УКРАЇНА

НАЦІОНАЛЬНИЙ УНІВЕРСИТЕТ БІОРЕСУРСІВ І

ПРИРОДОКОРИСТУВАННЯ

Кафедра англійської мови для

технічних та агробіологічних

спеціальностей

Навчальне видання

МЕТОДИЧНИЙ ПОСІБНИК

з англійської мови для студентів ОКР «Магістр»

лісогосподарського факульту

спеціальності 8.092002 “Технологія деревообробки”

КИЇВ - 2012

2

УДК:373.461:811.11

Посібник з англійської мови рекомендований для студентів ОКР

“Магістр” зі спеціальності «Технологія деревообробки» на

лісогосподарському факультеті.

Дана робота містить оригінальні наукові тексти з питань лісового

господарства, деревинознавства, технології деревообробки та

паперово-целюлозної промисловості; словники, лексико-граматичні

вправи та мовленнєво-практичні тренувальні завдання до тематичних

текстів.

Рекомендовано до друку Вченою радою природничо-гуманітарного

ННІ

Укладачі: доц., канд. філол. наук Олійник А.Д.; ст. викл.

Поліщук А.В.

Рецензенти: доктор. філол. наук, проф. А.М. Безпаленко,

завідувач кафедри української мови та англійської

мови для зооветеринарних спеціальностей

Національного університету біоресурсів і

природокористування України

Т.О. Мизин, кандидат філологічних наук,

професор, завідувач кафедри германської філології

Київського міжнародного університету

Навчальне видання

ПОСІБНИК

З АНГЛІЙСЬКОЇ МОВИ

для студентів ОКР “Магістр”

лісогосподарського факульту

спеціальності 8.092002 “Технологія деревообробки”

Укладачі: ОЛІЙНИК АНАТОЛІЙ ДМИТРОВИЧ

ПОЛІЩУК АНЖЕЛІНА ВОЛОДИМИРІВНА

Укладачі: доц. Олійник А.Д., Поліщук Л.В.

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UNIT 1

HIGHER EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND THE USA

Зміст уроку:

1. Лексична тема: Higher education in Great Britain and the USA

2. Граматичний матеріал: Articles. Noun. Pronoun.

3. Тексти: “Higher education in Great Britain”, “Higher education in

the USA”.

Pre-reading Activities

1. Discuss the following questions:

a) What can you say about the education system in Ukraine?

b) What are the university degrees of the graduates?

c) Do the Ukrainian students have to pay the tuition fees?

2. Find Ukrainian equivalents for these words:

a) graduate a) розташований

b) education b) витрати, вартість

c) located c) цінність, значущість

d) cost d) мета

e) increase e) зростати

f) value f) незалежний

g) purpose g) очікувати

h) independent h) освіта

i) expect i) завершення

j) completion j) випускник

3. Put in the articles where it is necessary:

1. To get… higher education in Great Britain is rather costly. 2. … young

man with some papers entered the office. As it turned out, … man brought

those papers to sign. 3. All … universities in Great Britain are … private

institution. 4. A lot of … American universities and colleges are supported

by … state and … local funds. 5. … woman sitting opposite us is … dean

of Economic faculty. 6. Have you printed all … tests?—No, I haven’t yet.

7. They are going to … Carpathians in July. 8. … Earth moves round the

sun.

4. Before reading the text learn the new words:

full time (part time) courses – денна (заочна) форма навчання

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(direct) grant – (пряма) субсидія, дотація

generally accepted – загальноприйнятий

autonomous – автономний

responsible (to) – підзвітний; відповідальний

governing body – керівний орган

respectively – відповідно

to respond (to) – реагувати (на)

demand (for) – попит (на)

expansion – розширення; експансія

to complete – завершувати

research – дослідження

dean – декан

term – семестр

polytechnics – політехнічний (університет)

to fill the gap – заповнювати прогалину

a range (of) – низка; ряд

to choose – вибирати; вирішувати

to place value – цінувати; надавати значення

a long way (from) – далеко (від)

to pay the tuition fees – платити за навчання

education authority – державний орган освіти

to combine – поєднувати

Text 1: Higher education in Great Britain

In Great Britain only about one third of school leavers receive post-

school education, compared with over 80 percent in Germany, France, the

United States, and Japan. Full time courses are provided in universities,

polytechnics, colleges of higher education (HE), and technical, art and

agricultural colleges.

Today there are over 50 universities in Britain. They are all private

institutions receiving direct grants from central government. But in GB

there is no system of education in the generally accepted meaning of the

word. Every university or college is autonomous and responsible only to its

governing body.

Oxford and Cambridge, founded in the 13th and 14th centuries

respectively, are the most famous of Britain’s universities. Today

‘Oxbridge’, as the two together are known, educate less than one tenth of

Britain’s total university student population. Cost of studying and living

there is higher than at any of the others. Scotland boasts of about four

ancient universities: Glasgow, Edinburgh, St. Andrews and Aberdeen, all

founded in the 15th and 16th centuries.

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In the 19th century many more universities were established to respond

to the increased demand for educated people as a result of the Industrial

revolution and the expansion of Britain’s overseas empire. Many of these

were located in the industrial centers, for example Birmingham,

Manchester, Nottingham, Newcastle, Liverpool and Bristol.

