepherd - sheperdesssorcerer - sorceress

b) -inehero - heroineJoseph - JosephineIandgrave - landgravine

c) -ixadministrator - administratrixaviator - aviatrix (aviatress)director - directrix (directress)

d) -aczar - czarinadon - donna

e) -e/-enneconfidant - confidantecomedian - comediennefianc6 - fianc6e

il -ette/-useusher - usherettechaffeur - chauffeuse

Adding the suffix -er to the feminine:widow - widower

Adding the suffix -groom to the feminine:bride - bridegroom

steward - stewardesstailor - tailoresstiger - tigeresstraitor - traitresswaiter - waitresswarder - wardress

executor - executrix (executress)prosecutor - prosecutrixtestator - testatrix

prot6g6 - prot6g6etragedian - tragedienne

male/jack/buck-hrdoe-harehe-leoPard - she-l

dog otter - bitchcock-Pheasant - tcock-Pigeon - her

l:e use of comPoun*

chairman - chairgrandfather - 96grandson - graldjurYman - jun.vheadmaster - her

halfbrother - hallandlord - landl:milkman - milknnobleman - nobl'policeman - Polir

3cmmon (dual) gex:;-: and female : adul

:nm.inal, doctor, enem;

rL:rarian, musician. nei

ilerson, pig, Professor. I

i':=etimes, for claritl. sm . him; his; she; ht

\euter gender den'l

rrrok ; house ; horse .

For stYlistic PurPose':inine. In this wa) s-

: nouns denoting Pa-':fury, love, murder.

: names of things that

storm, stream' sum

On the other hand rl

i nouns that suggest D

justice; melanchol: nouns thatdenote neg

vanity;: nouns denoting eler

: names of arts and s

: names of countries.

: names of aeroPlalesubmarine;

; r rulmes of univenitier

5. The use of compounds in which the first element specifies gender:

a) nouns denoting persons

boy friend - girl friendboy scout - girl scoutboy student - girl studentbrother-inlaw - sister-in-lawfather-in-law - mother-in-law

b) nouns denoting animalshe/male ape - she/female apehe-boar - she-boarhe-bird - she-birdbull-calf - cow-calfmale camel - female camel

male child - female childmale pacient - female patientman cashier - woman cashierman friend - lady/woman friendprince-consort - queen-consortson-in-law - daughter-in-law

male/tom-cat - female/tabby-catbull/male elephant - cow/femaleelephanthe-/dog fox - she-/bitch foxhe-/billy-goat - she-/nanny-goat

:

-l^--ri ug55

!

:;rI\ aexecutress), -iecutrix

i;E;dienne

:emale child- female patient- rloman cashieriadl rvoman friendr - queen-consortlaughter-in-law

- female/tabby-catrhant - cow/female

she- bitch fox- she-,'nanny-goat

THE NOUN

male/jack/buck-hare - female/doe-harehe-leopard - she-leoparddog otter - bitch ottercock-pheasant - hen-pheasantcock-pigeon - hen-pigeon

chairman - chairwomangrandfather - grandmothergrandson - granddaughterjuryman - jurywomanheadmaster - head mistresshalfbrother - halfsisterlandlord - landladymilkman - milkmaidnobleman - noblewomanpoliceman - policewoman

buck-rabbit - doe-rabbithe-/cock-sparrow - she-/

hen-sparrowhe-swallow - she-swallowdog-wolf - bitch-wolf

salesman - saleswomanshopman - shopwomanspaceman - spacewomanspokeman - spokewomanstatesman - stateswomanturkey cock - turkeY hen

bulldog - bull bitchEnglishman - EnglishwomanFrenchman - Frenchwoman

tf

::JS

'a!s

. :s use of compounds in which the second element specifies gender :

l..,mmon (dual) gender denotes either sex and the same word may be used both of. - . and female: adult, animal, artist, baby, child, companion, comrade, cook,

. - :inal, doctor, enemy, fool, foreigner, friend, guardian, guest, infant, inhabitant,

::arian, musician, neighbour, novelist, orphan, owner, parent, partner, passenger,

I : r!0[, pig, professor, pupil, relative, servant, speaker, student, teacher, writer, etc.

, -:timis, for clarity, some "gender markers" are used : boy-friend ; woman-student ;

.' ; him; his; she; her.

\euter gender denotes things, ideas or beings whose sex we are not interested in:::-k; house; horse; baby; thought.

ior stylistic purposes, a few nouns that are neuter may become either masculine or

: -..rine. In this way such nouns as the following may become masculine :

_ :.cuns denoting passions, violent actions: anger, crime, despair, discord, fear,

fury, love, murder, terror ;' :ames of things that suggest power, dignity: death, graYe, mountain, ocean, river,

storm. stream. summer, sun, time, winter.

faith; hope;

IO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE

1.4. NUMBER

In English, singular means one and plural means more than one' The general rule of

making up plurals is to add -' o' -"i to the singular form of the. noun' The suffix -s

ispronounced/s/afterthesounds/k/-books;lfl-laughs;lpl-cups;/t/-pets;/0/_months,orlzlaftervowels-letters,eyes,taxisandthesounds/b/-pubs;ldl-heads;/g/-dogs;/l/-girts;lml-rooms;/n/-hens;/r1l-mornings;/v/-waves'The suffix -.r, pronou"tiJ /izl is used after the sounds /s/ - dresses i lll - bushes;

/d3l - villages; /tJ'i - benches ; l3l - garages ; lzl -vases' as well as after some nouns

ending in -o: heroes.

ThefollowingrulesconcerningthepluralofnounsinEnglishmustbeobserved:

1. Nouns ending in -y preceded by a vowel simply add ;s-

to the singular form : day -

days ; bov - uovr] ittii" irt"t" "nding in -v nr"ceoeo oy^1::Ton"nt change the -v

to -ie and then add -s: country - countries; enemy - enemies' Mention must be

made of the fact ,ttu'-q"- is reckoned as a consonant group' so that such nouns as

colloquyorsoliloquywillhavetheformcolloquiesandsoliloquies,respectively,inthe Plural.Quotation words and proper names ending in -y get -s' So we must say :

I'm interested in all the whys and therefores'

There are three Marys in our family'

However,wechangeytoieinsuchexamplesas:thetwoSicilies;thePtolemies.2.Nounsendingin-ogeteither-sor-eswhenturnedintotheplural.Thesuffix-swill

be added to:

a) those nouns whose final -o is preceded by a vowel:

bamboo - bamboos kangaroo - kangaroos

cameo - cameos nuncio - nuncios

cuckoo - cuckoos oratorio - oratorios

curio - curios portfolio --portfolios

embrYo - embrYos radio - radios

folio - folios scenario - scenarios

studio - studios

b) some nouns ending in -o' of foreign origin:

albino - albinos magneto - magnetos

alto - altos merino - merinos

canto - cantos rondo - rondos

casino - casinos soprano - sopranos

dynamo - dYnamos tango - tangos

c) abbreviations: kilos (< kilogramme); photos (( photograph); pianos

(< Pianoforte)

d)propernames:Filipino-Fitipinos;Eskimo-Eskimos;Ilindoo-Hindoos;Romeo - Romeos

\\-hen the final -o ts I

domino - domintecho - echoes

embargo - emba

hero - heroes

mosquito - mos{

lhcre are some :rl -rrchipelago - archiPel:

:-3\o€s:buffalo-buffa:Limmandoes; domintj:ra"sco - frescos/fresc ot

:Cos haloes: lasso - l'

:. nentoslmementoesit-,letto - stilettos stile

::rnandoes ; volcano

: \{ost nouns end:::5fe-fifes:griefroofs; safe - safe

Jere are 3 fgs --''

: r-i - calves ; elf - el

r:tj-loaves; self-s<lu:if - q'olves. But ;

.\i the same tine': -:']: beef - beeG

rwarves; handkerc

:r{ _ turfs/turves .

- \ouns ending il '

cloth-cloths' d

sloth - sloths' I

nonths. or (0: :

:luns whose Plrbrothes (brr:: I

>:0s)/(a:0zt' lar

sheath (ji:i: -:i:d) - rvreaths

: The noun house

: S.'me of the :::l: same ccT'--..'-

mouse - mice '- .\ number t'i :-l

lid Plural:: nOUfIS fi:=:--

roe . salmo:

r- The general rule ofi- noun. The suffix -s: - cups ; /t/ - pets ;*:ls ibl - pubs ; /d/ -rornings; lvl -waves.resses; /J/-bushes;:.i as after some nouns

: :uust be observed:

.lrsular form: day -:-Tonant change the -yries. Mention must be..: that such nouns asquies. respectively, in

J :.'JSI SAY :

:ilies ; the ptolemies.

