1. lectures writing paragraphs

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1 _____________________________________________________________________ WRITING PARAGRAPHS Introduction Academic writing is divided into paragraphs. If your writing is one continuous piece of text, it will be very difficult for any reader to follow your argument. Therefore your written work needs paragraphs. Written work is divided into paragraphs in a meaningful way. A paragraph is a group of sentences that develop one topic or idea. The topic of one paragraph should follow logically from the topic of the last paragraph and should lead on to the topic of the next paragraph. The paragraphs have different functions, but all develop an idea - that is, they add information, explanation, examples and illustrations to the central theme or idea until the theme is fully developed. Exercise 1 : Divide the following text into paragraphs. Remember that each paragraph should develop a particular theme. How To Stop Yourself Snoring Snoring is caused when the airway at the back of the nose and throat becomes partially obstructed. This is usually due to the loosening of the surrounding oropharyngeal muscles, but the reasons why this should occur are varied. The most common are smoking, obesity and the consumption of relaxants such as alcohol and sleeping pills. As with any common ailment, there are a host of "miracle" cures advertised - but you should first try a few simple steps to see if you can halt the snoring before adopting more drastic measures. Lifestyle changes can be the most effective. If you are overweight, a loss of weight will help to reduce the pressure on your neck. You should also stop smoking and try not to drink alcohol at least four hours before you go to bed. Beyond this, try to change your regular sleeping position. Raise the head of your bed with a brick, or tie something uncomfortable into the back of your pajamas to encourage you to sleep on your side. Both of these will help to alter the angle of your throat as you sleep, and may thus make breathing easier for you. It is also important to keep your nasal passage clear and unblocked. Allergies, colds and hay fever can temporarily cause you to snore; nasal decongestants may help, but you are not advised to use such remedies for long periods. Nasal strips, as worn by sportspeople, have been proven to reduce nasal airway resistance by up to 30 per cent, so consider these as a long-term alternative. If this fails, then you may wish to look at the varied snoring aids that are on the market. They range from neck collars that stop your neck tilting, through to mandibular-advancement devices (such as gumshields) which reduce upper airway resistance, and tongue- retaining devices. You can also buy essential-oil products that are added to warm water and infused or consumed before bedtime. They claim to tone up your palate and unblock your nasal passage. Finally, if your symptoms persist, visit your GP or contact the British Snoring and Sleep Apnoea Association (01737 557 997) for advice. If you do not, your partner might

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Writing Paragragh, Grammar

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  • 1_____________________________________________________________________

    WRITING PARAGRAPHS

    Introduction

    Academic writing is divided into paragraphs. If your writing is one continuous piece of text, it will bevery difficult for any reader to follow your argument. Therefore your written work needs paragraphs.

    Written work is divided into paragraphs in a meaningful way. A paragraph is a group of sentencesthat develop one topic or idea. The topic of one paragraph should follow logically from the topic ofthe last paragraph and should lead on to the topic of the next paragraph. The paragraphs havedifferent functions, but all develop an idea - that is, they add information, explanation, examplesand illustrations to the central theme or idea until the theme is fully developed.

    Exercise 1 :Divide the following text into paragraphs. Remember that each paragraph should develop a particular theme.

    How To Stop Yourself Snoring

    Snoring is caused when the airway at the back of the nose and throat becomes partially obstructed. This isusually due to the loosening of the surrounding oropharyngeal muscles, but the reasons why this should occurare varied. The most common are smoking, obesity and the consumption of relaxants such as alcohol andsleeping pills. As with any common ailment, there are a host of "miracle" cures advertised - but you shouldfirst try a few simple steps to see if you can halt the snoring before adopting more drastic measures. Lifestylechanges can be the most effective. If you are overweight, a loss of weight will help to reduce the pressure onyour neck. You should also stop smoking and try not to drink alcohol at least four hours before you go to bed.Beyond this, try to change your regular sleeping position. Raise the head of your bed with a brick, or tiesomething uncomfortable into the back of your pajamas to encourage you to sleep on your side. Both of thesewill help to alter the angle of your throat as you sleep, and may thus make breathing easier for you. It is alsoimportant to keep your nasal passage clear and unblocked. Allergies, colds and hay fever can temporarilycause you to snore; nasal decongestants may help, but you are not advised to use such remedies for longperiods. Nasal strips, as worn by sportspeople, have been proven to reduce nasal airway resistance by up to 30per cent, so consider these as a long-term alternative. If this fails, then you may wish to look at the variedsnoring aids that are on the market. They range from neck collars that stop your neck tilting, through tomandibular-advancement devices (such as gumshields) which reduce upper airway resistance, and tongue-retaining devices. You can also buy essential-oil products that are added to warm water and infused orconsumed before bedtime. They claim to tone up your palate and unblock your nasal passage. Finally, if yoursymptoms persist, visit your GP or contact the British Snoring and Sleep Apnoea Association (01737 557 997)for advice. If you do not, your partner might

  • 2Paragraph sequenceExercise 2 :Look at the following text about growing cotton in India. The paragraphs have not been printed in the correctorder. Arrange the paragraphs in the correct order. Remember that the topic of one paragraph should followlogically from the topic of the last paragraph and should lead on to the topic of the next paragraph.

    Pesticide Suicide

    Most of the farmers are extremely poor. Attracted by cheap loans from pesticides traders and the prospect ofa quick buck, they borrowed heavily to raise cotton on small plots of land.According to the Ministry of Agriculture, the crop losses and destruction in Andhra Pradesh arose from therepeated application of excessive amounts of chemicals - a practice actively encouraged by pesticides traders.The suicide of Samala Mallaiah in Nagara village grabbed media headlines. He owned one acre of land, leasedtwo more and grew cotton on all three. After making a loss in the first year, he leased yet more land in anattempt to recover. Confronted with falling prices, mounting debts and pest attacks, hecommitted harakiri.Cotton has given us shattered dreams, said one old farmer in Nagara village.As many as 60,000 small farmers in the region of Andhra Pradesh, southern India, have taken to farmingcotton instead of food crops. Some 20 of them have recently committed suicide by eating lethal doses ofpesticide.Whitefly, boll weevils and caterpillars multiplied and destroyed their crops, despite the constant application ofpesticides. The average yield of cotton fields in Andhra Pradesh fell by more than half in just one year. Nowthe farmers are in no position to repay the loans or feed their families.Nearly half the pesticides used in India go into protecting cotton, the most important commercial crop in thecountry. However, pests have shown increased immunity to a range of pesticides. Last year there were heavycrop losses due to leaf-curl, which is caused by the dreaded whitefly. This nondescript, milky-white fly suckssap from the cotton leaves, making them curl and dry up. The fly struck first in Pakistan and north-westernIndia. Then it turned south.

