17

Medieval Period ca. 500-14001

During the medieval period the Church was both the primary spiritual and political force

of Europe.2 It controlled how and to whom knowledge was taught. Cathedral schools and

universities like the one which emerged in Paris in the middle of the twelfth century,

functioned as important educational and religious institutions.

During this period, only a small number of people could read. Most of them were either

monks or clergy of the church or members of upper class families. Music was considered

an educated discipline, but even fewer people could read and write music.

Most composers of the Medieval period were not

full-time musicians as their education gave them

many skills in addition to music. This enabled

them to advance through the ranks of the church as

well as in the courts of noble families. They often

held posts as judges, secretaries, administrators,

and diplomats.

What we know about music from the ninth through

twelfth centuries has survived in manuscripts.

These manuscripts were preserved by monastic

communities and noble estates.

The earliest known written music (i.e. notated

music) in the medieval period is plainchant

(generically called Gregorian Chant). Monks

and nuns used plainchant to sing prayers. From

this written evidence scholars have concluded that

early plainchant had two main characteristics:

1) it was monophonic, meaning that there was

only one melodic line with no accompaniment, and

2) it was notated without rhythm or meter.

A Bit of Trivia on the Liberal Arts The curriculum was centered on the Seven Liberal Arts which were divided into two branches: the trivium (literally “three roads”) consisting of Grammar, Rhetoric, and Logic and the quadrivium (“four roads”) consisting of Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, and Astronomy. These divisions have their roots in the educational practices of the ancient Greeks. Arithmetic was the study of number itself, Geometry was the study of number in space, Music was the study of number in time and Astronomy was a combination of the study of number in space and time. In the ancient world of the Greeks, philosophy (meaning “the love of wisdom”) was represented in the image of a woman (named Philosophia). Philosophia was the unifying force which nourished all of the liberal arts. When the Church adopted this imagery, Philosophia became equated with the Virgin Mary. The word ”liberal” incidentally derives from the Latin word liber (“book”) which shares its etymology with libera (“free”). Hence a liberal education means a learned education.

Many plainchant performances are sung like this still. Whole choirs sing one melody in

unison and treat each note with the same rhythmic value. Of course, just because the

music was notated this way does not necessarily mean that it was sung this way.3 Early

monks may have had a rhythmic system which was transmitted orally but they did not

have a system to notate it. Therefore modern scholars are left to debate over the manner

in which chant was really performed.

1 Minnesota is world reknown for its dedication to Medieval research at HMML in Collegeville, MN,

Augsburg College’s BA program in Medieval Studies, and the Rose Ensemble. 2 Before Martin Luther and the Reformation (1517), Roman Catholicism, also referred to as The Church,

was the ONLY accepted Christian religion in Western Europe. 3 Reading and performing only what was written down is considered a “literal” or “strict” interpretation.

Music historians however, like literary and legal historians, understand that what was written down

provides only a hint of the original meaning. Therefore they engage in extensive research to understand the

culture which produced the manuscript, trying to find meaning through context. This scholarly pursuit is

not limited just to Medieval music, but is also significant in our understanding of more famous composers

like Mozart and Handel. This is why there are so many different recordings of Handel’s Messiah.

18

Text/Music relations

Some useful definitions when describing a melody (chant or otherwise) are based upon how many

musical notes are applied per syllable of text. In general there are:

Syllabic – 1 note per syllable

Melismatic – roughly 5 or more notes per syllable

Neumatic – somewhere in between, but roughly 2-4 notes per syllable

Bear in mind, these definitions are generalizations and one really needs to look at a complete

melody before making a determination. A safe statement is, “The chant appears

predominately…such and such based upon this passage of chant…yaddah yaddah yaddah.”

The Mass

The Mass was an important musical event in the church service that was sung as plainchant. It

represents the central ritual that celebrates the Last Supper Jesus of Nazareth had with his

followers.

There are two types of texts used in the Mass. The first is called the Mass Ordinary. It consists

of five prayers sung at every Mass, regardless of the occasion. Hence, their texts never change.

These Mass movements are: Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Agnus Dei.

The second type of text refers to the Mass Proper. The text of the Mass Proper is feast-specific,

that is it changes from service to service depending on the occasion. These texts include (but are

not limited to) Gospel readings, Epistle readings, the Offertory, the Gradual and the Alleluia.

Graduals and Alleluias tended to be the most musically elaborate parts of the Mass. They

occurred before the Gospel reading in order to create a sense of spiritual intensity.

There is no doubt that instrumental and popular forms of music existed at that time, but no

notation for such music has been found. Therefore modern scholars focus on drawings, written

records and treatises (a type of formal essay that discusses a certain topic in a systematic manner)

to make educated guesses as to how secular (non-religious) music was performed.4

Monastic Life

The Rule of St. Benedict was developed by the

monk St. Benedict around 520 C.E. This rule

provided the template for living in a monastic

community which emphasized obedience and

humility. The abbot was the ultimate human

authority within the community. The rule also

regulated the hours in the day to be devoted to

prayer, readings, singing of psalms, regulations,

manual work, penitential code, training of recruits

and vows. A new monk vowed to stay with the

monastery until his death. Monks also renounced

personal property and took on a vow of poverty.

Monasteries accepted any guest as if he were Christ

himself. It seems they were cut off from the rest of

the world, but nevertheless they accrued many gifts

and became repositories of great wealth while those

in the outside world lived at a level of subsistence.

The Legend of Pope Gregory I dictating plainchant to his scribes.