.:,i. The suffix -s will

Iaroost

:l os

olios

ri os

etos

5

ros

:::cgraph); pianos

Hindoo - Hindoos;

THE NOUN

When the final -o is preceded by a consonant, the suffix -es will be added :

l'7

domino - dominoesecho - echoesembargo - embargoeshero - heroesmosquito - mosquitoes

domino - dominoesecho - echoesembargo - embargoeshero - heroesmosquito - mosquitoes

There are some nouns ending in -o that may have both -s and -es for the plural :

i--:hipelago - archipelagos/archipelagoes; banjo - banjos/banjoes; bravo - bravos/: :rroes ; buffalo - buffalos/buffaloes ; calico - calicos/calicoes ; cornmando - commandos/: .:nmandoes ; domino - dominos/dominoes ; flamingo - flamingos/flamingoes ;

'i:sco - frescos/frescoes ; ghetto - ghettos/ghettoes ; grotto - grottos/grottoes ; halo -:"i*os/haloes ; lasso - lassos/lasoes ; manifesto - manifestos/manifestoes , memento -: . nentos/mernentoes ; motto - mottos/mottoes ; portico - porticos/porticoes ;,i .tto - stilettos/stilettoes; tobacco - tobaccos/tobaccoes; tornando - tornandos/,::andoes; volcano - volcanos/volcanoes i zero - zeros/zeroes.

I'fost nouns ending in -f or -fe get -s in the plural: belief - beliefs; ctiff - cliffs;:ife-fifes; grief -griefs;gulf -gulfs;muff -muffs;proof -proofs; roof -:-oofs;safe-safes.lirere are a few nouns that change -f or -fe into -ves when turned into the plural :

. ;.: - calves ; elf - elves ; half - halves ; knife - kniyes ; leaf - leaves ; life - lives ;

':r-loaves;self-selves;sheaf-sheayes;shelf-shelyes;thief-thieves;wife-wives;u, -; - rvolves. But we say "still lifes" (: pictures representing inanimate objects).

.1i the same time, some nouns with the same ending may have either -s or -ves in the: -:.1: beef - beefs (kinds of beef)/beeves (carcasses of oxen); dwarf - dwarfs/: q rrves ; handkerchief - handkerchifs/handkerchieves ; scarf - scarfs/scarves ;

-:: - turfs/turves : wharf - wharfs/wharves.

- \.runs ending in -th get -s in the plural. The ending -ths is pronounced either /0s/ :

;loth - cloths ; death - deaths ; faith - faiths ; heath - heaths ; moth - moths ;

sloth - sloths; birth - births; hearth - hearths; length - lengths; month -nonths, or (dz) : bath - baths ; mouth - mouths ; path - paths. There are some=:uns whose plural form -ths may be pronounced either /0s/ or ldzl : broth (brcO) -crothes (brc:0)/(brc0z); cloths - clothes (klc0s)/(klau0z); earth (e:0) - earths:0s)/(a:02); lath (la:0) - taths (la:0s)/(la:02); oath (euO) - oaths (eu0z)/(auDz);

sheath (Ji:e) - sheaths (Ji:0s)/(Ji:dz); truth - truths (tru:0s)/(tru:02); wreath:'ri; - wreaths (ri:Os)/(ri:dz)

: l:e noun house /haus/ has the form houses lhauzizl in the plural.' S:me of the nouns that have irregular plurals are : brother - brethren (members of

::.i same community) ; child - children ; foot - feet ; goose - geese ; louce - lice ;

nouse - mice; man - men; tooth - teeth; woman - women; ox - oxen.- -. rumber of nouns get "zero plural" that is they have the same form in both singular

-d plural:

: nouns referring to hunting and fishing : carp ; cod; game ; grouse ; hake ; plaice ;

roe ; salmon ; sheep ; snipe. However, when the idea of "varieties" or "breeds


of" is implied such nouns can be used in the plural : deer - deer(s) ; buffalo -buffallo(s); herring - herring(s); mackerel - mackerel(s); trout - trout(s).

b) nationality names: Ceylonese - Ceylonese; Chinese - Chinese; Japanese -Japanese; Portuguese - Portuguese; Swiss - Swiss ; Vietnamese - Vietnamese.

c) nouns expressing number or measurement: two dozen boxes ; five hundreddollars ; three thousand people ; ten million books ; two gross of stamps ; fivescore pencils ; three hundred weight of coal ; four joke of cattle ; three brace ofpartridges; several head of cattle; five gross of nails.

These nouns may occur in the plural when they express an indefinite number:hundreds of pages ; millions of dollars ; dozens of boxes.

Besides, when such indefinite indicators of number as a few, many, several, someprecede the nouns hundred; thousand ; million, these nouns can have either a zeroplural or a regular form. But we must say: many thousand books or many thousandsof books. And, one must note the difference in meaning between:

Some hundreds of people (: several hundred)

and

Some hundred people (= about a hundred)

8. Nouns that are part of compound adjectives denoting measure, quantity, etc. also getzero plural when they precede another noun: a two-hour exam; a ten-monthcalendar;athree-daytrip; afive-footladder; afour-cylindercar;afive-minuteconversation; a two-minute pause ; a three-mile walk ; a five-year (old) child ;

a two-week vacation; a five-pound note; the eight-hour day.

9. The plural of compound nouns follows the patterns :

the final element is made plural, especially if it is a one-word noun (armchair -armchairs ; bedroom - bedrooms ; goldfield - goldlields ; horseman - horsemen ;

hoursewife - hoursewives ; pickpocket - pickpockets), but also when theelements of the compound are not themselves nouns (breakdown - breakdowns ;

drawback - drawbacks ; dugout - dugouts ; forget-me-not - forget-me-nots ;

grown-up - grown-ups; good-for-nothing - good-for-nothings; ne 6er-do

well - ne'er-do.wells; merry-go-round - merry-go-munds ; outbreak- outbrrcaks ;

outcome - outcomes);when the first element of a compound is a noun followed by a prepositionalphrase, adverb or adjective, it is the noun that takes the plural form: brother--in-law - brothers-in-law ; commander-in-chief - commanders-in-chief ;

editor-in-chief - editors-in-chief; father-in-law - fathers-in-law; justice-of--peace - justices-of-peace ; looker-on - lookers-on; man-of-war - men-of-war ;

mother-in-law - mothers-in-law; passer-by - passers-by ;

when the compound is made up of a noun and an adjective, the noun generallygets the plural form, although in everyday speech plurals with -s are often met:attorneys-general-attorney-generals; knights-errant-knight-errants; poets--laureate - poet-laureates ; sergents-major - sergent-majors ;

when the first element of a compound is one of the words : man, woman, lord,gentleman, knight, yeoman, both elements of the compound are made plural:

3an-ser"l'ani -

flarmer - get

-Templar - [i:. ;s.'; i;;;-i i;;

! -;: :'::::.:s :::,: f P€r . conon .

r;:: -'tn ledge . Iuc

:::lsense . nr lol* heat . $.eather

:,:::-.:-::e A::::-:;::-: :l :e:e: i; :

aCr ice furniturtiiash of lighteni

:--'^lr( :- ;

prjamas . sl

:.:--S :: f":-";:SS::.].,rickets.

pliers . scal

:-.:eS --: S.

rnarbles . n:.i::i3S:: S:

cr bernaticsg] mna-iticsmathemati(tactics . the-:--+:-i'-:

ineieiuert:--r:_ -i

s!r eepings

iommons .

r aluablcs .

-.a^5 :-r_

h eadqirarr t

thanhs . wt

-: ^-- .l-5 j- r

--L.-i F

-r.-- -1.1-.-'-

c: :,

a)

b)

c)

d)

:

r - deer(s); buffalo -:lrs.t ; trout - trout(s).

Chinese; Japanese -tnamese - Vietnamese.

