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Buddhism Comes to China

PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION

FALL 2004

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WHAT THE BUDDHA TAUGHT

“Buddha” (awakened one) = Shakyamuni Gautama Siddartha, Hindu reformer in north India, c. 500s-400s BCE

Inherited an ancient Hindu worldview:

1. Cyclical existence of endless rebirth (samsara)

2. Conditioning of rebirth by moral results of one’s actions (karma)

3. Presumption of eternal self (atman) underlying transitory physical forms

Buddha’s central insights = the “Four Noble Truths”:

1. Life is suffering (duhkha)2. Self-centered attachment based on

permanent selfhood (atman) is the root of suffering

3. Suffering can be ended (nirvāna)4. There is a path by which to end

suffering Each “Truth” asks us to respond

to reality as it truly is:1. Understand suffering2. Let go of its origins3. Realize its cessation 4. Cultivate the path toward its

cessation

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THE SELF THAT IS NO SELF

An atman (“self”) has a body, emotions, ideas, biases, and consciousness.

Actually, there is no “self” (anatman) – only an assemblage of components.

In rebirth, conditioned by karma these components are removed and rearranged, creating a different self (yet not disconnected from “this” self now).

Just as one both is and is not“oneself” from life to life, so one neither is nor is not “oneself” from life to life.

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CONSEQUENCES OF NIRVĀNA

The true self is interdependent and impermanent

There is no basis for ego Realizing the truth of anātman

(no permanent self) entails:1. Awakening to suffering2. Compassion in suffering3. Liberation from suffering One who seeks to realize this

truth takes the “Three Refuges”:

1. The Buddha (the teacher)2. The Dharma (the teaching)3. The Sangha (the taught)

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SECTARIAN DIVISIONS IN THE SANGHA

By 100s BCE, Buddhism has gained powerful political support in India

Official endorsement facilitates the luxury of doctrinal debate and speculation, as well as canon formation

Three distinct sectarian traditions emerge shortly before introduction of Buddhism to China

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THERAVADA (“Way of Elders”)

Sole survivor among earliest Buddhist sects

Views itself as custodian of authentic tradition

Regards Shakyamuni as unique historical Buddha, fully human, now vanished

Emphasizes individual rational effort

Goal: arhant (being that attains enlightenment after much striving over many lifetimes)

Maintains strong monastic-lay distinction

Not found in China today

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MAHAYANA (“Great Vehicle”)

Sees Theravada as Hinayana (“Lesser Vehicle”) and itself as inheritor of complete tradition

Regards Shakyamuni as one of infinite number of Buddhas

Focuses on mysticism and compassionate action

Goal: bodhisattva (being that voluntarily defers liberation from samsara in order to help other beings attain liberation)

More open to laity, women Dominant in China

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VAJRAYANA (“Thunderbolt Vehicle”)

Arises from Mahayana interaction with Hindu tantra (esoteric ritualism) and bhakti (devotional polytheism)

Views itself as guardian of esoteric tradition

Emphasizes unity of wisdom and compassion through visualization, ritualization, and philosophical rigor

Goal: bodhisattva Reasserts strong monastic-lay

distinction Present in Tibetan and

Mongolian communities

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BUDDHISM AND THEDECLINE OF THE HAN

“Silk Road” merchants and missionaries from India and Central Asia transmit Buddhism to China by 65 CE

As Han 漢 dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE) declines and period of disunity (220-589 CE) ensues, Chinese elites turn away from Confucianism to Taoism and Buddhism, often combining the two

By Tang 唐 dynasty (618-907 CE), Buddhism reaches zenith of its popularity in China

From China, Buddhism spreads to rest of East Asia

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CHALLENGES TO BUDDHISM IN CHINA

Geographic: difficulty of India-China travel

Linguistic: translation of foreign texts and concepts

Political: conflicts between rulers and sangha; separation between north and south

Religious: competition with and/or dilution by Confucianism and Taoism

Social: Chinese distaste for foreign ways

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The Chinese synthesis

Chinese Buddhism reconciles variant Indian schools of Buddhism– Buddha taught with upaya

• Teachings differ accordingly organized scriptures into a progression from elementary to

refined– Systematized order of Buddhist Canon– Each school emphasized certain scriptures

Chinese Buddhist schools tended towards ecumenism rather than sectarianism– Claims made to highest truth but not exclusive – Different schools are in accord to the expedience of the upaya

doctrine

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The Chinese Synthesis

Developed around 6th ct. CE at end of the period of division– The Six Dynasties (220—581 CE)

• From Fall of Eastern Han to beginning of the Sui

– Golden Age of Buddhism in Tang dynasty (618—907 CE)

Four indigenous Chinese Buddhist schools– Huayan, Tiantai, Pure Land and Chan

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Tiantai School

Tiantai ( 天台 ) Buddhism– Japanese: Tendai

Chinese Buddhist school (6th ct.)– not Indian in origin– Most important school of Buddhism in early Tang

Founded by Chinese monk and meditation master– Zhiyi (Chih-i) 538—597

Named after sacred mountain in Zhejiang– Heavenly Terrace

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Tiantai

Organized comprehensive Buddhist doctrines and practices into grades from elementary to advanced

Organized canon with Lotus Scripture at apex

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Buddhist suppression in China

Late Tang opposition to Buddhism as a foreign religion emerged among influential intellectuals

In 845 the Tang emperor began a full-scale persecution of the Buddhist establishment. – Destroyed more than 4,600 monasteries, 40,000 temples and

shrines, and more than 260,000 Buddhist monks and nuns were forced to return to secular life.