    Topic Sentences

    This main idea of each paragraph is usually expressed somewhere in the paragraph by one sentence(the main or topic sentence). This sentence is usually found at the beginning of the paragraph, butcan come at the end or even in the middle of the paragraph. The rest of the paragraph generallyexpands the theme contained in the main sentence, and each idea round the main theme issupported by information and evidence (in the form of illustrations and examples), and by argument.

    Examples:The population as a whole was unevenly distributed. The north was particularly thinly settledand the east densely populated, but even in counties like Warwickshire where there weresubstantial populations, some woodland areas were sparsely peopled. There was alreadyrelatively dense settlement in the prime arable areas of the country like Norfolk, Suffolk andLeicestershire. Modern estimates of England's total population, extrapolated from Domesdaypatterns, vary between 1 and 3 million.(Asa Briggs, (1983). A social history of England, p. 58)

  • 3Atoms of all elements consist of a central nucleus surrounded by a "cloud" containing one ormore electrons. The electrons can be thought of as occupying a series of well-defined shells.The behaviour of a particular element depends largely on the number of electrons in itsoutermost shells. Other factors, such as the total number of electron shells, also play a part indetermining behaviour but it is the dominance of the outer electron configuration that underliesthe periodic law and justifies the grouping of the elements into groups or families.(The sciences: Michael Beazley Encyclopedias (1980), p. 118)

    In general, Victorian families were big. In 1851 their average size was 4.7, roughly the same asit had been in the seventeenth century, but the 1 million couples who married during the1860s, which the historian G. M. Young described as the best decade in English history to havebeen brought up in, raised the figure to 6.2. Only one out of eight families had one or twochildren, while one in six had ten or more, so that the counsel 'little children should be seen andnot heard' was prudent rather than simply authoritarian advice.(Asa Briggs, (1983). A social history of England, p. 244)

    The spoken word (whether conversation or oratory or the coy mixture of the two which is nowfamiliar to us on television) is a very different thing from the written word. What is effective orallowable or desirable in the one may be quite the reverse in the other, and the extemporespeaker cannot correct himself by revision as the writer can and should. It is therefore not fair totake a report of a speech or of an oral statement and criticise it as if it were a piece ofconsidered writing.(Ernest Gowers, (1973) The complete plain words, p. 26)

    Exercise 3 :Identify the topic sentences in the following paragraphs. (Underline the topic sentence)Paragraph 1The maintenance of order in prestate societies is rooted in a commonality of material interests. The greaterthe amount of common interests, the less need there is for law-and-order specialists. Among band-levelcultures law and order stem directly from the relations between people and the natural habitat from whichsubsistence is derived. All adults usually have open access to this habitat: the rivers, lakes, beaches, oceans; allthe plants and animals; the soil and the subsoil. In so far as these are basic to the extraction of life-sustainingenergy and materials they are communal "property."(Marvin Harris, (1975), Culture, people nature, p. 356)Paragraph 2Though the United States has spent billions of dollars on foreign aid programs, it has captured neither theaffection nor esteem of the rest of the world. In many countries today Americans are cordially disliked; inothers merely tolerated. The reasons for this sad state of affairs are many and varied, and some of them arebeyond the control of anything this country might do to try to correct them. But harsh as it may seem to theordinary citizen, filled as he is with good intentions and natural generosity, much of the foreigners' animosityhas been generated by the way Americans behave.(Edward Hall, (1973), The silent language, p. xiii)

  • 4Paragraph 3Anthropology is the study of humankind, especially of Homo sapiens, the biological species to which wehuman beings belong. It is the study of how our species evolved from more primitive organisms; it is also thestudy of how our species developed a mode of communication known as language and a mode of social lifeknown as culture. It is the study of how culture evolved and diversified. And finally, it is the study of howculture, people, and nature interact wherever human beings are found.(Marvin Harris, (1975), Culture, People Nature, p. 1)Exercise 4 :Look at the following text about Leonardo da Vinci. The first sentence of each paragraph has been removed.The sentences are listed in the box below the text. Match them with the correct paragraphs.

    The Genius of Leonardo.

    1. Leonardo da Vinci was born in 1452 in Vinci, a small village in Tuscany.He was the illegitimate son of a Florentine lawyer and property owner. His artistic bent obviously appeared atan early age for when he was 15 he was apprenticed to the painter Verocchio. In 1472 he was accepted in thepainters guild in Florence, where he remained until 1481.2.And among his early drawings were many sketches of mechanical apparatus and weapons, evidence of hisinterest in, and knowledge of things mechanical.3.His artistic achievements in Milan reached their peak with the mural The Last Supper completed in 1497.4.In the 1490s he began monumental treatises on painting, architecture, human anatomy and mechanics. He setdown his observations on these themes in voluminous notes and sketches, which he would later assemble inhis notebooks. There remain of his notebooks a prodigious 7000 pages, all in characteristic mirror-writing.5.He then went back to Milan and entered the service of the French King Louis XII. Later he was to work in Romewith Raphael and Michelangelo on designs for the new church of St Peter. In 1516 he settled in France, atCloux, near Amboise, where he died three years later.6.He was no mere theorist advancing fanciful ideas. He was a practical man, who designed things that wouldwork, because he could see how they would work.7.There is no evidence that Leonardo actually built the machines and mechanical devices he sketched anddescribed. And in many cases their practical importance remained unrealised and unrealisable for centuries.There was neither the demand for them nor the technology.