:,oxes ; five hundredgross of stamps ; five

: :attle; three brace of

"r lndehnite number:

. many, several, some:a:r have either a zeroks or many thousands::

. q'Jantity, etc. also get'e.rarn; a ten-monthiercar;afive-minutefir.e-rear (old) child ;

:,

,::d noun (armchair -lorseman - horsemen;; . bur also when theido*'n - breakdowns;not - forget-me-nots ;

-nothings ; ne 'er-dooutbreak - outbreals ;

,ed b1' a prepositionalplual form: brother-rmmanders-in-chief ;

rs-in-law ; justice-of-of-war - men-of-war;).!i. the noun generally'*:fi -s are often met :

inight-errants ; poets-Ejors;

man, woman, lord,:'-:rd are made plural:

THE NOUN

man-servant - men-servants ; woman-teacher - women-teachers ; gentlemanfarmer - gentlemen farmers ; Iord Justice - Lords Justices ; Knight--Templar - Knights-Templars ; yeoman-farner - yeomen-farmers.

A few nouns are used only in the singular being called Singularia Thntum nouns.

Such examples of nouns are: advice ; barley ; bread ; business ; butter ; clergycopper; cotton ; flour; furniture; happiness ; intelligence ; income; informationknowledge; luck; luggage; maize; meat; merchandise; milk; money

nonsense; nylon; peace; police; progress; remorse; rice; sand; tobacco*heat; weather; l,ondon; Europe. None of these nouns can be preceded by the

lndefinite article a/an and, as some of them have a collective meaning, when we

\\'ant to refer to the singular, we must use the words piece or item, etc: a piece ofadvice/furniture/luck/nonsense, a piece/item of information ; a loaf of bread ; aflash of lightening.

{ number of nouns (Pluralia Tantum) have only a plural form:

articles of dress: braces; breeches; drawers; jeans; knickers; pants;pyjamas ; shorts ; tails ; tights ; trousers ;

parts of the body : entrails ; genitals ; thews ; vitals ;

names of diseases or illnesses : measles ; mumps ; rheumatics ; hysterics ;

rickets ;

l) tools and instruments consisting of two parts : bellows ; binoculars ; glasses ;

pliers; scales; scissors; spectacles; tongs;e ) names of some games : billiards ; cards ; bowls ; dominoes ; draughts ;

marbles ; ninepins ; skittles ;

names of sciences or subjects: astrophysics; aesthetics; ballistics; civics;cybernatics ; diplomatics ; dynamics ; economics ; electronics ; ethics ;

gymnastics ; hidrostatics ; informatics ; kinematics ; kinetics; linguistics ;

mathematics; optics; phonetics; physics; politics; sonics; statisticstactics ; therapeutics ;

g) geographical names : the Alps ; the Carpathians ; the Highlands; the Indiesthe Netherlands;

h) some nouns ending in -ing * s : diggings ; doings ; savings ; surroundingssweepings ; takings ; winnings ;

i) some adjectives turned into nouns by adding the suffix -(e)s : antics ; chemicals

commons; necessaries; news; odds; Olympics; riches; theatricalsvaluables:

J) miscellaneous : alms ; annals ; auspicies ; barracks ; clothes ; colours(: flag); contents; corps; customs; fireworks; funds; gallows;headquarters ; innings ; manners ; means ; remains ; sands ; spirits ;

thanks; works,

- Some of the foreign nouns have been absorbed into English having a normal Englishplural, others have preserved their foreign plural, and others have both English and

toreign plurals:

l

19

a)

'11

.)

The Orisin LansuaseSingular Noun English Plurul Foreign PluralIntin

a) -us - -il-ora/-era

b) -a - -ae

c) -um - -a

d) -ex/-ix - -ices

bonuscampuscircusgeniuscactusfocusfungusnucleusradiussyllabusterminusalumnusbacilusstimulusgenus

arenadilemmaideaerasonataantennalarvavertebra

albumaquariumcurriculumforummediummemorandumstadiumaddendumbacteriumerratumovumstratum

apexindexappendixmatrix

bonusescampusescircusesgeniuses

cactusesfocusesfungusesnucleusesradiusessyllabusesterminuses

arenasdilemmasideaserassonatasantennas

vertebras

albumusaquariumscurriculumsforumsmediumsmemorandumsstadiums

apexesindexesappendixesmatrixes

geniicactifocifunginucleiradiisyllabiterminialumnibacilistimuligenera

antennaelarvaevertebrae

aquariacurricula(fora)mediamemorandastadiaaddendabacteriaerrataovastrata

apicesindicesappendicesmatrices

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE20

The Oigin Language

-G is' - -eslizzl

--rO - -fl

; 'y lch- _l.ru - -eaux/-ieu -tf *\

:--i

!:netimes, the t$t :

, fdiesr=r--nre ldi..,:,.( formula-'

::,fmUla {( formulae

. ( geniuseslenlus ( genii

lcto::i cactl

! iociI fungii nuclei

I radii

isyllabiIterminiialumnii bacili

]stimulii Benera

Foreign PluralThe Origin Language

-on - -a

;-t.nch

- -.u.t - -eaux/-ieu -|ea\

:tlian

-: - -l

:

l

antennaelarvaevertebrae

aquariacurricula(fora)mediamemorandastadiaaddendabacteriaerrataovastrata

apicesindicesappendicesmatrices

-: - zero plural (in *'u'i6inoJfiutar plural in speech: chamots I 1i

^^:t t'r*cizl' corDs lkcJ - lkc"zl

=-*^it; chassis l'lr;sil - l'lnsizl ;

sopranosvirtuososlibrettossolostempos

Sometimes, the two plural forms of nouns have different meanings :

( dies (= menl stamps for making money)

" ) .--- ' ^" ^"x'" ^f h^tre or wood used in games of chane)clle \ oi"t (: small cubes of boue or wo

( formulas (: forms of words)

formula I to.*.,t"" (: mathematical term)

. ( geniuses (= persons of unusually great mental powers)

genrus t genii 1= good or evil spirits)

THE NOUN

analysesaxesbases

crisesdiagnosesellipseshypothesesoasesparanthesestheses

phenomena

demonsautomatons

diagnosisellipsishypothesisoasisparanthesisthesis

phenomenon

plateauxportmanteauxbureauxtableaux

plateausportrnanteausbureaustableausadieux

plateauportmanteaubureautableauadieu

(virtuosi)libretti(soli)temPi

sopranovirtuosolibrettosolotemPo

ground:e solid surface

-: Earth)

/a) sisn oi::;.,,.. I alitrat,e:

( u; epistLe

age

ai.i


( indexes (: tables of contents)index {( indeces (= algebrical signs)

-. ( mediums (= people claiming communication with spirits)medium{( media (= means; agencies)

( Pennies (: individual coins)penny

( Pence (: collective value)

f staffs (= a body ofpersons; sticks, poles)staff ( staves (: a set of five horizontal lines used in music)

f cloths (: different kinds ofcloth)cloth ( clothes (: articles of dress)

14. There are some nouns whose plural form has different meanings :

effect::su1t, consequenc:

manner;3) )

rinute,: ace of time)

;Jtn,:iiering)

:remise. ::oposition frc:-,

' ::;h a conclus:t-i-

luarter, .: iourth)

sand:,:i particles,. ::.ished rock

ipectacle: -:.:c shou )

;- rli

,..". Godf

;.:3:s. figures ar:-.:: Plural b'i aJi

\ou must:::..Her d's a:e :-':Such ha'-s ',, .::lhr /-n. -rr- ..1

.\11 the \LP.s

compass(instrument fornavigation)

colour(hue)

content(that which iscontained)

custom(habit)

damage(injury or harm thatimpairs value of usefulness)

draught(current of air)

- draughts

drawer - drawers(sliding compartrnent as

in a piece of furniture)

a) habits

b) import duties ; also the body ofpeople who collect these andtheir place of activity

(compensation for injury or loss)

- The Middle Ages

- airs (: affected manners : to give oneself airs)

f a) instrurnents for navigation- compasses <(b) instruments for drawing circles

(a) hues- colours

(b) regimental flag

- contents (the list of chapters)

- customs

- damages

fa) currents of air

) b) a game played on a board\ with twenty four pieces

( a) sliding compartments,) U; a garment for the lower part of the body\ with separate ponion for each leg

iairirs)

,:gs I

ro give oneself airs)

.-:dilUll

.,'l,ne.ircles

: :he body of: :hese and

::)

:.'.in or loss)

. rOard: i:es

.-.'i-r part of the body- - t-r r panh lac

.ffect:3SUlt, C0nsequence)

nanner.,. e),)

nirutei:ace of time)

painiift-eriry)

rremise: proposition from. hicir a conclusion is drawn)

sfoundre solid surface: Earth)

( a) sign of the

.etter { alPhabet

( u; epistte

THE NOUN

fa) resultseffects

[b; goods. personal Property

( a) enclosed land attached to a housegrounds { . .- t b) dregs, especially of coffee

f a) signs of alPhabet

- letters { b; ePistles( c; learning and literature ("a man of letters")

f a) ways; customs- manners I b; uet auiour

( a) sPaces of time

- minutes { b; secretary's record of proceedings( ut a meeting

. ( a) sufferings- Parns I b; trouble, effort

-, ----:^^^ ( a) things assumed as basis for an agreement- Dremtses {^ t b) buildings

quarterrne fourth)

.and::ny particles: crushed rock)

spectacle:ublic show)

rpiritsrui; God)

- quartersa) fourths

b) allotecl place or station, especiallyfor troops

- sands (beach)

( a) oublic shows- spectacle. t Oi eye_glasr"s

r a) soulsI

- spirits { b; alcoholic drinks

( .) stat. of mind, temper

- 3rrers, figures and abbreviations as well as other substantivized parts of speech are

::ade plural by adding the suffix -s :

You must cross all Your t's.Her dts are too small.Such hats were in fashion in the 1950's.