4 In preparing for mystery rounds, a good place to start is the radio program Harmonia. Full archived

programs can be downloaded at http://www.indiana.edu/~harmonia/index.html / other useful links are

http://www.hmml.org/ | http://www.roseensemble.com/ | http://www.augsburg.edu/medievalstudies/

| and many updated links found at the bottom of my own page: http://www.grianeala.com

19

Ancient Era (500 BCE-500 CE) and the Medieval Period (500-1400 in the CE)

Date Event in Music Other Events in History

500 B.C.E. Greek lyric poetry and drama begins to

emerge (believed to be sung)

Euripides writes music and drama in

ancient Greece (408 BCE)

First Olympic Games held in Greece (776 BCE)

Pythagoras (mathematician/musician) teaches

in Greek Colony in southern Italy. (500 BCE)

300 B.C.E. Plato and Aristotle write about music Socrates is condemned to death by the Athenian

Council for getting people to think (399)

Ptolemy founds dynasty in Egypt (309)

100 B.C.E. Roman poet Vergil dies and leaves his

epic poem, Aeneid (unfinished, 19 BCE)

Octavius becomes first Roman Emperor and

changes name to Augustus (27 BCE)

0 C.E. Metamorphoses written by the Roman

poet Ovid (14 CE)

Death of Emperor Augustus Caesar (14 CE)

Crucifixion of Jesus (c.30 CE)

Temple of Jerusalem destroyed by Romans (70)

100 C.E. Teotihuacan civilization in Mexico flourishes

200 C.E. Roman citizenship extended to all freemen in

Roman Empire

Monasticism becomes popular (c.280)

300 C.E. Bishop Ambrose introduces responsorial

psalmody in Milan (386)

Constantine converts Roman Empire to

Christianity (312)

Roman empire splits into Eastern and Western

Empires (395)

400 C.E. Christian theology continues to be defined (410)

Romulus Augustulus is deposed as Roman

Emperor, Roman Empire “falls” (476)

500 C.E. Gregory the Great elected Pope (590-

604) he is believed to have developed

Gregorian Chant.

600 C.E. Mass liturgy (Ordo Romanus) is

developed

Boethius executed (c.525)

Rule of St. Benedict, (529)

Birth of Muhammad (c.570)

700 C.E. Charlemagne seeks to unify church

liturgical uses of music (789)

Charlemagne, King of the Franks (768)

800 C.E. Organum in parallel and oblique motion

appears in Musica Enchiriadis

Charlemagne is crowned Holy Roman Emperor.

Baghdad becomes intellectual center of Arab

world. Arabs develop astronomy, algebra, optics,

and medicine.

900 C.E. Vikings begin settlements in Greenland

1000 C.E. Four-line staff and Florid organum

appears in Guido d’Arezzo’s Mikrologus

(1025)

Leif Erickson lands in North America (1000)

Normans conquer England (1066)

First Crusade begins (1096)

1100 C.E Leonin active at Notre Dame begins first

compilation of Magnus Liber Organi

(1180s)

Second Crusade begins (1147)

Arab learning comes west (c. 1150)

Construction begins on Notre Dame (1163)

1200 C.E. Perotin edits the Magnus Liber, adding 3

and 4-voice organa. (1200-38)

Carmina Burana is compiled (1220-40)

Francis of Assisi founds Franciscan Order (1209)

Magna Carta signed in England (1215)

Marco Polo travels east (1271-95)

1300 C.E. Philippe de Vitry composes isorhythmic

motets, some of which appear in the

Roman de Fauvel. (1310)

de Vitry writes treatise Ars Nova (1322).

Dante writes the Divine Comedy (1307)

Clement V moves papal seat to Avignon (1309)

Papal schism begins leading to two Popes (1378)

Chaucer writes The Cantebury Tales (1386)

20

Leonin & Perotin

Viderunt Omnes

Name: Leonin | | example 2: Perotin

Pronunciation: LAY-oh-nan | PAIR-oh-TAN

Dates: fl.1180-1200 | 1180?-1238

Nationality: French | French

Testable Title: Viderunt omnes for 2 voices | Viderunt omnes for 4 voices

Date Composed: late 12th century | 13

th century

Genre: Notre Dame Organum (or Ars antiqua) | Notre Dame Organum

Instrumentation: 2 voices | 4 voices

Listen for: alternation between organum purum, discant, & copula

Pieces for Comparison: Tribum/Quoniam, O magnum mysterium

Leonin Leonin was a priest, poet and composer who was active at Notre Dame in Paris during

the second half of the 12th century. He earned the degree of Master (Latin magister) from

the university, and by the 1180s he worked at the cathedral as an administrator.

He is one of the earliest known composers of organum. Organum was an early type of

polyphony which was based upon plainchant and was usually applied to the most

melismatic chants.

Evolution of Early Polyphony

Nearly 400 years before Leonin, theorists described polyphonic organum as a second

voice added to existing monophonic chant. This second voice is called the organal voice

or duplum. Initially, this voice was placed a perfect fourth, fifth, or octave below the

principal plainchant voice, known as the tenor (from the Latin tenere because it “held”

the original chant). The duplum was sung in parallel motion (moves at the same rate and

at a constant interval) throughout. This is also referred to as discant organum.

By the 11th century, the duplum became more independent. In addition, the two voices

switched places, so that the tenor became the lower voice. Also, the intervals between

both voices became more varied. The tenor and the duplum could move in parallel,

contrary (opposite directions), or oblique (one voice stays put the other moves) motion.

By the 12

th century, a new development in organum grew popular in France. It is called

florid organum because the duplum “flowed melodically” over a slower moving tenor.