  • 5Match the following sentences with the correct paragraphs.a. Leonardo returned to Florence in 1499, where he painted that most famous painting 'The Mona

    Lisa' (1503).b. Between 1482 and 1499 he was employed in the service of the Duke of Milan, to whom he was

    painter, sculptor, musician and technical adviser on military and engineering matters.c. In whatever subject he studied, Leonardo laid absolute faith in the evidence of his eyes.d. Leonardo da Vinci was born in 1452 in Vinci, a small village in Tuscany.e. And it is in his 'things', his machines, that we are interested in this book.f. By then Leonardo's expertise with paint brush and palette, pen and pencil was already welladvanced.g. But his creative energies now were turning more and more to scientific and literary pursuits.

    Exercise 5 : Identifying and supporting topic sentencesPut the following sentences in the correct order in produce well organized paragraphs.Paragraph 1a. For a lightweight poster or sign, you can use either offset book stock or cover stock.b. You'll probably have to take your publication to a commercial printer, however, since bristol won't feed

    through most desktop printers or copy machines.c. The type of paper you choose for a poster or a sign depends on how it will be reproduced and how it is

    going to be used.d. If you need to create a more durable poster or sign, or create packaging, bristol stock is your best choice.(Microsoft publisher CD deluxe companion, p. 185)The type of paper you choose for a poster or a sign depends on how it will be reproduced and how it is going tobe used. For a lightweight poster or sign, you can use either offset book stock or cover stock. If you need tocreate a more durable poster or sign, or create packaging, bristol stock is your best choice. You'll probably haveto take your publication to a commercial printer, however, since bristol won't feed through most desktopprinters or copy machines.Paragraph 2a. It's rare, but not unheard of, for mail to go astray.b. And many corporate mail servers have had growing pains, too, experiencing holdups and the odd deletion.c. On the whole though, you can assume email will arrive.d. However during 1997, AOL and Microsoft Network - to name just the big players - had severe mail outages

    resulting in the delay, and in some cases loss, of email.e. In general Internet email is considerably more reliable than the postal service.(The Internet and world wide web: The rough guide, (1997), p. 15)________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

  • 6Paragraph 3a. Time may indicate the importance of the occasion as well as on what level an interaction between persons

    is to take place.b. The same applies for calls after 11:00 P.M.c. Different parts of the day, for example, are highly significant in certain contexts.d. Our realisation that time talks is even reflected in such common expressions as, "What time does the clock

    say?"e. In the United States if you telephone someone very early in the morning, while he is shaving or having

    breakfast, the time of the call usually signals a matter of utmost importance and extreme urgency.f. A call received during sleeping hours is apt to be taken as a matter of life and death, hence the rude jokevalue of these calls among the young.

    (Edward Hall, (1973), The silent language, p. 2)

    ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Paragraph 4a. But modern anthropology stands opposed to the view that anatomy is destiny.b. Men are taller, heavier, and stronger than women; hence it is "natural" that hunting and warfare should be

    male specialities.c. Men have higher levels of testosterone; hence they are "naturally" more aggressive, sexually and otherwise,

    and are "naturally" dominant over women.d. Since differences in the anatomy and physiology of human males and females are so obvious it is easy to be

    misled into believing that sex-linked roles and statuses are primarily biological rather than culturalphenomena.

    e. As the underlying demographic, technological, economic, and ecological conditions to which these sex-linked roles are adapted change, new cultural definitions of sex-linked roles will emerge.

    f. Moreover since women menstruate, become pregnant, and lactate, they "naturally" are the ones to stay athome to care for and feed infants and children.

    g. Nor are women born with an innate tendency to care for infants and children and to be sexually andpolitically subordinate.

    h. Rather it has been the case that under a broad but finite set of cultural and natural conditions certain sex-linked specialities have been selected for in a large number of cultures.

    i. Males are not born with an innate tendency to be hunters or warriors or to be sexually and politicallydominant over women.

    (Marvin Harris, (1975). Culture, people, nature, p. 610)

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    Exercise 6 :Write the topic sentences for each of the following paragraphs.Paragraph 1

    Firstly, they live in or on a host, and do it harm. The depth to which they penetrate the host varies, as indeeddoes the damage. Fleas, leeches and lice live on the surface and cause superficial injury. Athlete's foot is a skindisease caused by a fungus living in the surface layers of the foot. The parasite of sleeping sickness is found inthe host's blood wriggling between blood corpuscles. Secondly, parasites show some simplification of bodystructures when compared with free-living relatives. Sacculina (a relative of the crab) shows loss of limbs andis reduced to a mass of reproductive tissue within the abdomen of its crustacean host. Dodder, a plantparasite, lacks leaves, roots and chlorophyll. Thirdly, although all organisms show adaptations to their way oflife, in the case of parasites they are often associated with a complex physiological response, e.g. the ability tosurvive in regions almost devoid of available oxygen, such as adult liver flukes, or the hooks and suckers ofadult tapeworm. Lastly, parasites exhibit a complex and efficient reproduction, usually associated in some waywith the physiology of the host, e.g. rabbit fleas are stimulated by the level of sex hormone in their host.(J. Hard, (1975). Biology, p. 57)Parasites exhibit four features that collectively identify them as such. Firstly, they live in or on a host, and do itharm. The depth to which they penetrate the host varies, as indeed does the damage. Fleas, leeches and licelive on the surface and cause superficial injury. Athlete's foot is a skin disease caused by a fungus living in thesurface layers of the foot. The parasite of sleeping sickness is found in the host's blood wriggling betweenblood corpuscles. Secondly, parasites show some simplification of body structures when compared with free-living relatives. Sacculina (a relative of the crab) shows loss of limbs and is reduced to a mass of reproductivetissue within the abdomen of its crustacean host. Dodder, a plant parasite, lacks leaves, roots and chlorophyll.Thirdly, although all organisms show adaptations to their way of life, in the case of parasites they are oftenassociated with a complex physiological response, e.g. the ability to survive in regions almost devoid ofavailable oxygen, such as adult liver flukes, or the hooks and suckers of adult tapeworm. Lastly, parasitesexhibit a complex and efficient reproduction, usually associated in some way with the physiology of the host,

  • 8Paragraph 2

    In 1920 an average of 2.75 pounds of waste were produced each day by each individual in the United States.Today the quantity of waste produced is 53 pounds per person, and by 1980 it is estimated that this will rise to8 pounds per person. One year's rubbish from 10,000 people covers an acre of ground to the depth of 10 feet.In one year Americans throw away 48 thousand million cans, 26 thousand million bottles, 430 million tons ofpaper, 4 million tons of plastic and 100 million tyres which weigh almost a million tons.(John W Klotz, (1972). Ecology crisis, p. 197)