University examinations now are for Bachelor of Arts, or of Science

(BA or BSc) on completion of the undergraduate course, and Master of

Arts or of Science (MA or Msc) on completion of post-graduate work,

usually one- or two-year course involving some original research. Some

students continue to complete a three-year period of original research for

the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD).

As a rule each university consists of several faculties. The dean is the

head of the faculty. The academic year is divided into three terms, each of

them having the same length — about 10 weeks.

Thirty polytechnics in England and Wales provide a range of higher

education courses, up to doctoral studies. But their real purpose was to fill

the gap between university and further education work, providing an

environment in which equal value was placed on academic and practical

work, particularly in order to improve Britain’s technical and technological

ability.

Most British students choose to go to university a long way from their

home towns. They think going to university is a time to be independent, to

live away from home and develop new interests.

Until 1998 British students did not have to pay the tuition fees. Now

they are to pay about 1,000 pounds a year. Many students whose parents do

not earn a lot of money are given a grant from the local education authority.

If students do not get a grant, parents are expected to pay for their children.

Students often work during the holidays to earn more money. Not all the

students study full-time at university or college. Many young people

combine their studies with work.

Post-reading Activities

1. Fill in the blanks with suitable words from the text:

a) Thirty polytechnics in England and Wales provide a … of higher

education courses.

b) As a rule each university consists of several … .

c) Every university or college is … and … only to its governing

body.

d) Until 1998 British students did not have to pay the … .

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e) In GB there is no system of education in the … meaning of the

word.

d) The real purpose of polytechnics was to … between university and

further education work.

e) Many universities in GB were established to … to the increased …

for educated people.

(fill the gap; responsible; demand; tuition fees; range; generally

accepted; faculty; autonomous; respond).

2. Read aloud and translate the international words:

Percent, period, polytechnics, original, college, institution, academic,

population, system, interest, revolution, authority, expansion, combine,

examination

3. Paraphrase the following using the Possessive Case:

1. the computer of the teacher; 2. the economy of Ukraine; 3. the car

of Tom; 4. the gates of the country; 5. the father of Dick; 6. the files of the

students; 7. the shore of the sea; 8. the arrival of the president; 9. the order

of the captain; 10. the agriculture of Great Britain.

4. Study the text and answer the questions:

1. How many universities are there in GB?

2. What can you say about the British system of education in generally

accepted meaning of the word?

3. What does the name “Oxbridge” mean?

4. Name the universities located in the British industrial centers.

5. Name the position of the head of university faculty.

6. Why do most British students choose to go to university a long way

from their home towns?

7. How many polytechnics are there in England and Wales?

8. What is the usual tuition fee for British students?

5. Read the text once again and try to retell it.

Pre-reading Activities

1. Give Ukrainian equivalents for these words:

a) need a) приблизно

b) roughly b) вибір

c) provide c) забезпечувати

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d) choice d) добре освічений

e) well-educated e) значний; вагомий

f) considerable f) вартість

g) level g) потреба

h) cost h) рівень

i) substantial i) заклад; установа

j) institution j) значний

2. Write down the nouns in the plural form:

People, lorry, computer, politician, goose, textbook, cherry, bus-stop,

match, library, woman, dictionary, man, mouse, foot, people, dress, potato,

zero, letter, loaf, animal, Negro, boat, forest, stratum, demand, datum,

shelf, leave, research, university.

3. Before reading the text learn the new words:

advance (in) – прогрес; поступ

to encourage – заохочувати

roughly – приблизно

coeducational – сумісний (для студентів обох статей)

to support – підтримувати

range (in size) – відрізнятися (за масштабами)

to pay expenses – оплачувати витрати

scholarship grant – стипендія

to attend – відвідувати

advanced studies – поглиблене вивчення

to offer – пропонувати

to increase – зростати; збільшувати (ся)

income – дохід

part-time job – робота за сумісництвом

tips – чайові

enormous – величезний

proportion – частка;

campus – студентське містечко

bachelor (master, doctor) degree – ступінь бакалавра (магістра,

доктора)

land-grant (university) – університет на дарованій землі

government fund – державний бюджет

federal aid – фінансування з федерального бюджету

career choice – вибір професійної діяльності

experimental station – дослідна станція

to solve a problem – вирішувати проблему

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to provide (new technologies) – забезпечувати, розробляти

(нові технології)

Text 2: Higher education in the USA The need for higher education in the United States has grown with

advances in knowledge and technology. High school students are

encouraged to earn as much education as they can. Today about half of the

young people who graduate from secondary school go on to colleges or

universities.

There are roughly 2,000 colleges and universities in the United States.

Most are coeducational. That is, they are open to both men and women

students. They range in size from small colleges with only a few hundred

students to large institutions with 10,000 students or more. More than 40

percent of all higher education institutions are supported by state or local

government funds.

The cost of higher education is substantial in private colleges and

universities, but it is much less in those supported by states and cities. A

large number of students work to help pay their expenses; many receive

scholarship grants, some of which cover almost the entire expenses of

attending college.

A university usually includes one or more colleges as well as graduate

programs in professional fields of learning, such as business, medicine,

engineering and law. A university also provides advanced studies in most

of the subjects that are offered in colleges. Everybody understands that it

pays to earn as much education as you can. In addition to becoming a well-

educated person your income will likely increase with your level of

education.

Many students from poor families take a part-time job while they are

at a university. They work in the evenings as waiters and waitresses, for

instance, where they can earn a considerable amount of money from tips.