21

Notre Dame Organum Notre Dame Organum is the style of organum associated with Leonin and his

successors at Notre Dame. This style is similar to the latter development of florid

organum but differs in that the tenor is slowed way down to extremely long note

durations. The duplum is the higher voice and moves at a quicker pace, sometimes as

many as 40 notes (melismatic) per every 1 note in the tenor – these instances are referred

to as organum purum (pure organum).

By slowing down the tenor, the melody of the plainchant is obscured because the ear

focuses on the quicker moving organal voice. Pay attention to how the different vowels

shape the resonant space. This is a very important aesthetic in this type of music.

But Leonin did not stop there. To provide contrast to organum purum, he added sections

of discant organum in which the duplum moves at a precise rhythm of 3 pulses to 1

tenor. It is believed that Leonin developed a system of six rhythmic modes. These

modes defined different rhythmic patterns similar to those found in metrical poetry and

were divisible by 3. These modes could be identified by the way notes were grouped

together. The groupings are called ligatures and they symbolize both pitch and rhythm.

This was a GIANT LEAP in musical notation of polyphonic music as measures and

meters had yet to be invented.

Magnus Liber Organi

The anonymous thirteenth-century English theorist aptly named “Anonymous IV”

credits Leonin with perhaps the greatest single achievement in the development of early

polyphony: the Magnus Liber Organi (The Great Book of Organum). This book,

designed for liturgical use, applied this new style of 2-part organum to the solo sections

of the Graduals and Alleluias during important feasts in the Church calendar.

One such famous example is Leonin’s treatment of the gradual Viderunt omnes.

Remember, Leonin did not write the chant, but he did write the organal voice and

determined how the chant would be treated.

Viderunt Omnes

Viderunt Omnes was performed as part of the Mass both on Christmas Day and during

the Feast of the Circumcision of Christ (which was celebrated on January 1st). Leonin’s

Viderunt Omnes is an example of two-voice organum (or organum duplum).

Leonin set only the solo sections of this piece to polyphony. The two-voice texture occurs

during the intonation Viderunt Omnes. After this and the choir sings a section of the

chant monophonically before returning to Leonin’s polyphonic treatment [not on CD].

Sing the following over about 5 times until you are familiar with the pitches.

Now, listen how Leonin alternates between sections of florid and discant.

22

Min:sec 0:00 0:24 0:37 0:45 0:59 1:10 1:34

texture organum purum discant organum purum

text Vi- de- runt (on a) (on c) om- nes

One thing which might jump out in the discant sections is that the initial harmonic

interval between the duplum for every note of chant begins with a perfect interval. We

are used to hearing the sweet sound of the imperfect 3rd and 6th intervals (which were

introduced 200 years later by John Dunstaple around 1400).5

Interval P4 P1 P5 P5 P1 P5 P4 P5 P1 P4 P5

initial note in

duplum grouping f d g e c g f g e g g

tenor at Om-nes c d c a c c c c e d c

North side of my town faced east and the east was facing south – “Substitute” by The Who

Throughout the 13th century, Leonin’s successors wrote their own discant sections (called

clausulae) in place of his in “cut-and-paste” fashion. For instance, they would use what

Leonin had written from 0:00-0:58. Then at 0:59-1:09 they would cut out Leonin’s discant

and substitute their own, returning to Leonin’s version at 1:10. When these clausulae are

used in place of Leonin’s discant, they are called substitute clausula. By the mid-13th

century. These clausulae became free-standing compositions (not used in church but still

based upon a fragment of chant). They then added texts (either Latin or French) to the

upper voice(s). These became the first motets.

Perotin (1180?-1238) (CD1:3)

Assigning rhythm to notes was necessary in order for later composers to write organum

for three and four voices. Although not notated, these modes also serve to imply rests.

Perotin was a later editor of the Magnus Liber Organi and added such works to it,

including his own four-part version (or organum quadruplum) of Viderunt Omnes.

A striking difference aside from the additional voices, is that Perotin organized the upper

voices with each other and applied to them rhythmic modes in instances where Leonin

would have used organum purum.6 He often exchanged the same melodic fragments

between the upper voices often in canonic imitation (see Fugue and Canon chapter). to

create a sense of forward momentum. Although there is still debate over the exact

meaning of the term applied to this by 13th century theorist Johannes de Garlandia, we

will simply refer to these sections as copula.

Min:sec 0:00 0:57 1:26 1:42 2:28 2:38 etc.

texture copula discant copula

text Vi- de- runt (on a) (on c) om- nes

5 For a satyrical description about organum and the importance of perfect intervals view this episode of

Kaamelott – The Perfect Fifth http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jhHAojVyeG0 6 In a two voiced texture the cantor singing the duplum could groove any way he wanted, dig? But with

more parts it would just sound sloppy if everyone sang at their own rate.

23

The Carmina Burana

Olim Sudor Herculis

Name: Carmina Burana

Pronunciation: CAR-mee-na bur-AH-na

Nationality: German

Testable Title: Olim Sudor Herculis / The Labors of Hercules

Date Compiled: 1220-1230

Genre: Song

Instrumentation: Voice

Listen for: monophony, repeating melody in verses

Pieces for Comparison: Viderunt Omnes, Tribum/Quoniam

CHANTS vs. SONGS

In the Church, chants were either liturgical or sacred. A liturgical chant is a work that

was performed during the official liturgy or celebration of the Mass. Sacred chants were

those which dealt with sacred subjects but were not celebrated as part of a church service.