    Paragraph 3

    That it might be experienced in any other way seems unnatural and strange, a feeling which is rarely modifiedeven when we begin to discover how really differently it is handled by some other people. Within the Westitself certain cultures rank time much lower in over-all importance than we do. In Latin America, for example,where time is treated rather cavalierly, one commonly hears the expression, "Our time or your time?" "Horaamericana, hora mejicana?"(Edward Hall, (1973), The silent language, p. 6)Paragraph 4

    From the late 1870s onwards, cheap American corn began to arrive in the country in large quantities, alongwith refrigerated meat and fruit from Australia and New Zealand, and in a period when both farmers andbusinessmen were complaining of depression, standards of living rose higher than they had ever done. Thechange began each day, as Victorian writers frequently pointed out, with the food on the breakfast table -with eggs and bacon as staple fare for the middle classes - and went on through tea, high or low, to multi-course dinners or fish-and-chip suppers. The poor were eating better as well as the rich. The annual per capitaconsumption of sugar, which had increased from 18 lb. to 35 lb. between the Queen's accession and 1860,rose to 54 lb. in 1870-99 and 85 lb. in 1900-10; that of tea, which along with beer had now become a nationaldrink, went up from 1 lb, first to 4 lb and then to 6 lb.(Asa Briggs, (1983). A social history of England, p. 246)Paragraph 5

    The first is the way in which living cells develop an energy currency. This, like ordinary money, can be used toexchange one vital commodity for another. The second is the use of substances called enzymes as go-betweens to reduce the amount of energy needed to make many chemical reactions essential to life takeplace fast enough.(The sciences: Michael Beazley Encyclopaedias (1980), p. 136)

    Paragraph 6

    At first it was little more than a trickle. For a long time the Norman conquerors did not mix much with theirSaxon subjects. There are plenty of indications of this; for the languages, too, moved side by side in parallelchannels. The custom of having one name for a live beast grazing in the field and another for the same beast,when it is killed and cooked, is often supposed to be due to our English squeamishness and hypocrisy.Whether or not the survival of this custom through ten centuries is due to the national characteristics in

  • 9question it would be hard to say, but they have certainly nothing to do with its origin. That is a much moreblame-less affair. For the Saxon neatherd who had spent a hard day tending his oxen, sheep,calves and swine, probably saw little enough of thebeef, mutton, veal, pork and bacon, which were gobbled atnight by his Norman masters. There is something a little pathetic, too, in the thought that the homely oldword, stool, could be used to express any kind of seat, however magnificent, until it was, so to speak, hustledinto the kitchen by the smart French chair.Even the polite, however, continued to use the old word in theidiom to fall between two stools.Owen Barfield: History in English Words (Faber, 1954)Exercise 7 :The information contained within a paragraph is based on the topic sentence of a paragraph. The topicsentence is generally the first sentence and expresses the main idea to be developed within the paragraph.A) Look at the topic sentences below and discuss what kinds of information you would expect to follow.1. The youth threats2. The world-wide increase in road transport is a serious threat to the natural environment.3. Deforestation has a direct effect on food supplies.4. Although development in the Third World is intended to increase self-reliance, the actual result is often

    increased dependence on the West.5. There is a mistaken idea that, because of pocket calculators, children no longer need to learn how to do

    basic arithmetic.6. When it comes to the arts, there is a clear case for subsidy.7. There are no grounds for subsidizing the arts.8. The Filipino attitudes towards food are very different from the attitudes in other countries.9. My grandfather/grandmother is/was very easy/difficult to get on with.10. There are no justifications for any country possessing nuclear weapons.11. There are a number of reasons to justify a country possessing nuclear weapons.B) With two or three other students, discuss your answers.C Take one of the sentences a write a paragraph.

    Flow of Information in Paragraphs

    In order for a paragraph to be easy to read, the information in it must flow easily from one sentence tothe next. To do this it is important to structure your information clearly and signal exactly what youwant to say by the use of signalling words.

    Information structure.

    Most sentences in English have two parts a theme (or topic) and a rheme (or comment) (McCarthy,1991, p. 55). The theme is what you are writing about - it is shared information and it has beenintroduced to your reader. The rheme is what you are saying about the theme - it is new information,what you want to tell your reader.

    Look at the following sentences:1. The M1 goes from London to Leeds.2. The motorway from London to Leeds is called the M1.

    The theme in sentence 1 is "the M1". The reader has been introduced to the M1 but does not knowwhere it goes and therefore needs to be told. In sentence 2, the theme is "the motorway from London

  • 10

    to Leeds". The reader knows there is a motorway from London to Leeds but does not know what it iscalled.

    In English the theme usually comes at the beginning of the sentence and the rheme at the end. Thedecision about which part of the sentence to make the theme and which part to makethe rheme depends on the information that needs to be communicated. This depends on thesentences that come before.

    Look at the following short paragraphs:3. I was born in Glasgow. Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland.4. I was born in Glasgow. The largest city in Scotland is Glasgow.

    All the sentences are grammatically correct but in example 4, the information to becommunicated, the rheme - the largest city in Scotland, is at the beginning of the sentence. Example3 is preferred in English.

    There are two basic choices in organising information texts:

    1. The rheme of one sentence becomes the theme of the next sentence.

    ExampleThe complete electrical behaviour of any valve or transistor can be described by stating theinterrelation of the currents and the voltages between all the electrodes. These relationships canconveniently be displayed graphically, and the various curves are known as the 'characteristics' of thedevice. In principle, all the characteristics should be available to the designer proposing to use thedevice in a circuit.

    (W. P. Jolly, (1972). Electronics, p. 61)

    2. The theme of one sentence is the same as the theme of the next sentence.

    ExampleAnthropology is the study of humankind, especially of Homo sapiens, the biological species to whichwe human beings belong. It is the study of how our species evolved from more primitive organisms; itis also the study of how our species developed a mode of communication known as language and amode of social life known as culture. It is the study of how culture evolved and diversified. And finally,it is the study of how culture, people, and nature interact wherever human beings are found.

    (Marvin Harris, (1975), Culture, people nature, p. 1)

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    A mixture of the two is also possible.