The choice for places of higher education is enormous and there are

over 3,500 college students per 100 thousand of population. This is the

highest proportion in the western world.

Among the most popular universities the best known are Harvard

(founded in 1636) and Yale (founded in 1701). There are also Princeton,

Chicago, Columbia, Cornell, and many others. Yearly fees are high —

about $ 8,000. The largest state universities with many campuses located

across the States are California (9 campuses of which Berkeley and

University of California are the foremost), Illinois, Minnesota, Michigan,

Wisconsin etc.

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American students receive higher agricultural education in many

schools across the USA. Each year colleges and universities award about

21,000 bachelor degrees in agriculture. About 6,000 other students receive

a master or doctor degree.

State land-grant universities award more than three-quarters of all

agricultural degrees. They receive federal aid under legislation that

followed the Morrill Act of 1862, which granted public lands to support

agricultural or mechanical education. Colleges of agriculture prepare

students for careers in all aspects of the food and agricultural systems.

Some career choices include food science and veterinary science, farming,

marketing, management and social services. Each land-grant university has

an agricultural experimental station equipped with laboratories and

experimental farms. There agricultural students work to develop better

farming methods, solve the special problems of local farmers, and provide

new technologies.

Post-reading Activities

1. Fill in the blanks with suitable words from the text:

a. State … universities award more than three-quarters of all

agricultural degrees;

b. There are several largest state universities with many …

located across the States;

c. Many students from poor families take a … job while they are

at a university;

d. A large number of students work to help pay their … .

e. The waiters can earn a considerable amount of money from ... .

f. High school students are encouraged to … as much education

as they can;

g. The choice for places of higher education is …

h. A university provides … in most of the subjects that are

offered in colleges.

(campuses; part-time; land-grant; tips; expenses; earn; enormous;

advanced studies).

2 . Read aloud and translate the international words:

Technology, fund, grant, business, medicine, engineering,

proportion, campus, mechanical, aspect, career, veterinary, marketing,

management, farm, experimental, station, laboratory.

3. Insert personal pronouns in the proper case:

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1. I was asked by the English teacher and told … about the economy of the

USA. 2. I need this article badly. I can’t prepare my report without … . 3.

Wait for us at the bus-stop. … will be back very soon. 4. Helen is to be

there at 6. We’ll be waiting for … . 5. My friends are coming. Meet … ,

please. 6. We are going to spend vacations in the country. Will you join …

? 7. I like this player very much. How much did you pay for …?

4. Fill in the blanks with some or any:

1. Have you got … information about the education system of Great

Britain? 2. There are … English textbooks on the shelf. 3. … tree species

are very valuable. 4. There aren’t … mistakes in the student’s dictation. 5.

I’ve read … English stories this month. 6. … students of our group take a

part-time jobs. 7. There isn’t … scientific library in this college. 8. …

career choices at our university include Forest Management.

5. Study the text and answer the questions:

1. Why has the need for higher education in the USA grown?

2. How many colleges and universities are there in the USA?

3. What does the word “coeducational” mean?

4. Is the cost of studying in private universities substantial?

5. Name the most popular American universities.

6. What do the career choices in universities include?

7. What is the aim of agricultural experimental stations?

8. Why does it pay to earn as much education as you can?

6. Translate into English in written form:

1. Багато британських студентів навчаються далеко від своїх домівок.

2. У Великій Британії немає системи освіти в загальноприйнятому

значенні цього слова. 3. Університети мусять відреагувати на

підвищену потребу в освіті. 4. Мета політехнічних вузів — заповнити

прогалину між університетом і подальшою освітньою діяльністю. 5.

Студентів вищої школи заохочують здобути якомога більше освіти. 6.

Більшість університетів у США — сумісного типу. 7. Багато студентів

працюють, щоб оплатити витрати на навчання. 8. Кожен університет

на дарованій землі має власну дослідну станцію.

7. Read the text once again and try to retell it.

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UNIT 2

NEW AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGIES

Зміст уроку:

1. Лексична тема: New Agricultural Technologies.

2. Граматичний матеріал: Adjectives. Adverbs.

3. Тексти: “Agricultural Sciences and New Agricultural Technologies”,

“Biotechnology in Agriculture”.

Pre-reading Activities

1. Discuss the following questions:

1. Do you think crop cultivation methods have greatly been changed

since the middle of the 20th century?

2. What new agricultural sciences have appeared?

3. What do you know about genetic engineering? What is your attitude

to transgenic crops?

2. Read aloud and translate the international words:

Technologies, production, cultivation, physiology, microbiology, genetics,

grouping, farming techniques, entomology, location, satellite signal,

pesticides, organic, chemicals, computer technology.

3. Translate and learn the following word-combinations:

food and fibre production, production and processing, an applied science,

fundamental natural and social sciences, acquired diseases, efficient

practice, plant physiology, soil science, for human consumption,

preparatory measures, precision farming, biomass harvesters, artificial

selection, recombinant DNA, insect tolerance, the nation's dairy herds.

4. What parts of speech do these words belong to (adjectives or adverbs)?

Translate each word and form Degrees of Comparison:

Easy, deep, happily, pretty, simple, near, fast, wide, widely, short,

ancient, careful, early, slowly, heavy, bright, famous.

5. Form adverbs from these words and translate them:

Rare, careful, bad, day, week, immediate, sudden, possible, happy,

full, quick, basic, automatic, good, precise, efficient.