Another musically related genre found in and around churches and monasteries was that

of the Latin song. The Latin song was a secular poem written in rhythmical and rhyming

Latin. The most famous collection of such poems known to us today is the collection

called Carmina Burana.

Carmina Burana

Cover page of the Carmina Burana -Codex 4660 Bayerische

Staatsbibliothek

The Carmina Burana is a collection of 320 Latin songs &

poems (a few are in German) named after the manuscript

discovered in 1803 at the monastery of Benedikt Beuren in

southwestern Germany. Carmina Burana is translated as

Songs of Beuren, although they were most likely not written

there. Its contents vary from moralistic songs, dedications to

Christ, love songs, elegies to the seasons, to satires about

unscrupulous priests, and drinking songs. Carl Orff famously

set a few of these poems for chorus and orchestra in 1937.

Vagrant Scholars

No one knows who actually wrote the songs in the Carmina

Burana manuscript, but prevailing research indicates that they

were probably written in the twelfth century by the goliards.

Goliards were scholars, poets, vagrant clerics and students

who wandered from town to town rather than remaining tied

to a particular institution monastery, or court.

Modern scholars believe they began “wandering” due to an oversupply of clerics and not

enough jobs to go around. Other goliards may have left their studies due to a lack of

funds to pay for their education. The goliards were not enemies of the church, but they

were often subject to their criticism. This is chiefly because they were scholars who did

not pay taxes, were not required to military service and did not obey the vow of chastity.

They also could not be turned away from boarding at any monastery due to the Rule of

24

St. Benedict. I tend to imagine goliards as a cross between the character of Friar Tuck in

The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood and Otter from Animal House.

Neumes and Staff-less Notation

One of the difficulties with the Carmina Burana (as well as many other sources of early

music) is that it is written for someone who already knew the tune but needed to “jog

their memory.” The melody is not written on a staff but instead there are little

“squiggles” called neumes (pronounced “nyooms”) written above the text of each word.

These neumes do not indicate pitch or rhythm but instead indicate the overall upward or

downward contour and how many notes are to be sung per syllable. This means that any

performance of the original Carmina Burana is the product of an educated guess based

upon what we know of other church music, modes, rhythms, early theoretical writings

and poetry.

Example of text with staff-less neumes (not from Carmina Burana)

Olim Sudor Herculis

Olim Sudor Herculis is the classical story about the Greek hero and demi-god Herakles

(the Romans named him Hercules). He was the son of Zeus and was endowed with

superhuman strength that rivaled even the gods. You might remember a TV show a few

years back starring Minnesota native Kevin Sorbo in the title role. In this song, the

narrator recounts the virtue of Hercules’ heroic labors: defeating the Hydra, taming the

lion, combat with Antaeus, etc. but then warns against the pitfalls of love as Hercules

becomes weakened in the embrace of Iole. The refrain and the final verse reflect the

narrator’s own desire to be stronger than Hercules by remaining chaste.

When performers attempt to put rhythm to songs from the Carmina Burana collection

they usually rely on the natural accent of each word and the overall meter of the poem.

In Olim sudor Herculis (“Once the sweat of Hercules”) the opening lines follow this

pattern.

Meter Long – Short Long – Short – Long – Short – Long

Text O - lim su - dor Her- cu- lis

25

Also notice that the first and fourth stanzas rhyme as do the second and third.

Text of Olim Sudor Herculis

Latin

Verse 1a

Olim sudor Herculis

monstra late conterens,

pestes orbis suferens.

Claris longe titulis

enituit; sed tandem defloruit

fama prius celebris cecis clausa tenebris

Yoles illecebris Alcide captivato.

English Translation

Verse 1a

Once the sweat (labors) of Hercules

Crushing monsters far and wide,

Removing plagues of the world

Shone afar with illustrious reknown;

But finally the former celebrated

fame withered Cut off by dark shadows,

when Alcides (Hercules) was captured by the charms of Iole.

Verse 1b

Hydra damno capitum

Facta locupletior,

Omni peste sevior,

Redere sollicitum

Non potuit, quem puella domuit

Lugo cessit Veneris vir, qui maior superis

Celum tulit humeris Atlante fatigato.

Verse 1b

Hydra, by the loss of heads

Is made richer

And returns more savage

than all other pests,

Could not make him anxious whom a girl tamed.

The man yielded to the yoke of Venus who, greater than the gods

above, bore heaven on his shoulders when Atlas tired.

Refrain

Amor fame meritum deflorat

Amans tempus perditum non plorat

Sed temere diffluere sub Venere laborat

Refrain

Love withers the merit of glory.

The lover does not regret lost time

But labors rashly to be dissolute in the power of Venus

Verse 4a

Sed Alcide fortior agredior

Pugnam contra Venerem.

Ut superem hanc, fugio;

In hoc enim prelio

Fugiendo fortius et melius pugnatur

Sicque Venus vincitur; dum fugitur, fugatur.

Verse 4a

But stronger than Hercules, I undertake

The fight against Venus

So that might overcome her, I flee;

For this battle

is more bravely and better fought by fleeing.

And thus Venus is conquered; when she is fled, she is eluded

Verse 4b

Dulces nodos Veneris et carceris

Blandiseras resero, de cetero

Ad alia dum traducor studia.

O Lycori, valeas et voveas quod vovi;

Sicque Venus vincitur; dum fugitur, fugatur.

Verse 4b

The sweet bonds of Venus and of the prison

I unlock. For the rest,

While I am drawn to other endeavors.

O Lycoris, farewell and may you vow what I vowed.