Although the suppression was lifted a few years later, the monastic establishment never fully recovered

Later became most influential school in Japan – Founded in Japan by Saichoo in 9th ct. – Established center at Mt. Hiei – Opened way to Zen, Pure Land and Nichiren

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Pure Land School Pure Land

– Chinese: Jingtu ( 凈土 )– Japanese: Jodo

Indiginous Chinese school (5th ct CE)– Founded by the monk Huiyuan (334—416 CE)

Spread from China to Vietnam, Korea and Japan Practical approach to universal Buddha-nature

– Salvation for all not just monastic community– Reaction against scholastic preoccupation of Tiantai and Huayan schools

Salvation through faith, merit and vows by rebirth in a Pure Land– Became intermediate goal to Nirvana

A Pure Land originally the place where a buddha or bodhisattva appeared Came to mean a world system purified by the power of a Bodhisattva’s

vow and subsequent awakening

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Major Buddha of Pure Land Āmítuó fó ( 阿彌陀佛 )

– Transliteration of Sanskrit:• Amitābha Buddha ( 無量光 )

– Buddha of Limitless Light

• Amitāyus Buddha ( 無量壽 )– Buddha of Limitless Life

Amida (Japanese)– Common Buddhist greeting or exclamation

Legendary king who renounced throne to become a Buddhist monk named Dharmakāra– 48 vows resolved to become a buddha and create paradise

realm to help all sentient beings become awakened Those unable to achieve awakening in this life

– Vow to be reborn in Western Paradise

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Pure Land School

Resides in Western Paradise– “Happy Land of the West” or Sukhavati – Perform merit-producing deeds, including pilgrimage– Rebirth by calling his name with complete faith

• Especially at death

– Practice of recitation of the name of the Buddha (Chinese: nianfo; Japanese: nembutsu)

– “Hail Amitabha Buddha” (na-mo a-mi-tuo-fo) Scripture of the Pure Land (sukhāvatī)

– Translated into Chinese 3rd — 5th ct.– Conversation between historical Buddha and Ananda– Describes paradise realm of Buddha of Infinite Light

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Pure Land Meditation in Japan

After suppression of 845, Pure Land in China becomes universalized

Founded in Japan as Jodoshu (Pure Land School) in 12-13th ct.

By Honen, an ordained Tendai monk from Mt. Hiei Emphasized practice of nembutsu:

– Namu Amida butsu (Hale Amitabha Buddha) Oral recitation of Amitabha’s name produces vision of

Amitabha’s paradise and Amitabha himself– Both sound AND sight– Cf. Honen’s diary

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Buddhist Ritual Music

Tiantai and Pure Land

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A Tiandai Mantra and Mudra: used in the Matrix Mandala ritual

Sudden Awakening Mantra:– “Rising Diamond”

Japanese:– Kyoogakushinden

( きようがくしんでん ) Chinese:

– Jīngjué zhēnyán – ( 驚覺真言 )

Sanskrit:– Om vajrottistha hum

Interlocked little fingers Thumbs under middle

fingers Index fingers touching to

form Diamond

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Pure Land Buddhist Jodo Ritual Music

Yǎyuè ( 雅樂 )– Lit. “Refined Music.”

• Ceremonial/Court music of China• Preserved in Japan but now lost in China

Brought to Japan by the monk Enin in 9th ct. – Ennin’s Travels in T’ang China by Edwin Reischauer (1955)– Arrived Yangzhou summer of 838

(4 centuries before Polo)– 9 year pilgrimage to Buddhist centers

• Popular Buddhist practice• Persecution of 845

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Portrait of Ennin

Idealized portrait from 12th ct.

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Chinese Empire under the Tang

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32 Marks

Jodo (Pure Land) court music– Recorded 1964 at the Tiandai Music Research Institute,

Mt. Hiei Meditation on the 32 characteristics of the body of

Amida Buddha Sanjuuni Sou honkyoku さんじゅうにそうほんきよく　 ( 三十二相本

曲 )– Listed praises of 32 primary marks (80 secondary)

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32 Marks of a Buddha (lakshanas) His feet have level soles *His soles are marked by wheels with a thousand

spokes, felloe and hub He has projecting heels He has long fingers and toes, sometimes even in

length He has soft and tender hands and feet His hands and feet are webbed He has high-raised ankles His legs are like an antelope’s Standing and without bending, he can touch and

touch his knees His male organs are enclosed in a sheath

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Marks 11-20

* His complexion is bright, the color of gold His skin is delicate and so smooth that no dust can adhere to

his body His body-hairs are separate, one to each pore * His body-hairs grow upwards, each one bluish-black,

curling in rings to the right His body is divinely straight He has seven convex surfaces The front part of his body is like a lion's There is no hollow between his shoulders He is proportioned like a banyan-tree

(the height of his body is the same as the span of his out-stretched arms, and conversely)

His chest is evenly rounded

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He has a perfect sense of taste He has jaws like a lion's He has forty teeth His teeth are even There are no spaces between his teeth His canine teeth are very bright His tongue is very long He has a Brahma-like voice, like that of the karavika bird His eyes are deep blue He has eyelashes like a cow's *He has a whorl of hair between his eyes, white and soft like cotton-

down, [urna] * 32 His head is like a royal turban: cranial bump [ushinisha]

Marks 21-32

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“White tuft”Urna

“Snail-shell”ushinisha

Long armsElongated or even fingers

Wheels on feet(reclining Buddha)