6. Before reading the text - learn the vocabulary:

fibre n волокно

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consumption n споживання

grouping n угрупування, класифікація

precision n точність, акуратність

allow v дозволяти

autonomous adj автономний, самоврядний

advance v просуватися уперед, прогресувати

residue n залишок

on-the-go регулювання без зупинки машини

sensors датчики

mounted встановлений

animal performance продуктивність; приріст маси

Agricultural Sciences and New Agricultural Technologies

The agricultural sciences deal with the problems of food and fibre

production and processing. They include the technologies of soil

cultivation and harvesting, animal production, and the processing of plant

and animal products for human consumption and use. The three main

scientific disciplines are biology, chemistry and physics. Each is

subdivided now into more specialized groupings. For example biology

includes botany, microbiology and genetics. Within these groups there are

further divisions of study.

Agricultural science is largely applied ecology, or the study of an

animal or plant in its environment. The chemical, physical and biological

effects of the surroundings on a plant or animal need to be understood.

Science has developed many new agricultural technologies. Today farmers

are using these new technologies in order to grow more crops and, in turn,

make more money. Other technologies have allowed farmers to farm more

land. These trends will continue into the future.

Let’s examine some examples. What do television and farming have

in common? Precision farming is one new technological development in

agriculture. This new farming technique uses satellite signals to pinpoint

the farmer's location in a field. It is similar to the way some television

stations use satellite signals to send television waves. Television satellite

dishes receive a signal from a satellite in space and transform it into the

television show you watch. Farmers use an antenna to receive a signal from

a satellite in space. The antenna is connected to a computer on the farmer's

combine. The computer uses satellite signal to tell the farmer exactly where

the combine is in the field. Precision farming allows the farmer to farm

more efficiently and precisely.

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In the future more farmers will be using computer technology.

Farmers use computers to get information on farm markets, weather, and

other farming information.

Such scientific disciplines as biochemistry, agro meteorology, soil

science, engineering, botany, crop physiology, animal physiology and

nutrition, genetics, entomology, plant and animal pathology, farming

systems and production methods are of great importance. Many farmers use

chemicals to keep weeds and pests from destroying their crops and add

more nutrients to the soil. There are four main types of pesticides:

herbicides, insecticides, rodenticides and fungicides. All four of these

pesticides are used to kill different kinds of pests that can be found on a

farm. Farmers that make the decision not to use any chemicals are called

organic farmers.

Autonomous tractors. There are tractors that drive themselves with a

computer in control. Some manufacturers have experimented with

driverless tractors but have not taken them beyond the research stage. A big

problem is that the tractor must sense when a person, animal or object is

near and stop or move around it. There is little room for error. But guidance

technology has advanced a great deal in the last few years.

Biofuels. Biofuels will continue to be critical in the next decade, and it will

take all kinds to fulfil our massive fuel demand — from ethanol and

biodiesel to canola and sunflower oil.

Biomass harvesters. For years, the problem has been how to get rid

of excess crop residue. Now, alternative fuel makers have another use for

biomass. The key question for manufacturers is if they should modify

existing equipment, develop new prototypes or design totally different

machines to collect biomass. It turns out that alternative fuels may keep

more than just farmers in business.

On-the-go sensors. Expect to see new developments with on-the-go

sensing from vehicle-mounted devices that help regulate the application of

seed, fertilizer and chemicals. Sensors are being added to every moving

part of the implement to help it track and operate in the most optimum way.

The sensors log information like ground speed, depth of tillage, number of

seeds planted, and amount of fertilizer applied.

Agricultural meteorology deals with the effects of weather events on

plant and animal agriculture. Atmospheric factors such as cloud type and

solar radiation, temperature, vapour pressure, and precipitation are of vital

interest to agriculturalists. Agricultural meteorologists use weather and

climatic data in farm risk analysis as well as in short- and long-range

forecasting of crop yields and animal performance.

14

Post-reading Activities

1. Fill in the blanks with suitable words from the text:

1. The agricultural sciences … the problems of food and fibre production

and … .

2. … farming allows the farmer to farm more efficiently and precisely.

3. Many farmers use … to keep weeds and pests from destroying their

crops and add more … to the soil.

4. Expect to see new developments with on-the-go sensing from vehicle-…

devices that help … the application of seed, fertilizer and chemicals.

5. Farmers that make the decision not to use any chemicals are called …

farmers.

(Precision; chemicals; processing; regulate; deal with; organic; nutrients;

mounted)

2. Translate these word-combinations, paying attention to the use of

Adverbs and Adjectives:

to work hard – hard work; to go far – the Far East; to go straight

forward – a straight road; to fly high – high mountains; to drive fast – a

fast car; to wake up early – an early bird; to stand near – near future.

3. Find Ukrainian equivalents for these words:

1. consumption a) переробка

2. harvesting b) споживання

3. biofuels c) виконувати

4. processing d) збирання врожаю

5. fulfil e) біопалива

4. Study the text and answer the questions:

1. What problems do agricultural sciences deal with?

2. What technologies do they include?

3. What do television and farming have in common?

4. Does precision farming allow the farmer to farm more efficiently?

5. How many types of pesticides are there?

6. What is your opinion about autonomous tractors?

7. What kinds of biofuels will be used in the future?

8. Wich devices (sensors) will help regulate the application of seed,

fertilizer and chemicals?