    Exercise 8 : Flow of information in paragraphsIdentify the ways of organizing the information in the following paragraphs.

    The inventor of the diode valve was Fleming. He made use of the fact, first noticed by Edison, that an electriccurrent could be made to flow across the empty space between the hot filament of an electric lamp andanother metal electrode placed inside the evacuated bulb. This effect depends upon the thermionic emissionof electrons from the heated metal filament.(W. P. Jolly, (1972). Electronics, p. 61)

    Hemp's environmental credentials are indisputable. It grows better in organic systems than in conventionalones. It smothers weeds and controls pests, clearing the land for other crops. It improves the structure of thesoil, with strong roots to prevent erosion. If processed in the field, it returns nutrients to the land and purportsto 'clean up' soil contaminated with heavy metals. It is one of a minority of textile-fibre crops that can begrown in temperate climates. So why, given its potential, is so little hemp used today?(New Internationalist, June 1998, p. 14)

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    SignallingIt is the responsibility of the writer in English to make it clear to the reader how various parts of theparagraph are connected. These connections can be made explicit by the use of different signallingwords.For example, if you want to tell your reader that your line of argument is going to change, make itclear.The Bristol 167 was to be Britain's great new advance on American types such as the LockheedConstellation and Douglas DC-6, which did not have the range to fly the Atlantic non-stop. It was alsoto be the largest aircraft ever built in Britain. However, even by the end of the war, the design had runinto serious difficulties.If you think that one sentence gives reasons for something in another sentence, make it explicit.While an earlier generation of writers had noted this feature of the period, it was not until the recentwork of Cairncross that the significance of this outflow was realized. Partly this was because thecurrent account deficit appears much smaller in current (1980s) data than it was thought to be bycontemporaries.If you think two ideas are almost the same, say so.Marx referred throughout his work to other systems than the capitalist system, especially those whichhe knew from the history of Europe to have preceded capitalism; systems such as feudalism, wherethe relation of production was characterized by the personal relation of the feudal lord and his serfand a relation of subordination which came from the lord's control of the land. Similarly, Marx wasinterested in slavery and in the classical Indian and Chinese social systems, or in those systemswhere the ties of local community are all important.If you intend your sentence to give extra information, make it clear.He is born into a family, he marries into a family, and he becomes the husband and father of his ownfamily. In addition, he has a definite place of origin and more relatives than he knows what to do with,and he receives a rudimentary education at the Canadian Mission School.If you are giving examples, do it explicitly.This has sometimes led to disputes between religious and secular clergy, between orders andbishops. For example, in the Northern context, the previous bishop of Down and Connor, Dr Philbin,refused for most of his period of leadership in Belfast to have Jesuits visiting or residing in hisdiocese.Signalling words1. Time/orderat first, eventually, finally, first, firstly, in the end, in the first place, in the second place, lastly, later,next, second, secondly, to begin with2. Comparison/similar ideasin comparison, in the same way, similarly3. Contrast/opposite ideasbut, despite, in spite of, even so, however, in contrast, in spite of this, nevertheless, on the contrary,on the other hand, still, whereas, yet4. Cause and effectaccordingly, as a consequence, as a result, because, because of this, consequently, for this reason,hence, in consequence, in order to, owing to this, since, so, so that, therefore, thus5. Examplesfor example, for instance, such as, thus, as follows6 Generalisation

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    as a rule, for the most part, generally, in general, normally, on the whole, in most cases, usually7. Stating the obviousafter all, as one might expect, clearly, it goes without saying, naturally, obviously, of course, surely8. Attitudeadmittedly, certainly, fortunately, luckily, oddly enough, strangely enough, undoubtedly, unfortunately9. Summary/conclusionfinally, in brief, in conclusion, in short, overall, so, then, to conclude, to sum up10. Explanation/equivalencein other words, namely, or rather, that is to say, this means, to be more precise, to put it another way11. Additionapart from this, as well as, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover, nor, not only...but also, too,what is more12. Conditionin that case, then13. Supportactually, as a matter of fact, in fact, indeed14. Contradictionactually, as a matter of fact, in fact15. Emphasischiefly, especially, in detail, in particular, mainly, notably, particularly^Examples1. Time/orderAt firstAt first the freemen of both town and country had an organization and a type of property which stillretained something of the communal as well as something of the private, but in the town a radicaltransformation was taking place.EventuallyEventually the group did manage to buy some land in a village not far from London, but the projecthad to be abandoned when the villagers zoned their land against agricultural use.FinallyFinally, there have been numerous women altogether outside the profession, who were reformersdedicated to creating alternatives.FirstFirst I went to see the editor of the Dispatch.FirstlyThere are two reasons.Firstly I have no evidence whatever that the original document has beendestroyed.In the endIn the end, several firms undertook penicillin production on a massive scale, but hardly any evercame to Florey himself for the clinical trials which he was desperate to extend.In the first place/in the second placeIf we try to analyse the conception of possession, we find two elements. In the first place, it involvessome actual power of control over the thing possessed. In the second place, it involves someintention to maintain that control on the part of the possessor.LastlyLastly, we may notice that even a wrongful possession, if continued for a certain length of time,matures into what may be, for practical purposes, indistinguishable from ownership.Later

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    Later she went up to the office.NextNext, I'd like to show you some pictures.SecondAnd second, this kind of policy does not help to create jobs.SecondlyHe was first of all an absolute idiot, and secondly he was pretty dishonest.To begin withTo begin with, the ratio between attackers and defenders was roughly the same.2. ComparisonIn comparisonThe vast majority of social encounters are, in comparison, mild and muted affairs.In the same wayEvery baby's face is different from every other's. In the same way, every baby's pattern ofdevelopment is different from every other's.SimilarlyYou should notify any change of address to the Bonds and Stock Office. Similarly, savings certificatesshould be re-registered with the Post Office.3. ContrastButIn 1950 oil supplied only about 10% of our total energy consumption; but now it's up to about 40%and still rising.DespiteDespite the difference in their ages they were close friends.Even soThis could lead you up some blind alleys. Even so, there is no real cause for concern.HoweverThe more I talked the more silent Eliot became. However, I left thinking that I had created quite animpression.In spite of thisMy father always had poor health. In spite of this, he was always cheerful.NeverthelessHe had not slept that night. Nevertheless, he led the rally with his usual vigour.On the contraryI have never been an enemy of monarchy. On the contrary, I consider monarchies essential for thewell-being of new nations.On the other handJohn had great difficulties playing cricket. But on the other hand, he was an awfully good rugbyplayer.StillHe's treated you badly. Still he's your brother and you should help him.YetEverything around him was blown to pieces, yet the minister escaped without a scratch.4. Cause/effectAccordinglyShe complained of stiffness in her joints. Accordingly she was admitted to hospital for further tests.As a consequence