The children were walking in twos or in threes (= two by two/three by three)

All the M.P.s (= Members of Parliament) were present.


There were a lot of V.I.P.s (= very important persons) on the plane'

We'll listen to all your pros and cons.

She knows I have had many upr and downs in my life'

But the abbreviations made up of isolated letters make the plurals by doubling that

letter:c. (: chaPter) - cc.

n. 1: page) _ pp.

1.4.1. Concord between Subject and Predicate

1. The general rule is that a singular subject takes a singular verb and a plural subject

takes a plural verb:This girl sPeaks English.These girls sPeak English.

2. Collective nouns may be followed either by a singular verb or a plural one. When

such a noun is regarded as a whole it takes a singular verb:

My familY is called Smith.

but when it is thought of as a group of individuals, it takes a plural verb :

My familY ar€ at home.

However, such collective nouns as : cattle, clergy, people, police, public are always

followed by a plural verb.

The cattle were grazing in the field.The police are investigating this case'

3. Two singular subjects connected by either ... or; neither ... nor; not only ... but

also; no less than ...; and not are followed by a singular verb:

Either the boy or the girl knows the answer'

But when one subject is singular and the other one plural, the "rule of proximity"

must be observed:

Neither the teacher nor the pupils are in the classroom'

Neither the pupils nor the teacher is in the classroom'

4. Two or more subjects connected by and take a plural verb :

The cat and the dog are under the table.

However, when the two subjects are regarded as a whole, a "single idea", they are

followed by a singular vcrb:Fish and chips is a traditional English food.

Whisky and soda is Tim's favourite drink.My neighbour and friend comes here every day' (one person)

trly neighfour and my friend come here every day. (two different persons)

The same thing happens to nouns denoting units of measurement which t;rke a

singular verb when they are preceded by a numeral:

Fifty pounds is a lot of money. (= sum)

Five years is a long time. (= period)

TwentY miles is a long distance.

" -----'l-- -_ ! ,rl: Jr:- -

EachEitheE!.erJ\eitb

- -- -- . -t.,,.t -1;.- a -'l!

-- - ^,-,-rl- : -rr^u\eitt

--. -,- '"r I

. - -- 1-p 1\:

\tr:q-! ^ -'

.--l_'; -.--!

- :]: 'A :;\l-i

! -lr-ii Cttr

TheTomJale

{ f€:1 li:3'-r:, :tlnt:

fUeTbe

l: -,L -J r

-_: - ---.-d i -^*-l

TbeAN

! -r- rts:

:' . S::,:'-l

It ii

- " J: -4.;..

T:L

i i'tngulari.:kl1,ru ledg

\,-"K:t

- Fluralia ]

-- i- -i r

.d!' -- L

lbemical.;;' 3etr r:n::- - -- i-=r r

:-::- -: :- rl

-.:-.: l:ir-'+t!. L

:::;- i:m,arhema

:e plane.

i::ls by doubling that

: :nd a plural subject

: a plural one. When

:llral verb:

ice. public are alwaYs

nor : not only ... butl: :

: "rule of proximity"

single idea", they are

'ison)Jifferent persons)

iiement which hrke a

THE NOUN 25

Asingularnounprecededbyeach,either,everyorneithertakesasingularverb:Eiach boY tells us a joke'

Either book is interesting.

EverY student knows this answer'

Neither solution was good'

When a plural noun is preceded by neither of, it can be followed either by a singular

or a plural verb:Neither of the girls lives/live in this house'

The nouns body, heart, life, mind, soul are used in the plural whenever they refer

to more than one person:

Many pcople lost their lives in World War II'

The plural must be used with anything greater than one unit: one and a half years'

The words with, together with, as well as, in additiorr to, including following a

subject do not affect the irumber of the subject:

The wornan with a large hat is very pretty'

Tom, together with his sister, gces to the cr:ncert every Friday'

Jane. as well as her brother, drinks a lot of milk'

$:hen the ,,formal subject" of a sentence is there, the predicate must agree with the

-real subject":There is a book on the table'

There are many trees in the garden'

- The noun number takes a singular verb when it is preceded by the definite article the

and a plural verb when it is preceded by a:

The number of mistakes is very large'

A number of people were waiting for me'

-- when the pronoun it is used in identifying or emphatic constructions, it is followed

by a singular verb:It is these boys who broke my window'

I The relative pronoun takes the same number and person as the word it modifies:

Thisisoneofthemostinterestingbooksthathaveeverbeenwritten.

-.singulariaTantumnouns(advice;information;furniture;damage;luggage;Xnowt"age, machinery, etc') are followed by a singular verb:

Your information is very interesting'

KerrY's luggage was verY heavY'

. - pluralia Tanturn nouns will be follorved either by plural verbs when they name things

ntade of two parts (glasses; scissors; trousers)' or when they are one of these:

chemicals;contents;ashes;riches;surroundings,etc.,orbysingularverbsi'hen they name diseases (measles ; mumps), games (billiards ; draughts ; cards)

or when they are one of these : news ; *o"t t, "t..

; either by singular or by plural

r.erbsafternamesofsciences,sub.iects(acoustics-thesingularverbreferstothescience, the plural '.,erb

refers to the acoustic features ; phonetics - the singular verb

refers to the science, the plural verb refers to the phonetic features; physics'

mathematics, etc.), or after iuch nouns as : means; series ; species'

r John's birthdaY ?

rron ? (the woman)

essive form of the

see the ... signal..: . .. welfare shouldi. ,babies) 6. The .. ']d in the staff room

I I must buY some

:,i sugar at (the shoP

ie baker). 5. Fathertave a coat made at

:i at (the workshoP: shop owned bY the

l,'. I had a haircut at

! a! arm's distance ;

. 9. a stone's thrcw;

:legului fratelui meu

nele au fost recent

Dre avion, am avut o

eramenului de ieri.pi o odihnl de zece

r lntAlni in trei zile.:ult mai bine"

te t$o forms of the

-rrcdrii. 3. SPuneli-iil;ament Pacientului.-am explicat biielilor:r mele in fiecare an.

: Tom pirinlilor t[i ?

Chapter 2

THE ARTICLE

TherearethreearticlesinEnglish:TheDefiniteArticle,ThelndefiniteArticleandThe Zero Article.

2.1. THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

TheDefiniteArticlethehasthesameformforsingularandplural,andforallgenders:The boy is not at home; The window' u" op-tn' fh: t: pronounced /0a/ before

Jonsonant sounds: the book; the hat; the train, or /0i : / before vowel sounds or before

rmuteh:theapple;theeye;thehonour;theheir'Sometimes'ifwewanttodrawartention to the noun that foilows, the is pronounced /0i: / even before consonants:

Is he the singer you were telling me about?

The Definite Article is used:

L When the noun has already been mentioned or it is well known:

Yesterday I saw a film' The film was very interesting' . .

Open the door, please ! (The door of the room we are in)

l. Before nouns which are considered unique' "the only one" : the earth ; the Bible ;

the skY ; the sun.

i, Before a noun that is particularized by a relative clause :

This is the boY who broke mY window'

-t. Before a noun followed by a prepositional phrase:

The caPital of France

The house with large windows

This is the road to Swansea'

5. Before a singular noun used as a representative of a class:

The elePhant is a big animal'

When such nouns are turned into the plural, the definite article is no longer used:

ElePhants are big animals'

i.Beforeacommonnounfollowedbyapropernounwhichidentifiesit:thenovelistHemingway, the ptay Macbeth' But' nouns expressing professions usually follow


the proper names and are preceded by the : Brown, the lawyer ; Fanny, the milkwoman ;Jackson, the singer. Similarly, nouns in apposition take the before them : Bucharest.the capital of Romania; Lucy, the girl we met yesterday.