And thus Venus is conquered; when she is fled, she is eluded.

--

For more information you can check out either Bischoff’s introduction to the Codex 4660 facsimile,

writings by Peter Dronke, or this brief synopsis on identifiable poets at:

http://www.athenapub.com/14carmina.htm

also if you are really into medieval german lanugage stuff, you can find a public domain copy at Google

Books by Joseph Wright, to get started. (Of course the above text is in Latin but probably informed by a

native German speaker).

http://books.google.com/books?id=66sBAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=middle+high+german&as

_brr=1#PPP7,M1

26

Philippe de Vitry

Tribum que/Quoniam secta/Merito hec patimur

Name: Philippe de Vitry

Pronunciation: Fih-LEEP duh Vee-TREE

Dates: b. October 31, 1291 – d. June 9, 1361

Nationality: French

Testable Title: Tribum/Quoniam (TREE-boom QUO-nee-ahm)

Date Composed: early 14th century

Genre: Isorhythmic Motet (eye-so-RIH-thmik mo-TET) Instrumentation: 3-voices

Listen for: color, talea independent french texts.

Pieces for Comparison: Viderunt Omnes; Terzetto (Mozart)

Philippe de Vitry

Philippe de Vitry was a composer, music theorist, poet, bishop, diplomat and a leading

intellectual figure in and around Paris, France during the middle of the fourteenth

century. His work and influence was praised by his contemporaries who included

astronomers, mathematicians, philosophers, theologians, humanists, and literary authors.

His friend Petrarch, the famous Italian poet whose works became the model texts for

madrigals in the next two centuries, considered de Vitry ‘the only true poet among the

French.’7

De Vitry worked for the royal family in Paris and from 1346 to 1350 and also served in

the army of the Duke of Normandy. He was later appointed bishop of Meax in 1351 by

Pope Clement VI where he spent the last ten years of his life.

The New Art One of de Vitry’s great accomplishments in music theory was his treatise Ars Nova,

translated as the “New Art.” This was an important text which expanded the rhythmic

options available to composers. The result was that in polyphonic music, different

melodic lines could be given their own rhythm, independent from each other. In the old

way of performing polyphonic music (Ars Antiqua), there was little rhythmic

independence between voices. With this new rhythmic art, composers such as de Vitry,

Machaut and Dufay could explore new roads of melodic and contrapuntal invention.

Isorhythmic Motet

The most notable form to grow out of the French Ars Nova was the Isorhythmic Motet.

Isorhythm appealed to the mathematically charged philosophy of the late medieval period

because it allowed tighter control of organization for larger compositions. This was done

by organizing notes of the tenor voice into rhythmic patterns. This is different from

Notre Dame Organum where the tenor was merely slowed down while the other voices

received rhythmic treatment.

7 Petrarch is also the one who invented that horribly prejudicial term “Dark Ages” Expressing that

EVERYTHING between the so-called “Fall” of Rome and his time was not worthy of study! Too bad,

cause he is such a good poet! You can find his work here: http://www.petrarch.freeservers.com/

27

In order for a motet to be considered isorhythmic, two principal elements must be applied

to the tenor. These elements are called color and talea (TAH-lee-ah). Color is the term

applied to a repeating series of pitches and talea (TAH-lee-ah) is the repeating series of

rhythms. The really cool thing about this is that if a composer chose a color and talea of

different lengths, the patterns of pitch and rhythm would overlap each time they met.

Soon composers found that they could double (augment) or halve (diminish) the

duration of the rhythms in the talea. As the popularity of the isorhythmic motet grew,

composers began applying the principles of color and talea to the upper voices as well.

What is perhaps his important innovation with long lasting significance is the

development of metrical divisions of music. He introduced note values divisible by the

imperfect 2 in addition to the already established perfect 3 pulses. In effect he created a

way of notating metrical feel which correspond roughly with our modern 9/8, 3/4, 6/8,

and 2/4 time signatures.8 With this kind of mathematical rigor, it is little wonder that de

Vitry’s contemporaries likened him to Pythagoras.

De Vitry’s genius, however, did not stop with music alone. As mentioned above he was

well regarded as a poet and is presumed to have written the texts for his motets. The

interesting thing about isorhythmic motets is that not only do they have their own

independent melodic lines, but they also have their own texts! This feature, known as

polytextuality was yet another level of complexity which would have appealed to the

medieval scholars penchant for hidden meanings. This kind of complexity did not come

into vogue again until the early 20th century and remains to this day a source of musical

inspiration.

Tribum que/Quoniam secta/Merito hec patimur

This motet is one of five motets attributed to de Vitry which appear in the Roman de

Fauvel (The Romance of Fauvel). This is a manuscript (ca.1310-14) which included

satirical poems as well as both polyphonic and monophonic works which were critical of

political and church authorities. It was kind of the 14th century equivalent to the political

humor seen on Saturday Night Live.

Margaret Bent, a famous musicologist who specializes in early music, wrote that even

though motets used different texts simultaneously, they usually had some contextual

relationship with the plainchant on which the tenor was based. In Tribum/Quoniam, she

8 de Vitry’s system utilized circles for perfect and half-circles for imperfect time. We still use his symbol

“C” in place of 4/4 – it does not originate from the initial C as in Common Time.