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    The red cross has not been allowed to inspect the camps, and as a consequence little is known aboutthem.The Cold War has ended. As a consequence the two major world powers have been able to reducetheir arms budgets dramatically.As a resultMany roads are flooded. As a result there are long delays.BecauseBecause these were the only films we'd seen of these people, we got the impression that they didnothing else but dance to classical music.Because of thisThe cost of running the club has increased. Because of this, we must ask our members to contributemore each week.ConsequentlyJapan has a massive trade surplus with the rest of the world. Consequently it can afford to give moremoney to the Third World.For this reasonThe traffic was very heavy. For this reason he was late.HenceThe computer has become smaller and cheaper and hence more available to a greater number ofpeople.In consequenceThe fastest these animals can run is about 65 kph and in consequence their hunting methods have tobe very efficient indeed.In order thatThey are learning English in order that they can study a particular subject.In order toHe had to hurry in order to reach the next place on this schedule.Owing to thisThe rain was terrible. Owing to this, the match was cancelled.SoHe speaks very little English, so I talked to him through an interpreter.So thatYou take some of the honey and replace it with sugar so that the bees have something to eat.ThereforeI'm not a member of the Church of England myself. Therefore it would be rather impertinent of me toexpress an opinion.ThusIf I am to accept certain limitations on my freedom, I must be assured that others are accepting thesame restraints. Thus, an incomes policy has to be controlled if it is to be effective.5. ExampleFor exampleMany countries are threatened by earthquakes. For example, Mexico and Japan have large ones thiscentury.For instanceNot all prices have increased so dramatically. Compare, for instance, the price of oil in 1980 and theprice now.Such asThere are many reasons why the invasion failed, such as the lack of proper food and the shortage ofammunition.

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    ThusPlants as well as stones can be charms. The Guyana Indians have many plant charms, each onehelping to catch a certain kind of animal. The leaves of the plant usually look like the animal it issupposed to help to catch. Thus the charm for catching deer has a leaf which looks like deer horns.6. GeneralisationAs a ruleAs a general rule, the less important tan executive is, the more status-conscious he is likely to be.For the most partThe New Guinea forest is, for the most part, dark and wet.In generalThe industrial processes, in general, are based on man-made processes.NormallyMeetings are normally held three or four times a year.On the wholeOne or two were all right but on the whole I used to hate going to lectures.UsuallyShe usually found it easy to go to sleep at night.7. Stating the obviousAs one might expectThere are, as one might expect, several other methods for carrying out the research.After allThey did not expect heavy losses in the air. After all they had superb aircraft.ClearlyClearly, there is no point in continuing this investigation until we have more evidence.It goes without sayingIt goes without saying that I am grateful for all your help.NaturallyNaturally, publishers are hesitant about committing large sums of money to such a risky project.ObviouslyObviously, I don't need to say how important this project is.Of courseThere is of course an element of truth in this argument.SurelyIn defining an ideology, the claims which seek to legitimate political and social authority are surely asimportant as the notion of authority itself.8. AttitudeAdmittedlyAdmittedly, economists often disagree among each other.CertainlyEllie was certainly a student at the university but I'm not sure about her brother.FortunatelyFortunately such occurrences are fairly rare.LuckilyLuckily, Saturday was a fine day.Oddly enoughOddly enough, it was through him that I met Carson.Strangely enoughIt has, strangely enough, only recently been discovered.

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    UndoubtedlyUndoubtedly, many families are victims of bad housing.UnfortunatelyHe couldn't wait to tell Judy. Unfortunately, she had already left for work.9. Summary/conclusionFinallyLet's come finally to the question of pensions.In briefIn brief then, do you two want to join me?In conclusionIn conclusion, let me suggest a number of practical applications.In shortIn short, the report says more money should be spent on education.OverallOverall, imports account for half our stock.SoSo if a woman did leave the home, she was only supposed to concern herself with matters pertainingto domestic life.ThenThe importance of education, then, has been infinitely greater than in previous centuries.To concludeTo conclude, I'd like to say thank you to everyone who has worked so hard to make this conferencepossible.To sum upTo sum up, we cannot hope for greater success unless we identify our needs clearly.10. Explanation/equivalenceIn other wordsIn other words, although the act of donating blood would increase the chances of the donor dying, thisincrease was small compared with the increase in the recipient's chances of surviving.NamelyHe could not do any thing more than what he had promised - namely, to look after Charlotte's estate.... three famous physicists, namely, Simon, Kurte and Mendelsohn.Or ratherThe account here offered is meant as a beginning of an answer to that question. Or rather itcontributes by setting the question in a certain way.That is to sayThe Romans left Britain in 410 AD - that is to say England was a Roman dependency for nearly 500years.This meansWith syphilis and gonorrhoea, the ages are also recorded, and this means that an accurate map ofdisease prevalence can be drawn and any trends or changes can be recognized very quickly.To be more preciseThese reforms of Justinian in AD 529 proclaim that they are "imposing a single nature" on trusts andlegacies or, to be more precise, imposing it on legatees and trust beneficiaries.To put it another wayHe was being held there against his will. To put it another way, he was a prisoner.11. AdditionAlso