7 . Before the name of a country made up of smaller entities or which has a plural form :

The United Kingdom; The Netherlands. In a few cases the cornmon noun thataccompanies the geographical name has been dropped, being easily understood, andthen the geographical name is preceded by the: The Sahara (desert), The Mississippi(river).

8. Before names of rivers, seas, oceans, chains of mountains, group of islandsor islands in of-phrase : The Thames, The Btack Sea ; The pacific (ocean) ;The carpathians; The Rocky Mountains; The Hebrides; The Isle of Man.

9. Before names of ships, trains, aeroplanes: The Titanic; The Flying Scotsman.10. Before names of shops, hotels, buildings, institutions : The Ritz Hotel :

The University of Florida; The White House.11 . Before names of persons to particularize a certain person :

The John I'm talking about is not your friend.12. Before plural names to refer to a group as a whole: The Browns (: the family);

The Tudors (: the dynasty).

13. Before adjectives, Past Participles or Gerunds used to represent a whole class:the rich ; the poor; the dead ; the accused; the grayhaired ; the missing(= the ones that are missing).

14. Before names of nationalities to refer to a group as a whole : The English;The French.

15. Before superlatives and ordinal numbers : the best ; the longest ; the most interesting ;the first; the second; the tenth; the last.

16. Before names of musical instruments : to play the piano/violin/guitar.17. Before names of publications : The Guardian ; The Times ; The Long Beach press

Telegram.

18' Before names of days, months, seasons, when the reference is made to a special day,month, season, or when these names are preceded by the prepositions in oi during:

I remember the Sunday we left London.The winter of 1954 lasted five months.I think I mer her ir the January of 1980.She visited us several times during the spring of that year.

19. Before historical epochs or documents : The Stone Age; The Middle Ages ; TheFrench Revolution; The Magna Carta.

20. In a number ofphrases: by the way; on the one hand/on the other hand; in thecountry; in the mountains; at the seaside; for the time being; in the meanwhile,on the whole; in the morning; in the afternoon ; in the evening ; the more ...the merrier; to tell the truth.

: :. TTIE T\

.-,-....a11 :

l;l:::iella. a fat-_,__..-^.1

\-r --

{r. ?ion.-il'',r'::: a mutg h

! -: - -:-iL.r

!-:

-::-,.3i : -a

habl- - -- '.'' llds a:- :

-3 ln,aai_--f

" - ---.l+- r l

.\ ban-{ gall,A hear

-{ slee

F: l-i:_ -.'

: - -- -,, ;,1 ;

T

THE ARTICLE

:.]. THE INDM,F'INITE ARTICI.E

.:: Indefinite Article a/an is, historically, an adjective, being a weak form of one. A is: -::ounced lel in fluent speech and is used before consonant sounds : a tlook; a newurbrella; a forgotten story. Sometimes, when speaking with speciai emphasis, a is:::rounced /eii, with or without a pause :

And do you call this a /ei/ car ?

An, pronounced lanl , lnl or lnnl (when emphasized), is used before vowel sounds or:,:.:re a mute h: an elephant ; an apple; an hour; an heir; an honest man. Some

' -:Js beginning with h rnay be preceded either by a or by an, at the discretion of the:,=.ker: a habit; a hotel; a historian, or an habit; an hotel; an historian. When

-::r rvords are preceded by an, their initial h is not pronounced or is pronounced softly.The Indefinite Article can be used only with singular countable nouns, irrespective of

-:..: gender: a boy ; a girl ; au egg. A few piuralia tantum nouns can also be preceded1 a an:

A barracks was seen in the distance.A gallows was erected in the centre of the town.A headquarters was established near the city.A steel-works has just been closed.

The Indefinite Article is used :

\\'hen a countable noun is mentioned for the first time :

I looked out of the window and I saw a big dog.

- 3efore a singular countable noun used as a representative of a whole class:A driver is a person who drives a car.

: \\'hen we want to classify people in terms of :

.i their origin:He is a Mexican.She is an American.

r r their occupation :

tr am a doctor.You are a teacher.

3ut, if the noun denotes a title or office that can only be held by one person at a time,':e Indefinite Article is no longer used :

Jack was elected captain of the team. (not: "a captain")As chairman of the society, he took the floor first. (not: "a chairman")

tsesides, the Indefinite Article is not used after the verb to turn when it means torecome :

She used to be a teacher, but then she turned singer.

:, rheir religion :

She's a Catholic.He's an Orthodox.

45

a-nnv. the milkwoman;iore them: Bucharest,

;;h has a plural form :

13 common noun that:asily understood, and'sen), The Mississippi

::. group of islandshe Pacific (Ocean) ;

The Isle of Man.r FIf ing Scotsman.

The Ritz Hotel;

wns (: the family) ;

se nt a whole class :

aired , the missing

cle : The English;

he most interesting ;

r guitar.

re Long Beach Press

Lade to a special day,irions in or during :

]tiddle Ages; The

other hand ; in thein the meanwhile;

aing; the more ...


d) their politics:Tom is a Republican.

4. With the meaning "one", "no matter which":Mother, can I have an apple ?

A cube is a solid body having six equal square faces.

Although a/an and one are interchangeable when referring to :

a) whole numbers : a/one hundred/thousand/million :

b) fractions : a/one quarter/third/half;c) money: a/one dollar/pound;d) weight/measure : a/one kilo ; a/one foot/metre,

they are not interchangeable when:

a) we count and we want to oppose one to two or more:The old man has only one leg.

b) we want to denote any one. In this case a/an and not one must be used:Can you lend me a pen, please?

5. Before Miss/Mr./Mrs. * surname, to denote a person known only as a name:A Mrs. Williamson is waiting for you.

6. In expressions of measurements, when we refer to one unit of measurement in termsof another. In this case, when we want to emphasize each, we use per instead ofalan'.a) price in relation to weight: 90 p a/per kilo ;

b) distance in relation to speed: 80 km an/per hour;c) distance in relation to fuel consumption: 50 miles a/per gallon ;

d) frequency in relation to time: twice a/per week.

7. With the meaning "the same" :

Birds of a feather flock together. (the same feather)The two dogs are much of a size. (the same size)

8. Before a noun in apposition, when the person or thing is considered to be unfamiliar :

John, a friend of mine, saw this film,

9. With little and few:She has a little money to spare.

We have a few friends here.

10. In exclamatory sentences beginning with what, such or so :

What a difficult problem !

What a day !

My boss is such an ass !

The news gave me such a shock.

Mention must be made of the fact that the Indefinite Article precedes the adjectivewhen used with such and it follows the adiective when used with so :

He was such a good worker !

He was so good a worker !

But if the noun foll,

What weattHe had nere

However, it is con

* Before a noun preHe came toShe gave rnc

- In a number of PJ

as a ruleas a rewardas a matter of frat a distanceat a blowat a discount/Pnat a bargainat a timea long/short timall of a suddenin a loud/low vo

on an averageon an equal footof a sizeonce upon a ti-monce in a blue nthree times a wtn-ith a view toon a large/smallit's a pityit's a shameto keep a secretto keep an e)'e o

to be in a hurr.r

:.3. THE ZERI

-: ls used :

. Before abstracl x

love ; hate etc.) I

Most PeoPi

But, if the refere

The death

- Before names oi

. gold; iron; sno

Coffee is I

4'7THE ARTICLE

But if the noun following what or such is uncountable, the Indefinite Article is not used :

What weather we are having at the moment !

He had never before met such kindness as theirs'

:{owever, it is correct to say what a pity, although pity is an uncountable noun.