9. What does agricultural meteorology deal with?

5. Read the text once again and try to retell it.

15

Pre-reading Activities

1. Try to translate the following word-combinations without dictionary:

biological diversity genetic engineering

United Nations Convention improved food crops

artificial selection biotechnological applications

recombinant DNA tissue culture-based processes

horizontal gene transfer a host organism

organic materials biorobotics

for commercial use shelf life

2. What parts of speech do these words belong to? Pay attention to the

suffixes and prefixes. Translate each word:

procedure, application, nearly, modify, initial, primarily, commercial,

commercially, establishment, processor, widely, beneficial, continually,

reviewing, importance, productivity, quality.

3. Find Ukrainian equivalents for these words:

1. define a) передавати, переносити

2. application b) з'являтися, з'ясовуватися

3. improve c) давати визначення

4. transfer d) покращувати

5. emerge e) застосування, використання

4. Before reading the text - learn the vocabulary:

procedure n процедура, методика проведення

initial adj початковий, первинний,

первісний

derivative adj похідний, вторинний

encompass v містити, охоплювати

thereof внаслідок цього, того

acquire v набувати, отримувати,

одержувати, досягати

enable v дозволити, давати змогу, робити

можливим

recombinant adj рекомбінантний

pathogen n патогенний (хвороботворний)

мікроорганизм

herd n стадо

release v відпускати, звільняти

16

compound n суміш

bolster v сприяти, підтримувати,

undergo v зазнавати, витримувати

trait n особливість, характерна риса

delay v затримувати, відкладати

repel v відхиляти, відштовхувати

rennet n сичужний фермент

enzyme n фермент

Biotechnology in Agriculture

Biotechnology is technology based on biology, especially when used

in agriculture, food science, and medicine. United Nations Convention on

Biological Diversity defines biotechnology as: “Any technological

application that uses biological systems, dead organisms, or derivatives

thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use”.

Biotechnology is often used to refer to genetic engineering

technology of the 21st century, however the term encompasses a wider

range and history of procedures for modifying biological organisms

according to the needs of humanity, going back to the initial modifications

of native plants into improved food crops through artificial selection and

hybridization. Bioengineering is the science upon which all

biotechnological applications are based. With the development of new

approaches and modern techniques, traditional biotechnology industries are

also acquiring new horizons enabling them to improve the quality of their

products and increase the productivity of their systems.

Before 1971, the term, biotechnology, was primarily used in the

agriculture and agriculture industries. Since the 1970s, it began to be used

by the Western scientific establishment to refer to laboratory-based

techniques being developed in biological research, such as recombinant

DNA or tissue culture-based processes, or horizontal gene transfer in living

plants, using vectors such as the Agrobacterium bacteria to transfer DNA

into a host organism. In fact, the term should be used in a much broader

sense to describe the whole range of methods, both ancient and modern,

used to manipulate organic materials to reach the demands of food

production.

17

Biotechnology combines disciplines like genetics, molecular biology,

biochemistry, embryology, and cell biology, which are in turn linked to

practical disciplines like chemical engineering, information technology,

and biorobotics. Patho-biotechnology describes the exploitation of

pathogens or pathogen derived compounds for beneficial effect.

Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and

acquired diseases like cancer and AIDS by using normal genes to

supplement or replace defective genes or to bolster a normal function such

as immunity.

Current Uses of Biotechnology in Agriculture

Genetic engineering can be used to modify the genetic compositions of

plants, animals, and microorganisms. The number of genes that have been

isolated and are available for transfer is growing daily. Like other products,

genetically engineered products undergo a period of research and

development before they are ready for commercial release.

The most widespread application of genetic engineering in agriculture by

far is in engineered crops. The traits most commonly introduced into crops

are herbicide tolerance, insect tolerance, and virus tolerance.Thousands of

such products have been field tested and over a dozen have been approved

for commercial use in the USA.

F. ex. Several tomatoes engineered to delay ripening have been approved

for commercial use. In some cases, delayed ripening just prolongs shelf

life.

On the livestock side, a drug has been produced for dairy cows -

recombinant Bovine Growth Hormone (BGH) or Bovine Somatotropin

(BST) - by engineering a bacterium to contain the gene for the hormone.

The drug is used commercially to stimulate milk production in cows.

Currently this hormone is being used in about a third of the nation's dairy

herds.

Engineered Microorganisms Used as Pesticides. Several bacteria

engineered to enhance their ability to kill or repel pests have been approved

for commercial use. These products are used as pesticides in agricultural

fields and gardens.

Food Processing Aids Made from Engineered Bacteria. Bacteria have been

genetically engineered to produce rennet, an enzyme important in making

18

cheese. Genetically engineered rennet (chymosin) is approved for

commercial use and widely used by U.S. cheese processors.

Post-reading Activities

1. Decide whether the following statementss are true or false:

1. Bioengineering is the science upon which all biotechnological

applications are based.

2. Before 1971, the term, biotechnology, was’t primarily used in the

agriculture and agriculture industries.

3. In fact, this term should be used in a much broader sense to describe the

whole range of methods, both ancient and modern, used to manipulate

organic materials to reach the demands of food production.

4. Gene therapy isn’t used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired

diseases like cancer and AIDS.

5. Gene therapy doesn’t use normal genes to supplement or replace

defective genes or to bolster a normal function such as immunity.