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    Sugar is bad for your teeth. It can also contribute to heart disease.Apart from thisEccleshall and Honderich find common cause in a desire to establish the ideological nature ofConservative thought, but apart from this their approaches to the study of Conservativism are verydifferent.As well asMarx and Engels, as well as many of their contemporaries, believed that pastoralism predatedagriculture.BesidesBesides being good test cases, Locke obviously finds these ideas intrinsically interesting too.FurthermoreComputer chess games are still a bit expensive, but they are getting cheaper all thetime. Furthermore their chess-playing strength is rising.In additionOur survey will produce the essential statistics. In addition, it will provide information about people'sshopping habits.MoreoverThe drug has powerful side-effects. Moreover, it can be addictive.NorI could not afford to eat in restaurants. Nor could anyone I knew.I couldn't understand a word they said, nor could they understand me.Not only...but alsoMeissner was not only commander of the army but also a close friend of the President.TooEvans was not only our doctor. He was a friend too.What is moreWhat is more, more machines will mean fewer jobs.12. ConditionIn that caseOf course the experiment may fail and in that case we will have to start again.ThenSometimes the computer system breaks down. Then you'll have to work on paper.13. SupportAs a matter of factThe company is doing very well. As a matter of fact, we have doubled our sales budget.In factThe winter of 1940 was extremely bad. In fact most people say it was the worst winter of their lives.IndeedThis act has failed to bring women's earnings up to the same level. Indeed the gulf is widening.They continue to work throughout their short life. Indeed it is overwork which eventually kills them.14. ContradictionActuallyThere are many stories which describe wolves as dangerous, blood thirsty animals, but actually theyprefer to avoid human beings.In factI thought he could speak the language fluently. In fact, that wasn't the case at all.15. EmphasisChiefly

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    How quickly you recover from an operation chiefly depends on your general state of health.The experiment was not a success, chiefly because the machine tools were of poor quality.EspeciallyThey don't trust anyone, especially people in our position.I'm not attracted to Sociology, especially the way it's taught here.In detailThe implications of this theory are examined in detail in chapter 12.In particularIn particular, he was criticised for pursuing a policy of conciliation and reform.MainlyThe political group will have more power, mainly because of their large numbers.NotablySome people, notably his business associates, had learned to ignore his moods.The organisation had many enemies, most notably among feminists.ParticularlyMany animal sources of protein are also good sources of iron. Particularly useful are liver, kidney,heart, beef, sardines, pilchards (red fish generally), and shellfish, including mussels and cockles.

    Exercise 9 :Identify the other four signaling words aside from because in the following paragraph.Because language plays such an important role in teaching, Bellack and his colleagues chose to examine insome detail the "language game" in the classroom. They contended that "teaching is similar to most games inat least two respects. It is a form of social activity in which the players (teachers and students) fill different butcomplementary roles. Furthermore, teaching is governed by certain ground rules that guide the actions ormoves made by the participants" (p. 4). By studying the language game, then, Bellack et al. intended toidentify the various types of verbal moves made by teachers and students and the rules they followed inmaking these moves. As a result, they could investigate the functions these verbal moves served and examinethe meanings that were being communicated.

    Exercise 10 :Identify the signaling words in the following paragraph.To begin with ( 1 ), it is necessary to consider the long-term implications of the decision to increase ourdependence on permanent staff in our restaurants. For example (__), let us say we do go ahead. In this case(__) , our reliance on hourly-paid staff will decrease. As a result (__), costs will reduce, as permanent staff arecheaper than hourly-paid staff. In fact (__), it is not necessarily the case, especially (__) as there is no way ofknowing what the relative costs of hourly-paid staff and permanent staff will be in ten years' time. However(__), as a rule (__) hourly permanent staff are more reliable than full-time staff and this is a genuineadvantage. As a consequence (__) of these two advantages, permanent staff would seem to be a betteroption. In other words (__), they are cheaper and more reliable so they are better. In that case (__), it is notnecessary to hesitate. Naturally (__), nothing is so simple. In short (__), cost is an unknown factor and themost economical choice is not known.1. Time/order 4. Cause/Effect 7. Stating the obvious 10. Explanation/equivalence 13. Support2. Comparison 5. Example 8. Attitude 11. Addition 14. Contradiction3. Contrast 6. Generalization 9. Summary/conclusion 12. Condition 15. Emphasis

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    Exercise 11 :In the following article on Nuclear Hazards the signalling words and phrases are missing. Replace them andcheck your answers.There are three separate sources of hazard related to the use of nuclear reactions to supply us with energy.__________, the radioactive material must travel from its place of manufacture to the power station.__________ the power stations themselves are solidly built, the containers used for the transport of thematerial are not. __________, there are normally only two methods of transport available, __________ roador rail, and both of these involve close contact with the general public, __________ the routes are bound topass near, or even through, heavily populated areas. __________, there is the problem of waste. All nuclearpower stations produce wastes which in most cases will remain radioactive for thousands of years. It isimpossible to de-activate these wastes, and __________ they must be stored in one of the ingenious butcumbersome ways that scientists have invented. __________ they may be buried under the ground, droppedinto disused mineshafts, or sunk in the sea. __________ these methods do not solve the problem; they merelystore it, __________ an earthquake could crack open the containers like nuts. __________ there is theproblem of accidental exposure due to a leak or an explosion at the power station. As with the other twohazards, this is extremely unlikely and __________ does not provide a serious objection to the nuclearprogramme, __________ it can happen, as the inhabitants of Harrisburg will tell you. Separately, and duringshort periods, these three types of risk are no great cause for concern. Taken together, __________, andespecially over much longer periods, the probability of a disaster is extremely high.

    Cohesion

    It is the responsibility of the writer in English to make it clear to the reader how various parts of theparagraph are connected. These connections can be made explicit grammatically and lexically by theuse of different reference words. Every text has a structure. It is not just a random collection ofsentences. The parts that make up the text are related in a meaningful way to each other. In order tomake these relationships in the text clear, it is necessary to show how the sentences are related.Words like "it", "this", "that", "here", "there" etc. refer to other parts of the text. You need tounderstand how to use these connections or links.

    There are four main types of links used in academic texts: reference, ellipsis and substitution,conjunction and lexical cohesion (Halliday and Hasan, 1976).

    ReferenceCertain items of language in English have the property of reference. That is, they do not havemeaning themselves, but they refer to something else for their meaning.

    The scientific study of memory began in the early 1870s when a German philosopher, Hermann Ebbinghaus,came up with the revolutionary idea that memory could be studied experimentally. In doing so he broke awayfrom a 2000-year-old tradition that firmly assigned the study of memory to the philosopher rather than to thescientist. He argued that the philosophers had come up with a wide range of possible interpretations of

    Although Firstly However Secondly Since So ThoughBut For example Namely Since So Thirdly Unfortunately

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    memory but had produced no way of deciding which amongst these theories offered the best explanation ofmemory. He aimed to collect objective experimental evidence of the way in which memory worked in thehope that this would allow him to choose between the various theories.In this text "he" and "him" refers to "Hermann Ebbinghaus". In order to create such a text, you need tous these words correctly in the text.