3efore a noun Preceded bY as:He came to the ball dressed as a pirate'

She gave me a camera as a Present'

. :e used:

'SSaname:

i-:inent in terms

r: per instead of

.: be unfarniliar :

::les the adjeotive.soi

ln a number of Phrases :

as a ruleas a rewardas a matter of factat a distanceat a blowat a discountiPremiumat a bargainat a timea long/short timeall of a suddenin a loud/low voice

0n an averageon an equal footingof a sizeonce upon a timeonce in a blue moonthree times a weekrrith a view toon a large/small scale

it's a pityit's a shameto keep a secretto keeP an eye on

to be in a hurrY

: 3. THE ZERO ARTICLE

to be in a temPerto be in a Positionto have an aPPetite forto have a head forto have an oPPortunitY/a chance

to have a fancY forto have a right toto have a talent forto have a headache/a Pain/a cough/

(but: to have toothache/earache/rheumatism/influenza)

to have a mind toto give a handjust a momentto put an end toto make a fireto make a fool of oneself

to make a fortuneto make a noiseto make a fussto take an interest into take a Pride into take a dislike toto take a seat

used :

3eforeabstractnounsusedinagenerarsense(life;death;freedom;liberty;love ; hate etc.) :

Most PeoPle fear death'

3ur,ifthereferenceismadetocertainabstractnouns'theyareprecededbythe:The death of this child saddened us very much'

3efore names of materials used in a general sense (milk ; bread ; butter ; coffee ;

Botd ; iron; snow ; cotton ; wool etc')

Coffee is rather exPensive'

48

3.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE

But:The coffee you bought yesterday is very good.

Before plural nouns used in a general sense:

Books are silent friends.But:

The books you lent me are very interesting.

Before names of meals used in a general sense :

We have breakfast at 7 o'clock every morning.But:

The breakfast we had yesterday morning was delicious.

Before names of persons, names of towns, countries (made up of a single word) :

Robert ; Bucharest; Romania.But:

The Hague; The Congo; The Gambia; The Yemen ; The Sudan.

6. Before the nouns Cape, Lake, Mount: Cape Cod; Lake Windermere; MountEverest.

? . Before nouns in the possessive case or before a possessive adlective : Jane's b\ouse I

my hat.

8. Before names of languages :

Mike speaks English.

9. Before titles followed by a proper noun: Queen Elizabeth ; King Richard ; Doctor

Brown ; Lnrd Byron; President Bush.

10. Before such nouns as cook, nurse, teacher, gardener, milkman, etc. when they have

the meaning "our cook/teacher/etc."Teacher is going to give us a test today.

11 . Before words like church, school, prison, hospital, market, bed, etc. when they are

used for their primary purpose:

to go to church (to a service)to go to school/university (as a student)to go to prison (as a Prisoner)to go to hospital (as a Patient)

12.Before names of days, months, seasons, holidays :

Monday is the first day of the week in Romania.

February is the shortest month of the year.

Children always look forward to Christmas.

l3.Before names of subjects, sciences : Physics ; Chemistry, etc'

My sister studies Music.

l4.Before means of transport: by air ; by bicycle ; by boat ; by bus ; by car .

by coach; by land ; by plane ; by sea ; by ship ; by train; by tube ; on foot.

15.In a number of stock phrases: arm in arm; face to face; from top to bottom:hand in hand ; to come to light ; to keep in mind ; to make fun of ; to make

friends; at dawn/dusk/night; by day/night; in the face of danger; at anchor:

to be in debtbe1'ond reaclbr n'a1. of . irfrom time t,

to mouth.

:.1. EXERC

- {dd the btfo;1..p ; 1. :;c

r :-: ildal : 9 :

: :ram: 15 B

=-rir>p-

ll Turn the fol

The :

:* ',\ I nk oe tt-:=-" :-:;The

m' ifo'; p[

4.

5.

THE VERB

1.1. TIIE SIMPLE PRESENT

1.1.1. Form

1.1".2. Use

1. To express "eternal"/"general" truths, or tO make Statements Of general validity:

Ice melts in the sun.

The sun rises in the East and sets in the West'

2. To express repeated/habitual/permanent actions. Such actions are usually accom-

panied by the adverbs: every (day/week/month/year/, etc'), never, occasionally,

often, sometimes, seldom, twice a week, usually, etc'

We go to school every morning. (repeated)

Father smokes too much (habitual)

Jane works in a big factory. (permanent)

3. In Direct Speech, to introduce quotations:

Shakespeare says:"Not marble, nor the gilded monuments

Of princes shall outlive this powerful rhyme". (Sonnet 55)

4. Sometimes in giving the summary of a story, being called "Narrative"/"Historic"

Present :

I went into the dark room and, suddenly, I hear a strange noise'

But, in telling stories, both Simple Present and Present Continuous can be employed,

although theri is a difference between their uses. While the Simple Present is used for

the events that happen one after another (sees, meets, says, goes, etc.) the Present

Continuous occurs with "background situations", that is with the things that are

already happening when the story starts or at a certain moment of the story:

The prince enters the cave and there he sees a witch. The witch is ttoiling

something and is talking to a huge black cat that is looking at itself in a mirror.

o

In steP-bY-steP lns::jFirst, I tahe -'::

and Parsier l:- '

In sPorts commeil;:(which are finished :'i

is used for longer :;The goal-ke::''he shoots al;second hal;N[stase sert es

Ndstase is ser

activitY)

To exPress an ':lprogramme:

The chamPr'-:The touris:s r

5. To exPress a furu:e

a) in a "sndilitrniiIf Your coust;

b) in a dme claus'

Tom will hi:

9 In Proverbs, sar la

DesPair gir e

-0. In certain colrte\l:

WhY do 1i:,1 . In exclamatory se

Here theY ct

There goes

But, if these st:tr

TheY're cor

The tratn ts

-2. With the ver'r' tt

theY contatn ln -;

a continuous lt-:The chilo:;The PuPli'

But, when to gt.t

What is gc

Affirmative lnterrogative

I/you/we/they speak Do I/you/we/they speak ?

He/she/it speaks Does he/she/it speak?

Negative Negative-Interrogative

I/you/we/they do not sPeak Do I/you/we/they not speak?

I/you/we/they don't speak. Don't I/you/we/they sPeak?

He/she/it does not speak. Does he/she/it not speak?

He/she/it doesn't speak. Doesn't he/she/it speak ?

o.

8.

:.leral validity:

:r usually accom-\ er. occasionally,

11.

:::i\e"/"Historic" i2.

_i:

:.r be employed,i::.ent is used for:.: I the Present

:: :hings that are

- -t:3 stor)':

; ,r rtJir is boiling: ..s:.: in a mirror.

THE INDICATIVE

In step-by-step instructions or demonstrations :

First, I take the potatoes and slice them. Then, I slice the tomatoes, fry the onion

and parsiey in a little fat until the onions are translucent"'

In sports commentaries. In this case the simple Present refers to quicker actions

(wfrlctr are finished before the sentences that described them). The Present Continuous

is used for longer activities :

Thegoal-keeperpassestoMaradona,butHagiintercepts;HagitoLlcituqandhe shoots and it,s a goal l The Romanians are leading by three goals to nil in the

second half.Ndstase serves ! (this very moment)

NIstase is serving in the game we are watching now. (the service is a continuing

activitY)

To express an officially planned action or an action belonging to a settled

programme:

The championship starts next Saturday' (will start)

The tourists visiithe British Museum on Friday morning. (will visit)

To express a future action

a) in a conditional clause:

If your cousin comes here tomorrow, we'll go to the cinema'

b) in a time clause whose action is simultaneous with another future action:

Tom will like English grammar when he understands it'

In proverbs, saYings:

Despair gives courage to a coward.

In certain contexts, especially in interrogative sentences, to render a modal hint:

Why do you move so slowly ? (reproach)

trn exclamatory sentences beginning with here or there :

Here they come !

There goes the train I

But. if these statements are not exclamatory, the progressive aspect must be used :

They're coming'The train is going now

with the verb to continue and its equivalents (to go on, to keep on, etc.) as

they contain in themselves the idea of continuity, and so, it is not necessary to use

a continuous form:The children continue to write.The pupils go on reading'

But, when to go on means to happen, the continuous aspect must be used:

What is going on there ?

10.

THE INDICATIVE

1.2. THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS

1.2.1. Form

Negative Negative-Interro gative

I am not/I'm not sPeaking Am I not sPeaking ?

You /we/they are not/aren't speaking Are you/we/th"Y nolPgSling ?--He/she/it is not/isn't sPeaking Aren't vou/we/theY sPeaking ?

Is he/she/it not sPeaking ?

Isn't he/she/it sPeaking ?