Motet ‘fun’ facts The tenor (from the Latin tenere – ‘to hold’) is the lowest voice of the motet. It is a quoted fragment from a plainchant as the whole chant is not used nor is the text of the tenor sung. The motetus (or duplum) is the next to lowest line. The triplum is the third lowest line. In the case of a four-voiced motets, the top line is called the quadruplum. The term motet itself is derived from the Old French word “mot” meaning word. Why do isorhythmic motets have long titles? Isorhythmic motets are given long three part titles such as the one on the listening example, Tribum que non abhoruit/Quoniam secta latronum/Merito hec patimur. This is because each motet is named after the three different texts used. The first part is named for the opening text in the upper most voice, the middle part for the middle voice and the last part is named for the opening text of the tenor or the original plainchant. To make things easier, we often

abbreviate motet titles to just the first word of the first two texts: i.e. Tribum/Quoniam

28

discovered that de Vitry adapted some text from the Roman poet Ovid, and a responsory

(a type of plainchant) sung during 3rd Sunday of Lent for the tenor. In this way, anyone

familiar with the tune of the plainchant might also recall its meaning and thus the overall

concept of the motet might be understood.

The imagery used in the text: gallos (literally translated as roosters) is a pun on the word

Gaul which is another name for the French. The fox (vulpes) is an evil power hungry

man who was hanged at the pillory when his crimes became known. The blind lion is

Philip IV, the good king who was blind to the troubles around him.

Text of the triplum Tribum que no abhorruit indecenter ascendere furibunda non metuit Fortuna cito vertere dum duci prefate tribus in sempiternum speculum parare palam omnibus non pepercit patibulum. Populus ergo venturus si trans metam ascenderit, quidam forsitan casurus cum tanta tribus ruerit sciat ediam quis fructus delabi sit in profundum. Post zephyros plus ledit hyems, post gaudia luctus; unde nihil melius quam nil habuisse secundum.

Translation of the triplum Furious Fortune did not fear to turn quickly against the tribe that did not recoil from a shameless rise [to power] when she did not spare the governing leader of the tribe from the pillory, to be established as an eternal public example. Therefore let future generations know that someone who ascends through fear may perhaps fall, as such a tribe has fallen. As for him whose prosperity has sunk to the depth: Winter coming after warm west winds hurts all the more; after rejoicing, lamentation is the more painful, whence there is nothing better than to have had no success.

Text of the duplum Quoniam secta latronum spelunca vispilionum vulpes que Gallos roderat tempore quo regnaverat leo cecatus subito suo ruere merito in mortem privatam bonis concinat Gallus Nasonis dicta que dolum acuunt: omnia sunt hominum tenui pendencia filo et subito casu que valuere ruunt.

Translation of the duplum Since with the plots of thieves and the den of shady dealers the fox, which gnawed at the roosters in the time when the blind lion reigned, has suddenly been hurled down to his reward in death and deprived of property, the rooster sings the sayings of Ovid which hammer home the point:

All human things hang on a fine thread, and when it breaks suddenly, they collapse.

Tenor Merito haec patimur.

Tenor Justly we suffer these things.

29

Notice that even though this isorhythmic motet begins with the triplum followed in

imitation by the duplum, it is still the tenor [Merito hec patimur] which provides the

overall structural interest. The color of the tenor is taken from the notes of the chant

itself:

Sing this over about 5 times until are familiar with the pitches.

The talea de Vitry used is very simple the rhythmic ratio is short-long-short followed by

a long rest. This is transcribed in our modern 3/2 meter as:

Clap this rhythm out about 5 times (one / one-two / one / rest-two)

When the talea is applied to the color the following tenor is the result.

The whole tenor repeats beginning at 0:55.

Notice also that despite its structural importance, the tenor is not always the “lowest”

pitched voice as in what we expect from the bass in modern harmony.

The history of polyphonic music from organum to the isorhythmic motet marks the

beginning of notated counterpoint, the technique essential to music of the Renaissance

and the Baroque, such as canons and fugues. Counterpoint is the art of composing music

that is created by playing two or more different melodies at the same time.9 Bear in mind

that the theory of harmony (i.e. chord progressions) was not created until the 18th century.

Up until that time, composition was conceived contrapuntally where “right and wrong”

notes were determined by what order intervals sounded consonant or dissonant.

9 The term counterpoint comes from the Latin puncta contra puncta (literally: “point against point” or

“note against note”).

30

The Renaissance (1400-1600)

The term Renaissance (which means “re-birth”) was coined by 19th century scholars to

set it apart from Petrarch’s biased appellation “Dark Ages.”10 According to conventional

history textbooks, the Renaissance was an age of discovery and humanism. There was a

revived emphasis in the culture of the ancient classical ages of the Greeks and Romans.

The “re-discovery” of their art influenced sculptors and painters, and the re-discovery of

their literary works became models for poets and writers. Books, which were before a

highly prized possession and available only to the wealthy and monasteries, were no

longer a rarity thanks to Guttenberg’s printing press. Copies of works of classical

authors, covering everything from medicine and astronomy to politics and philosophy,

became widely distributed. Because of this push toward literacy, people began to

question the accepted intellectual authority of the Church.

The Reformation

What is considered by many to be the most significant event in the Renaissance is the

Reformation. The Reformation began as an accident. It started when a former German

law student turned devout monk and theology professor named Martin Luther (1483-

1546) grew frustrated at what he saw as corruption in Church practices. In an act of

protest, he wrote 95 statements (theses), pointing out what he saw as inconsistencies in

doctrine, and nailed them to the front door of the church at Wittenberg. 11 He wanted the

Church to correct the practice of selling indulgences (i.e. allowing people to purchase

their way into Heaven).12 He ended up being condemned for heresy.