2. Fill in the following sentences with the proper terms:

1). … is defined as “Any technological application that uses biological

systems, dead organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify

products or processes for specific use”.

-Genetic engineering

- Biotechnology

-Agrichemistry

2). Native plants were modified into improved food crops through artificial

selection and … .

- irrigation

- fertilization

- hybridization

3) … describes the exploitation of pathogens or pathogen derived

compounds for beneficial effect.

- Microbiology

- Patho-biotechnology

19

- Virology

4). The modification of the characteristics of an organism by manipulating

its genetic material is … .

- Embryology

- Cell biology

- Genetic engineering

5). The branch of science concerned with the chemical and physicochemical

processes that occur within living organisms is called … .

- Genetics

- Molecular biology

- Biochemistry

3. Read and translate this additional material:

The Role of Forest Biotechnology. Forest biotechnology can play an

important part in satisfying future demand for wood and wood products.

What are the forest industry trends and needs worldwide that suggest or

impel application of biotechnology in coming years?

• Need for fast growing, short-rotation tree crops to meet future wood

demands.

• Need for improved urban forestry, preservation of trees of ancient

and historical value, control of invasive species and trees for

bioremediation purposes.

Forest biotechnology research within Europe is grouped around three

main themes:

- improving product quantity and quality;

- forest genomics and proteomics; and

- understanding the biotic and abiotic stress reponses of trees.

Forest genomics research. Genomics is the science that studies DNA

sequences and the functions of the tens of thousands of genes found in a

living organism. Canada is at the forefront of forest genomics, especially in

the areas of

• tree genomics,

• fungal genomics,

• insect and viral genomics, and

• molecular diagnostics.

Decoding a tree genome lays the groundwork for scientists to identify

genetic markers of desired traits, such as

• faster growth,

• disease and pest resistance,

• wood quality, and

20

• adaptability to local conditions.

Notes: impel – спонукати, приводити в рух, просувати; “DNA

sequence” - the linear order of the nucleotides along the DNA strand. This

sequence determines the unique genetic composition of an organism;

“Nucleotides” - the building blocks of DNA.

“Genomics” - the study of an organism’s DNA sequence and the location

of genes on its chromosomes (structural genomics) and of the function of

an organism’s genes in relation to their products under particular

environmental conditions (functional genomics).

4. Answer the following questions:

1. What is the role of Forest Biotechnology in the future?

2. What are the trends of forest industry according to application

of biotechnology in coming years?

3. What are the main tasks of Forest biotechnology research

within Europe?

4. What does Forest genomics deal with?

5. What genetic markers do scientists try to identify decoding a

tree genome?

5. Try to retell the text “Biotechnology in Agriculture” using your

plan.

UNIT 3

FORESTS AND FORESTRY IN UKRAINE

Зміст уроку:

1. Лексична тема: Forests and forestry in Ukraine.

2. Граматичний матеріал: Simple and Continuous Tenses.

Participles I, II.

3. Текст: “Forests and Forestry in Ukraine”.

Pre-reading Activities

1. Discuss the following questions: 1. What are the main natural zones of vegetation in Ukraine?

2. What tree species grow in our country?

3. What Ukrainian botanical gardens, national parks or reserves do you

know?

21

2. Find Ukrainian equivalents for these tree names:

1) alder a) бук

2) ash b) в’яз

3) beech c) дуб

4) birch d) тополя

5) elm e) ясень

6) hornbeam f) сосна

7) linden g) клен

8) maple h) береза

9) oak i) верба

10) pine j) граб

11) poplar k) вільха

12) willow l) липа

3. Read aloud and translate the international words:

Rotation, commercial, technically, idea, productivity, autonomous, export,

reservoir, code, operation, import, balance.

4. Translate the words with the prefixes in-, im-, un-:

Indirectly, inactive, inadequate; impossible, impracticable, immature

immobility, unreal, unfit, unable.

5. Write the verbs from which the following nouns are formed. Translate

them

Establishment, reduction, requirement, improvement, development,

adjustment, government, protection, increment.

1. Choose synonyms to the following words:

Amount – quality, quantity, stability, ability.

Increment – development, substance, increase, improvement.

Limitation – contamination, culmination, preservation, restriction.

Reduction – decrease, rotation, competition, composition.

Importance – maintenance, resistance, significance, appearance.

7. Translate the following sentences. Pay attention to the underlined

words:

Most of Ukrainian forests grow in uneven-aged stands. Forest stands are

classified according to their age: young growth – 32%, medium-aged

trees – 44%, ripening – 13%, mature – 11%. The predominance of

young trees is a result of a large-scaled reforestation of the territories

22

deforested in the reconstruction period after the Great Patriotic War

(World War II).