TJ

': do a lot ofexercises

'-i rvash your hands./I::k.iI 6. The boys fly.s every evening./YouSunday./They

-.lits to the map now.:,.lntain now 5. I am: low. 7. The people::s now. 9. I am not::e not dancing now.,"::ing the roof of his.s not rising now.

r;s song./I 4. Tomi--. rn rhis factory./his:ne piano./my sister

-s 3. Do you study-< Does your father:,;: ar home ? (Yes)

-j:- 'res) 10. Does

:-- 3. help mother:.: ":rles/we/yes;',;: :-'': 9. cfOsS the

i.2.2. Use

,. To express an action which started before the present moment, which is in progress

at the moment of speaking, and which will terminate in the future' This form of the

verb indicates that the duration of the action is limited' The feeling of immediate

present is often emphasized by just and now:

The sun is shining in the skY now'.'fhe pupil is jasl writing the exerclse'

The words 3ust and now are no longer mentioned when their meaning is understood :

Look, the children are sleePing !

l. To express a temporary action :

We usually go to work by bus, but today we are going by cab'

3 ' To express a definite arrangernent in the near future. It is, perhaps, the most usual

way to present somebody's immediate plans:

What are You doing tomorrow ?

The time of the action must be given in this case in order to avoid confusion'

-l.Toexpressfuturity,especiallywithverbsofmovementlike:tocome'toarrive'to go, to leave:

Our friends are amiving tomorrow

He is going to London on FridaY'

Affirmative Interrogative

I am/tr'm speaking Am I speaking ?

You are/You're sPeaking Are you/we/theY sPeaking ?

We are/We're sPeaking Is he/she/it sPeaking ?

They are/TheY're sPeaking

He is/He's speaking

She is/She's speaking

Ir is/It's speaking

14 THE VERB

5. To express a frequent repetition of an activity which has a distinct meaning ofannoyance, irritation, sarcasm. In this case the verbs are usually combined with such

adverbs as: always, constantly, continually, for ever:He is always borrowing money from his friends but never gives it back.Why are the children being so noisy today ?

It is to be noted that with the verbs expressing physical feelings (to ache, to feel,to hurt, etc.) and the construction to look forward to there is no great differencebetween simple and continuous forms:

How do you feel /How are you feeling today ?

My finger aches/is aching.We look forward/are looking forward to their arrival.

6. Sometimes, in subordinate clauses of time or condition:The boy will play in the park while his mother is making a cake.

I will not disturb her if she is watching TV.

7. With the verbs to get or to grow to express a transition from one state to another :

It is getting dark.Our parents are getting older and older.

Verbs not used in the continuous aspect

l. Verbs of perception: to feel, to hear, to notice, to see, to smell, to taste:The hay smells nice todaY.

Do you see the birds now ?

The soup tastes delicious.

If one means to emphasize the idea of continuity of these words, can/could must

be used:I can see the plane now.

We can hear the waves at last.

However, the verbs to smell, to taste and to feel may be found in the continuous

aspect when they imply a voluntary action on the part of the subject :

The cat is smelling the bush now.

Mother is tasting the soup to see if it is warm enough for the baby.

When verbs of perception are used with meanings which are different from their"basic" ones, they may be used in the continuous aspect :

TO SEE

a) to meet by appointment, to interview:I am seeing my dentist on FridaY.

Jane is seeing her manager now.

b) to visit (generally used in connection with tourists) :

Mary is seeing the sights so she will be a little late.

c) to see about (to make arrangements or inquirements):

Our form master is seeing about the trip to the mountains.

d) to see to (to put right, to deal with):The mechanic is just seeing to the engine of our car.

3 I tO See SLrX

Tc:

: to see ha-

i'm

TO HEAR

. to feceivtI'n

: rvhen re:tTi

TO FEEL

.: is usuallr::nporar) l

\f

B,v ua" i- -r denPrt l:-!

-Eerr!'*"

- r^ a!'nr-: lu !.11_ ! '

idea o: '

I,

I r io ca'isa

unde: s

\

-

: to trJ. :aspe;i

^ \,pr: ;

to fintto retrto tru

15THE INDICATIVE

:.stinct meaning of;ombined with such

:."es it back.

.: ito ache, to feel,i.-r _qreat difference

: aKe.

13 State to another:

ll. to taste:

:-i, can/could must

: :r the continuous

- ;-L

--: :-r b) .

:.::erent from their

e) to see somebody off/up/down/out:

Tom is seeing his grandfather off at the railway station now'

0 to see hallucinations:I'm seeing things'

TO HEAR

a) to receive news of or from:I,mhearinginterestingthingsaboutournewneighbour'(youarejusttellingme)

b) when referring to legal cases, meaning to try :

The judge is just hearing the witnesses'

TO FEEL

Itisusuallyemployedinthesimpleaspect.ItscontinuousformsuggeststhattheStatelstemporary :

Mary felt well yesterday but she is not feeling well today'

By way of conclusion to the verbs to feel' to smell and to taste w: :^YT:*lat they

aregenerallyusedinthreedifferentways'withthreeslightlydifferentmearungs:

a)toexperienceaparticularsensation.Inthiscasethesimpleaspectistobefound.Theidea of continuity may be given by the verbs can/could :

Jane feels/can feel a pain in her shoulder'

| (can) smell a Perfume in here'.

The children (cin) taste something strange in the cake'

b)tocausesomebodytohaveaparticularsensation.Thesimpleaspectmustbeusedunder such circumstances :

We know that silk feels soft'

The mountain air smells fresh'

This Pear tastes sweet'

c)totrytogetaparticularsensation.Inthiscaseboththesimpleandthecontinuousaspect may Ue employed according to the meaning of the context:

The doctor is feeling the patient's foot'

Fatherfeelstheedgeofhispenknifebeforestartingtosharpenhispencils.Thegirlsmellsthe'flowersintheg^.oenatthistimeeverymorning.Thatiswhyshe is smelling them now'

Mothertastesthemilkbeforegivingittothebaby.Asshewantstofeedthebabynow, she is tasting it again'

2.Verbsexpressingmentalactivities:toagree'tobetieve'todistrust'todoubt'tofind, to foresee, to forget, to gu".a,-t"o imagine, to know, to mean, to mind,

toremember,torecognize'torecollect'tore-gard'tosuppose'tothink(that)'to trust, to understand, etc' :

She knows what You mean'

Do You mind if I give her this book ?

Does she think that he will be able to come ?

I'm sure she understands the lesson now'

16 THE VERB

But, some of these verbs may appear in the continuous aspect, having a different meaning :

TO FORGET

I forget her address now. (I don't remember/fail to remember it)I'm forgetting figures. (it expresses a gradual loss of memory as to figures)Are you forgetting your manners ? (usually said to a child who has failed toperform a conventional act of politeness)

TO THINKWhen it means to imagine, or an opinion is asked for, the common aspect is used:

I think (imagine) they have already arrived.What do you think of the new prices ? (What is your opinion about these prices ? )

But, when no opinion is given or asked for, the continuous form is used :

What are you doing ?

I'm thinking.

What are you thinking about?I'm thinking about our new teachers.

TO MINDWhen meaning to object to or to dislike, it is to be found in the common aspect:

Maggie doesn't mind if her husband comes home late.It's rather cold today, but I don't mind it.

This verb may be used in the continuous aspect when it means to look after :

At the moment Ann is minding her sick mother.

It has already been shown that some verbs which are not normally used in the

continuous aspect, may occur in the progressive form whenever irritation, sarcasm,

annoyance, reproach are implied :

We foresee no difficulty in solving that problem. (neutral)She is always foreseeing difficulties which never occur. (irritation)I doubt whether they will arrive here on time.He is always doubting his friend's words.We distrust our new classmate.

Juliet is always distrusting her own judgement.

3. Verbs expressing wish: to desire, to intend, to want, to wish, etc.

I want that book now.

4. Verbs expressing attitudes, feelings, emotional states i to abhor, to adore, to detest.to dislike, to displease, to like, to love, to hate, to please, to prefer, etc.

I think she loves you very much now

5. Verbs expressing possession: to belong to, to have, to hold, to keep, to owe,

to own, to possess :

How many friends have you (got) here ?