    Similarly,

    These theories all stem from some underlying assumptions about people. To a large extentunproven, they tend to represent the dominant mood or climate of opinion at that time. Schein hasclassified them as follows, and it is interesting to note that the categories follow each other in a sort ofhistorical procession, starting from the time of the industrial revolution.Other words used in this way are "he", " him", "it", "this", "that", "these", "those", "here", "there" etc.

    Substitution and ellipsisSubstitution is the replacement of one item by another and ellipsis is the omission of the item. Ifwriters wish to avoid repeating a word, they can use substitution or ellipsis.

    The scientific study of memory began in the early 1870s when a German philosopher, Hermann Ebbinghaus,came up with the revolutionary idea that memorycould be studied experimentally. In doing so he broke awayfrom a 2000-year-old tradition that firmly assigned the study of memory to the philosopher rather than to thescientist. He argued that the philosophers had come up with a wide range of possible interpretations ofmemory but had produced no way of deciding which amongst these theories offered the best explanation ofmemory. He aimed to collect objective experimental evidence of the way in which memory worked in thehope that this would allow him to choose between the various theories.Here, "so" means "studying memory experimentally". The writer has substituted "studying memoryexperimentally" with "so". Other words that can be used are "one", "ones", "do", "so", "not".

    Ellipsis is substitution by zero.

    Some of the water which falls as rain flows on the surface as streams. Another part is evaporated. Theremainder sinks into the ground and is known as ground water."Another part" means "Another part of the water" and "The remainder" means "The remainder of thewater".

    Similarly,

    The 74 species of African antelope share certain basic features: all are exclusively vegetarian and bear onelarge and precocious calf each year.

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    ConjunctionConjunction shows meaningful relationships between clauses. It shows how what follows isconnected to what has gone before.

    The whole Cabinet agreed that there should be a cut in the amount that the unemployed were receiving;where they disagreed was in whether this should include a cut in the standard rate of benefit. The oppositionparties, however, were unwilling to accept any programme of economies which did not involve a cut in thestandard rate of benefit.The word "however" shows that this statement is opposite to the ideas that have come before. Otherwords used are "for example", "as a consequence of this", "firstly", " furthermore", "in spite of this",etc.

    Lexical cohesionThis is a way of achieving a cohesive effect by the use of particular vocabulary items. You can referto the same idea by using the same or different words.

    Patients who repeatedly take overdoses pose considerable management difficulties. The problem-orientatedapproach is not usually effective with such patients. When a patient seems to be developing a pattern ofchronic repeats, it is recommended that all staff engaged in his or her care meet to reconstruct each attemptin order to determine whether there appears to be a motive common to each act.This first example illustrates an impulsive overdose taken by a woman who had experienced a recent loss andhad been unable to discuss her problems with her family. During the relatively short treatment, the therapisthelped the patient to begin discussing her feelings with her family.Francis Bacon was born in London in 1561 and died there in 1626. His father was Sir Nicholas, Lord Keeper ofthe Great Seal of Elizabeth I; his mother Anne Cooke, a well-educated and pious Calvinist, daughter of SirAnthony Cooke. His contemporary biographer, William Rawley, remarked that, with such parents,Bacon had aflying start: he had "whatsoever nature or breeding could put into him".For cohesion to occur, it is not necessary for each word to refer to exactly the same item or even begrammatically equivalent. All the words related to "debt" contribute to the cohesion.

    In each of these cases the basic problem is the same: a will has been made, and in it a debtor is left a legacyof liberatio from what he owes the testator. The question is, if he has subsequently borrowed more from thetestator, up to what point he has been released from his debts. It is best to begin with the second case. Herethere is a straightforward legacy to the debtor of a sum of money and also of the amount of his debt to thetestator. This is followed by a clause in which there is a general damnatio and also a general trust that thelegacies in the will be paid. The debtor goes on to borrow more money, and the question is whether that istaken to be included in the legacy too. The response is that since the words relate to the past, later debts arenot included.Other commonly used are "repetition", "synonyms" and "near synonyms", "collocations", "super/sub-ordinate relationships" (e.g. fruit/apple, animal/cat) etc.

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    Anaphoric nouns

    Another useful way to show the connection between the ideas in a paragraph is what Gill Franciscalls anaphoric nouns. Look at the following text:

    Moulds do not usually grow fast, and conditions had to be found in which large quantities of Penicilliumnotatum could be produced as quickly as they were wanted. The solution to this problem was helped by N. G.Heatley, a young biochemist also from Hopkins's laboratory in Cambridge, who had been prevented by theoutbreak of war from going to work in the Carlsberg laboratories in Copenhagen.The phrase "this problem" summarises the text in the first sentence and thus provides the connectionbetween the two sentences.

    Reports of original work, headed often by the names of many joint authors, became too full of jargon to beunderstood even by trained scientists who were not working in the particular field. This situation persiststoday, though strong movements towards interdisciplinary research help to avoid total fragmentation ofscientific understanding.Again, the phrase "This situation" summarises the first sentence.

    This led many later Greek thinkers to regard musical theory as a branch of mathematics (together withgeometry, arithmetic, and astronomy it constituted what eventually came to be called the quadrivium). Thisview, however, was not universally accepted, the most influential of those who rejected it being Aristoxenusof Tarentum (fourth century BC).Again "This view" summarizes the information in the first sentence, the view (opinion) that music wasa branch of mathematics.

    Genetics deals with how genes are passed on from parents to their offspring. A great deal is known about themechanisms governing this process.The phrase "this process" summarizes the first sentence.

    The phrase:is very useful in showing the connection between sentences and therefore in making sure that theparagraph flows. Other nouns typically used in this way are: "account, advice, answer, argument,assertion, assumption, claim, comment, conclusion, criticism, description, difficultly, discussion,distinction, emphasis, estimate, example, explanation, fall, finding, idea, improvement, increase,observation, proof, proposal, reference, rejection, report, rise, situation, suggestion, view, warning".