8. Before reading the text learn the new words:

devastated p.p. спустошений

alternate v чергуватися

distinguish v розрізняти, розпізнавати

intermediate a середній, проміжний,

floodplains n (pl) заливні луки

join v приєднуватися

meadows n (pl) луки

strip n смужка

reduce v зменшувати, скорочувати

relatively adv відносно, порівняно, відповідно

sustained p.p. безперервний, постійний

sustained forest

(yield)

management

система безперервного відновлення лісу;

лісове господарство, розраховане для постійного

користування

stock n запас; стовбур (дерева); сировина; акціонерний

капітал (joint stock), основний капітал; фонди

stocking n деревостій, насадження

damage n

v

шкода, ушкодження, збиток, збитки,

ушкоджувати, псувати, завдавати шкоди

belt n зона, пояс

pulp n деревна, волокниста маса, целюлоза

lumber n

v

амер. колоди, будівельний ліс; пиломатеріали

робити лісозаготівлі, валити і різати ліс

expand v розтягувати(ся), розширювати(ся), збільшувати(ся)

в обсязі, витрачати

preserve n заповідник, заказний ліс

restrict v обмежувати

increment n приріст,зростання, розширення, збільшення,

log n

v

колода,

заготовлювати (вирубувати) ліс

remainder n залишок, залишки

process v піддавати (технологічному) процесу, обробляти,

переробляти

merchantable

wood n

ділова деревина

merchantable

forest n

лісонасадження, вигідне для експлуатації

23

secure v гарантувати, забезпечувати

own a

n

v

свій, власний,

власність, приналежність

володіти, мати, визнавати, визнавати своїм

maintenance n обслуговування, догляд, підтримка; експлуатація

plot n наділ, ділянка, чи шматок землі

enhance v збільшувати, посилювати

output n продукція, вихід продукції

plywood n клеєна фанера

subsequently adv згодом, пізніше, після, потім

resort n улюблене місце, курорт

regulatory basis n нормативно-правова база

harmonize v приводити у відповідність

1. Read the text and say what each paragraph is about. Provide each

paragraph with a suitable heading

FORESTS AND FORESTRY IN UKRAINE

The total forest area in Ukraine is 15.7% (9.5 million hectares).

Coniferous forests occupy 42% of the total forested territory including 33%

of pine; 43% is covered with hardwood forests, 32% of which constitute

oak and beech forests; and 15% is covered with softwood broadleaves and

shrubs.

The afforestation in different regions varies heavily, from more than

50% in Zakarpatia to 3.7% in Mykolaiv. In northern Ukraine the abundant

rainfall and moderate temperatures provide favourable conditions for forest

vegetation. Woodlands alternate with areas of steppe in the central region.

Most of the rich forestlands are in the Carpathians (42% of forest cover in

Ukraine), and Polissya region (nearly 27%). There is very little woodland

in southern Ukraine, which mostly consists of treeless plains, many of

which are arable lands.

Three natural zones of vegetation are distinguishable from north to

south: the Polissya, the Forest-steppe, and the Steppe.

Nearly one-quarter of the Polyssia is covered with mixed woodlands,

including oak, elm, birch, hornbeam, ash, maple, pine, linden, alder, aspen,

poplar, willow, white spruce and beech.

The Forest-steppe zone extends south from the Polissya. Mixed forests

of the region consist of oak, pine, hornbeam, and maple.

Farther south, near the Black Sea, Sea of Azov, and the Crimean

Mountains, the Forest-steppe joins the Steppe zone. The region has chiefly

24

the grass-steppe vegetation. Only on the Dnieper floodplains are there

forest groves, mainly of oak.

Two other natural regions are found near the borders of the country:

the Carpathians and the Crimean Mountains. In the Carpathians the

vegetation is located in zones according to altitude. The lower slopes are

covered with mixed forests (beech, hornbeam, fir, platan, oak), the

intermediate slopes (4,000-5,000 feet) - with pine forests, and the summits

- with Alpine meadows. In the coastal strip of the Crimean mountains low-

growing forests of oak and juniper grow. The upper strip of the Southern

Crimean Cost is covered with forests mostly with beech, hornbeam and

maple.

Ukraine's forests were devastated during World War II. But some

decades of planned, professional, and relatively sustainable forest

management brought positive results. The percentage of total forest cover

grew 1.3 times; the growing stock increased more than twice and achieved

1.8 milliard m3. The mean annual increment is about 4.0 m3 per hectare.

Ukrainian forests and forest management have some distinctive

features in comparison with other countries:

- low percentage of forest cover;

- forests grow in different natural zones which have distinctions in

forest growing conditions, silvicultural methods, management of forest

resources, etc.;

- large forest area is located in a zone polluted by radiation;

- most of Ukrainian forests are planted and they need the intensive

maintenance.

Forests have been classified according to their economic importance.

There are two main groups of forests. The first group includes protective

forests and special forests – green belts around the cities and factories, the

protective belts for roads and railways, forests beside rivers, lakes and other

water reservoirs. Timber utilisation is restricted and rotation ages are much

longer than in the commercial forests. There are also forests of natural

preserves and resorts (where hiking, camping, and hunting are encouraged).

The second group consists of commercial forests (where wood is harvested

for timber, pulp and fuel).

Ukrainian forests perform valuable environmental functions, therefore

their exploitation is restricted. The annual harvest of all merchantable wood

is about 15 million m3.

Softwoods make up about two-thirds of the production, and

hardwoods about one-third. Nearly half the timber output is used for

making lumber, and about one-third is converted to pulpwood, which is

subsequently used to manufacture paper. Most of the remaining output goes

25

into plywood. Fir and pine are the primary softwoods used in making

lumber. Oak, maple and other hardwoods provide fine woods for the

manufacture of furniture and other products. Forestry industry is

technically well equipped and has tractors, helicopters, and many special

machines at its disposal.

The main objective of Ukrainian forest management is extensive

reforestation. There are 649 tree nurseries, greenhouses where about 377

million seedlings are grown every year. 40,000 ha of forests are planted

every year that is 20-30% higher than the harvested territory.