But, to haye rnay be used in the continuous aspect when it belongs to different corstructions :

Jane is having breakfast.We are having a bath now.

cr, hauing a different meaning:

remember it)

3l r.Tgrl as ro figures)

ro a child who hai faited to

cornmon aspect is used:

opinion about these prices ?))us form is used:

the common aspect:

THE INDIC{TIVE N

6' verbs expressing a state, a condition: to appear, to be, to consist (ofl), to contain,to differ' to deserve, tocquar, to exist, to resembre, to r"",o, io suit, etc. But, to bemay rurn up in the continuous aspect:a) in passive constructions:

A new block of flats is being built near our house.b) to imply that the subject is temporar'y exhibiting some quarity:Look, how kind our aunt is Ueiog to us today !c) sometimes to express reproach:Why are you being so mean?

d) with adjectives such as : absurd, careless, c.rumsy, razy, rude, sentimentar, silly,stupid, etc., to express a temporary behaviour:f'm not being sentimrntol, *hurirer you may think., y:::?H::f:.,verbs: to compare, to expect, to matrer, ro resurt (from),

^ I expect (suppose) you know him.But:

^ I'm expecting (waiting for) an important guest now.8. Modal verbs:I can drive a car now.She may go to the cinema now.You must learn the new words now.

THE INDICATIVE

;,r,:,:r.'lngrulesconcerningthePastTenseoftheregularverbsshouldbeobserved

ilui':::-. -i,3 Short Infinitive of the verb ends in -e' only -d is added (to dance -D4-::: to recile - recited, etc')'

.'i,i"--'-'re-syllableverbendsinasinglr;consonant(withtheexceptionofc'worx)rr--:-:t:tbyasinglevowel,thefinalconsonantisdoubledand-edisadded" :r -,p - droPPed ; to Pat - Patted ; lc')'

] :: .':lbs ending in.c, add k after c and then the suffix -ed is added (to panic -.l;.:,:rcJ: to picttic - picnicked; etc')'

i':..:, " rerb of more than one syllable ends in a single consonant preceded by

_ . -_;,: ., crvel, the final consonant ii doubled if the final syllable is stressed (to omit -:,:-iled . to occur - occurred)'

] -, :-: :lnal consonant is not doubled when the final syllable is not stressed (to visit -

" s.irl : to listen - listened).

Z::rriotts: to kidnap - kidnapped; to handicap - handicapped'

--::- :he Short Infinitive of a verb ends in -y i:'receded by a vowel.' the y does not

-:,-;-But,iftheyisprecededbyaconsona''t,iti'changedintoiandthen-edis-*-;- ,to play - played; to try - tried)'

:ltguiarverbsare:rllthoseverbsthatdonotmakethePastTenseandthePast::.: b,v adding the suffix -ed, but have thr:ir own forms: to begin - began -

i: to give - gave - given; to see - saw - seen; etc'

[. J L. Form

i"";1lEAffrrmative

- :.e she/it/we/the had

Negative

- he she/it/we/theY had not

- :; she/itlwe/theY hadn't

Negative

:lei It waS

: - '.',e/they were

Had I/you/he/she/itlwe/they ?

Had I/youlhe/she/it/we/ they not?

Hadn' t l/you/he/she/itlt"ltlgl

,, EL

Ne gative-Interro gative

Was l/he/she/it ?

Were you/we/theY ?

I/he/she/it was not Was I/he/she/it not ?I/he/she/it wasn't Was I/he/she/it not ?You/we/they were not Were you/we/they not ?You/we/they weren't Weren't you/we/thev ?

26 THE VERB

1.3.2. Use

I ' To express an action or state wholly completed at some moment or during someperiod in the past' In fact, the simple Past Tense is a narrative tense. In this case, apast tense adverbial srrch as when, then, yesterday, rast week, last month, Iast year,that day, the other day, once, in r9g9, on sunday, ago, etc. occurs in the sentence :Yesterday I met my old friend Jack.When did the train arrive ?

Sometimes, the time becomes definite as the result of a question and an answer in thePresent Perfect:Where has Tim been?He has been to the cinema.Whar film did he see ?

Although the time o;

it occupied a periodSome proper ruIrnes.

for the Past Tense :

ShakesPeare r'

(It is thus imPlied tl

To express a past b:

Grandmother

In this case used toWe went tc ttWe would usr

In Indirect Speech t

"We live in a

The giri said

To introduce someb

"Where are d

In conditional claus

My friend *tAfter the verb wislsubjects are differer

I wisft I wereHe is sPeak;n

It's (high1 rrn

The construction wif the subjects, as a

Our neighbou

But, if the two sub'

Paul would .l

Mention must be nverbs is not used to

desirability. They a

To express a futureexpressed by Furur

He Promised

The Tran.

Perfect simplu; Pe

When he oPCdnd a descl

3. Imperfect :

The linle t'.-B5ie{elul err

3. Conjunctiv perfect

Helen said sl

Elena a sPus

I/you/he/she/itlwe/thev did Did I/you/he I she / itl w e / thev ?

I/you/he/she/ itl w e I they did not Did I/you/he lshe/it/we/they not ?/ he I she I it/ w e/they didn, r Didn' t I lhe I she I itl welthev ?

TO PLAY/TO GO

I/you/he/she/ it I w e / they Did I/you/he/sh e I itl we I they play ?

Did I/you/he/she/itlwe/they go ?

Negative-InterrogativeI/you/heishe/itlwe/they did not play Did I/you/he I she I itl w e I thevI/youihe/she/itlwe/they didn' t play Didn' t I/you/he / she / it/ w e trhey play-

/it/we/they did not Did I/you/he/she/itlwe/rhevI/you/he/she/itlwe/they didn' t Didn't I/you/he/she/itl

2.

3.

THE INDICATIVE 2.7

Although the time of the action in the last sentence is not given, it is understood that

it occupied a period of time now terminated.

Some proper nu*"r, by reason of their definite meaning, may provide the conditions

for the Past Tense :

Shakespeare wrote thirty-seven plays.

(It is thus implied that shakespeare is dead or is no longer writing plays.)

To express a past habit, or a repeated action in the past:

Grandmother drank three cups of coffee a day' (habit)

In this case used to or would may also be employed.We went to the theatre every Friday evening. (repeated action)

We would/used to go to the theatre every Friday evening'

In Indirect Speech to express a Present Tense from Direct Speech:

"We live in a big house," the girl said.

The girl said they lived in a big house'

To introduce somebody's words in Direct Speech :

"Where are the children? ", mother asked.

In conditional clauses, to express a Present Conditional:

My friend would help me if she were here.

After the verb wish or after as if/as though; if only; would rather (when the

subjects are different); it's (high) time:I wish I were on holidaY now.

He is speaking as if he knew everything about the accident'

It's (hieh) time my son learnt English, too.

r ::--, ,t: during some: .:.-,-.:. In this case, a.-::i nloltth, last year,, - --: ir the sentence:

- .: ;il answer in the

The construction would rather holds a special place. It is followed by a Past Tense

if the subjects, as already shown, are different:Our neighbours would rather we didn't make so much noise in the afternoon.

But, if the two subjects are not different, the Short Infinitive must be used :

Pavl would rather stay here now than go there.

Mention must be made of the fact that in cases 5 and 6 the Past Tense form of the

verbs is not used to indicate tense, but rather supposition, implying non-fulfilment or

desirability. They are actually subjunctives.-. To express a future action, in a time clause, which is simultaneous with another one

expressed by Future-in-the-Past :

He promised me that he would tell me the truth when he knew it'

The Translation of the Simple Past Tense into Romanisn

. , Perfect simplu; Perfect comPus :

When he opened the door, he saw the dog.

Cdnd a deschis usa, vizu cAinele.

L Imperfect:The little boy was very tired.Bdielelul era foarte obosit.

-r, Conjunctiv perfect :

Helen said she felt lonely before she met him'Elena a spus ci se sim{ea singurd inainte si-l fi intAlnit'

.Lrterrogative

I I'u qAtlYe

-i nrerrogative

I:. i e rrogative

THE VERB

4. Conditrional prezent :

I would read that book if he gave it to me.

Ag citi cartea aceea dac[ el mi-ar da-o.

5.

6.

I didn't know she loved music.

Nu gtiam c[-i place muzica.

The girl said that she would come here when she was free.

Fata a spus cI va veni aici cdnd va fi liberl.

r,arre urlr vacanl5.

1.3. THE PAST TENSE SIMPLE rO BE

According to the wavverbs are divided in;oi:^Iij"h

they form the pasr Tbnse and the pas

.,,I:*:,J;ffi#ffT:Til:;n"jj,"# r participre,

Engrish

199ing the suffix -"0 to rn.l,-";"^:.,::1t.Tuke the Past Tense and rh

',ii^',:";,W,::ij,,,X!,,1!i'i,',",!,i,',UiJi*JHlill##:iliTlli

I he/she/it was

1. noun+article+verb (present simple & continuous - past simple & continuous) (1)

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