On Luther’s side however, were the printers, the German language, and the German

nobles, who in this age of newfound literacy and humanism, no longer feared the threat

of the Pope.13 They broke ties with the Church and began to call themselves Lutherans.

Soon other Protestant groups began to emerge and they began creating their own

liturgical practices in music using vernacular languages instead of Latin! Luther himself

was a musician, wrote hymns and highly regarded the music of Josquin.

Musical Renaissance

Musicians wanted to get in on the act of reviving ancient culture too, but nothing existed

except for a few writings about music. In the 15th century a theorist named Tinctoris

remarked that nothing before John Dunstaple was worth studying. In the middle of the

16th century, an Italian theorist named Zarlino thought that the music written in his day

surely must be just as good as that of the ancient Greeks and singled out the composer

Adrian Willaert and compared him to Pythagoras. Zarlino then wrote a treatise called

10 Terry Jones’ 8-part BBC documentary and book, Medieval Lives really helps set Petrarch’s

conventional record straight for the non-medievalist. Check it out from your local library. 11 Before he became entered the priesthood, Luther was a law student. If anything, the power of his

language alone makes the 95 Theses (Oct. 31, 1517) a good read and preparation for good debate. I hold it

up with the Declaration of Independence (1776) as two of the most important documents of the past 1,000

years. Tremendous value the power of language to shake up the political system of the modern world 12 Actually I am reminded of the 95 Theses every time I have a student who slacked off a course but then is

shocked when he received a “D.” He’d usually state something like, “Yeah…well I am paying for my

education therefore I deserve an A.” – Ah yes. The Power and Efficacy of Grade Inflation. 13 History has demonstrated that the Papacy and European nobility almost always fought each other!

31

Le istitutioni harmoniche (The Harmonic Foundations) that dealt with how to set the

words of a text to music in the most effective and expressive manner. This work

influenced the polyphony of composers such as Palestrina and Victoria. (see below)

Some Characteristics of Renaissance Music

In the Renaissance, the term motet took on a WHOLE NEW MEANING. After 1400

motet refers to any polyphonic setting of a sacred Latin text. Practically all of the major

composers of the period wrote motets.

Imitation is an important compositional trait of the motet. It means that a short melodic

or rhythmic idea introduced in one vocal part is successively repeated in the remaining

voices. These short melodic or rhythmic ideas are called motives or subjects. Motives

can be anywhere from 2 to 8 notes long. Sometimes the imitation of motives begins on a

different pitch than the original. It also might not accurately reproduce the intervallic

relationships or rhythms of the original but it will sound close enough for it to be

considered imitation. After the motive has “run its course” through all voices, the vocal

line has two options: 1) It could drop out until its next entrance, or 2) it could continue

with free counterpoint until it reaches a cadence. Free counterpoint is music without

defined a theme.

Renaissance composers were also very fond of text-music relationships. For example if

the text was about rising up to the heavens, the music would rise to the upper registers.

This procedure is called “word-painting”, and was specifically mentioned by Zarlino as

a characteristic of good music.

Later Renaissance composers such as Carlo Gesualdo and Thomas Weelkes took word-

painting to extremes and made full use of dissonances when they wrote their madrigals in

the later part of the Renaissance.

Counter-Reformation Compelled to act on the reform movements begun by Martin Luther, leaders of the

Catholic Church meet from 1545 to 1563 to address these problems. This was known as

the Council of Trent. As music was a big part of the Catholic worship service, the

Council also discussed concerns with music which had arisen over the past few hundred

years. Four of the major complaints were:

• The use of secular melodies as cantus firmus in sacred works. – This would be

comparable to taking a melody from Led Zeppelin and turning it into a Mass. (Don’t worry, I do it all the time for my class examples as in Missa Gradus ad caelum ;-)

• Complex polyphony made it impossible to understand the words. – As we

have discovered with the isorhythmic motets.

• An Irreverent attitude of church musicians – some musicians thought of

church music as just another paying “gig” (…and this has changed, how?!?)

• Inappropriate use of instruments – certain instruments were not deemed

appropriate for use in church (like electric guitars and drums before 1990).

Zarlino’s treatise seemed to solve some of these issues, as we shall see with the next

composer.

32

Timeline of the Renaissance Period ca. 1400-1600

Date Event in Music Other Events in History

1400 CE End of Papal Schism (1417)

1430 CE Nuper rosarum flores by Dufay is

performed at the dedication of the Dom

in Florence (1436)

Joan of Arc is executed (1431)

1450 CE Gutenberg prints Bible from movable type (1454)

1470 Tinctoris writes on the Art of

Counterpoint (1477)

Henry Tudor defeats Richard III and becomes Henry VII

of England (1485)

1490s Missa L'homme arme super voces by

Josquin des Prez

Columbus first voyage across Atlantic (1492)

1500 Compositions by Josquin, Obrecht and

Isaac published in print.

Leonardo da Vinci paints the Mona Lisa (1503)

Henry VIII becomes King of England (1509)

1510 Adrian Willaert composes at San

Marco’s Basilica in Venice (1527)

Early Italian Madrigal (1529)

Martin Luther’s 95 theses criticizing the Church

begins the Reformation (1517)

Rome sacked by Reformers (1527)

Henry VIII splits from Catholic church marries Anne

Boleyn (1533)

1540 Dodekachordon written by the theorist

Glarean increases number of modes

from 8 to 12.

Tomas Luis de Victoria is born (1548)

Nicolaus Copernicus publishes Concerning the

Revolutions of the Orbs in the Heavens (1543) This is

‘revolutionary’ work which moved the center of the

Universe from the Earth to the Sun.

Counter-Reformation begins at Council of Trent

(1546-1563).

1550 Pope Marcellus Mass by Palestrina

(1555)

Zarlino writes a landmark text on

contrapuntal composition – it

influences composers of theCounter-

Reformation.

Victoria writes O Magnum Mysterium

(1572)

England struggles with Reformation:

Edward VI rules 1545-1552 (Protestant)

Mary I rules 1553-1558 (Catholic)

Elizabeth I rules 1558-1603 (Protestant)

In Paris, Protestants are massacred (1572)

Irish Catholics massacred by English, English begin

Protestant settlements of Northern Ireland. (1579)

1580 Italian madrigals come to England in the

publication Musica Transalpina (1588)

Ballet emerges in France (1589)

Spain occupies Portugal (1580)

Mary Queen of Scots is executed (1587)

English defeat the Spanish Armada (1587)

1590 Deaths of composers Palestrina and

Orlando di Lassus (1594)

Shakespeare writes Romeo and Juliet (1594)

Giordano Bruno is burnt at stake for his theory of the

universe; similar to the Copernican theory (1599)

33

Tomas Luis de Victoria

O magnum mysterium

Name: Tomas Luis de Victoria

Pronunciation: toe-MAHS loo-EES deh veek-TOE-ree-ah

Dates: b. 1548; d. August 20, 1611

Nationality: Spanish

Testable Title: O magnum mysterium / O Great Mystery

2nd piece: Missa O magnum mysterium / O Great Mystery Mass

Date Composed: 16th Century

Genre: Renaissance Motet | Counter-Reformation Mass

Instrumentation: Voices

Listen for: paired imitation of voices, word painting, uses of chromaticism, text

Pieces for Comparison: Viderunt Omnes, Tribum/Quoniam, Crucifixus

Tomas Luis de Victoria

Tomas Luis de Victoria is considered to be the greatest Spanish composer of the High

Renaissance. He lived in Rome for over 20 years where he served as organist and

choirmaster in the Jesuit Collegio Germanico before joining the Order of Oratorians. In

1587 he returned to Spain and served in the private chapel of the Dowager Empress

Maria, sister of King Philip II.

The Palestrina Style Throughout the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, Spanish and Roman composers

had close ties because Spain and Rome were loyal to the Catholic Church. It is assumed

that while he was in Rome, Victoria studied with another giant of the Counter-

Reformation, Giovani Pierluigi da Palestrina.

Some of the features of the Palestrina Style include:

• Diatonic melodies that move stepwise in an arched line. (i.e. connecting the notes

going up C-D-E-F-G- then back down G-F-E-D-C), very little chromaticism

• Careful control of consonances and dissonances. (based on Zarlino’s treatise)

o Dissonances (i.e. seconds, fourths, and sevenths) are introduced on weak

beats and must resolve to a consonance.

o Consonances (i.e. intervals of unisons, thirds, and sixths) usually occur on

strong beats.

The works of Palestrina later influenced the contrapuntal writing of Baroque and

Classical Era composers. The are also utilized by modern educators when teaching four-

part chorale writing. Today, when one speaks of the Palestrina Style, it is usually meant

as a general term referring to all polyphonic church music.

O Magnum Mysterium

Victoria’s four voiced motet, O Magnum Mysterium was performed during the Feast of

the Circumcision (January 1st). Victoria later used the opening motive as the cantus

firmus of his mass Missa O magnum mysterium.

34

Victoria developed a style which combines Palestrina’s Roman qualities with his own

Spanish sensibility of drama. He adopted Palestrina’s polyphonic style, but added

chromatic notes. Another characteristic feature of Victoria is his use of melodic “leaps.”

He demonstrates this in the opening of the motet. The melody leaps down an interval of

a 5th and then leaps back to its original pitch. Palestrina would have returned to the first

pitch using a stepwise melodic line linking “ma-” to “-gnum” (i.e. D-E-F-G-A)

Notice also the word-painting here. Victoria sets a mysterious mood by opening with a

whole note on the word “O” then makes a ‘great’ leap down and back up on the word

magnum (Latin for “great”). The composer thus draws attention to the significance of the

“great mystery” of the birth of Jesus Christ.

The opening of this work is also a great example of paired imitation. Paired imitation

occurs when two voices enter in close proximity to each other using the same motive. It

is worth noting that the 2nd voice enters on D, not on A, meaning that it imitates a 5

th

below the original. This becomes a staple feature of fugues in the following centuries.

Victoria only wrote sacred music. These included over twenty settings of the Mass, a

number of Magnificats, Lamentations, responsories, anthems, psalms, motets and hymns.

Text of the Motet

O magnum mysterium, et admirabile

Sacramentum, ut animalia

Viderent Dominum natum,

Iacentem in praesepio.

O beata Virgo,

Cuius viscera meruerunt portare

Dominum Iesum Christum. Alleluia.

Translation

O great mystery and wondrous

Sacrament, that the animals

Should see the Lord newly born,

Lying in a manger.

O blessed Virgin,

Whose womb was worth of delivering

The Lord Jesus Christ. Alleluia.

Text of the Mass

Kyrie eleison

Christe eleison

Kyrie eleison

Translation

Lord have mercy

Christ have mercy

Lord have mercy

Mass Titles

Because Masses all used the same text (the ordinaries from the Mass) they are named after the

chant used for the cantus firmus. For example, Missa L’homme Arme is translated as Mass - The

Armed Man. The Armed Man was a popular secular tune during the Renaissance.