Forests are mostly in state ownership: 68% of forest fund is managed

by the State Forest Resources Agency of Ukraine and forestry departments

at the regional levels, 24% by the Ministry of Agrarian Policy, and 2% by

the Ministry of Defence. The remaining part of forests is managed by a

number of other Ministries and agencies. Private forests amount to 1% of

forest fund. According to the Land Code of Ukraine, approved by the

Ukrainian Parliament in October 2001, the private ownership of forest plots

with area less than 5 ha is secured and private forests can be planted on the

private non-fertile lands.

The main tasks of the State Forest Resources Agency of Ukraine

(according to the State Programme “Forests of Ukraine" for 2010-2015,

16.09.09 №977) are the following:

- to increase the percentage of forest cover to the optimum level in all

natural zones;

- to improve the productivity and quality of forests;

- to enhance nature-protective functions of forests, to conserve the

biological diversity;

- to intensify the state control in protection, conservation, exploitation

and regeneration of forests;

- to develop research and education in forestry;

- to elaborate regulatory basis in forest management and to harmonize

it with the international principles of sustainable forest management.

It is not possible to solve problems in silviculture without active

international cooperation as air pollution, climate change, global character

of economic problems have no boundaries.

In 1992 the State Forest Resources Agency of Ukraine started

collaboration with UNECE Timber Committee and Joint FAO/ECE/ILO

Committee (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations /

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe / International Labour

Organization) on forest technologies, theory and practice in silviculture,

forest management, protection and conservation of forests.

26

Notes:1 Abundant = syn. heavy – великий, сильний, рясний (дощ).

2 Only on the Dnieper floodplains are there forest groves, mainly of oak.

Зворотний порядок слів має місце в реченні, що починається з слова-обставини,

перед яким стоїть прислівник only, а також таких сполучників та прислівників, як:

never, seldom, little, in vain; neither, nor; hardly, scarcely, no sooner…(than), not

only…(but).

F. ex. Only then did he understand it. Тільки тоді він зрозумів це.

Post-reading Activities

1. Mark the correct sentences with the letter T and the false ones with

the letter F

1. Forests of Ukraine cover 40 million ha of its area.

2. Pine, oak and beech are commercial species of great significance in our

country.

3. Forests are divided into three groups according to their economic

importance.

4. Most of forestlands in Ukraine are privately owned.

5. The mean annual increment is about 5.0 m3 per hectare.

6. Softwoods make up about one-third of the production.

7. The new land code bans private ownership (cooperative and individual)

of forest plots of up to 5 ha.

2. Insert prepositions or adverbs

1. Ukraine’s forests were reduced … only 12% of land area … the war.

2. Forestry industry is technically well equipped and has many special

machines … its disposal.

3. 43% of the total forested territory is covered … hardwood forests.

4. Most … the remaining output goes … plywood.

5. Forests are state owned, 68% … forest fund is managed … the State

Committee of Forestry and forestry departments … the regional levels.

6. The State Forest Resources Agency of Ukraine started collaboration

with UNECE Timber Committee and other international organizations

… forest technologies, theory and practice … silviculture, forest

management,

(at, after, to, well, with, into, of, by, on, in)

3 Change the following italicized words using the synonyms given below

27

1. Nearly half the timber output is used for making lumber, and about one-

third is converted to pulpwood, which is subsequently used to

manufacture paper.

2. Private forests amount to 1% of forest fund.

3. Ukrainian forests perform valuable environmental functions, therefore

their exploitation is restricted.

4. The total growing stock of 1.2 billion m3 of forest produces an annual

increment of 24,4 million m3/yr, of which 12 million m3 is logged.

5. Most of the remainder of the 12 million m3/yr cut is not used or

processed locally.

6. The mean annual increment is about 4.0 m3 per hectare.

(rest, make up, limited, fulfil, average, make, increase, later, treated)

4. Give antonyms to these words:

1. damage n a) exclude v

2. clearing n b) make worse

3. improve v c) deficient a

4. include v d) advantage n

5. sufficient a e) reforestation n

5. Look through the text and answer the following questions:

1. What part of land area do forests cover in our country? When were

they devastated?

2. How are forests classified according to their economic importance?

3. What region of Ukraine has most of the rich forest lands?

4. What part of Ukraine has very little woodland?

5. How many natural vegetation zones are there in Ukraine? Where are

they located on the map of the country?

6. What species of trees grow in the Polissya zone?

7. What trees are indigenous to forest-steppe and steppe zones?

8. What tree species dominate in mixed forests of the Carpathians?

9. What tree species provide fine woods for the manufacture of

furniture and other products?

10. What are commercial tree species in our country?

11. What part of timber is used for making lumber, pulpwood, paper and

plywood?

12. When was a new Land Code approved by the Ukrainian Parliament?

13. What is the main objective of Ukrainian forest management

nowadays?

14. When did the State Committee of Forestry start collaboration with

the UNECE Timber Committee?

28

15. What national parks and nature reserves of our country do you

know? Where are they situated?

6. Give a summary of the text “Forestry in Ukraine”

7. Read the text once again and try to retell it.

UNIT 4

FORESTS AND FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND THE USA

Зміст уроку:

1. Лексична тема: Forests and Forestry in Great Britain and the

USA. 2. Граматичний матеріал: Perfect and Perfect-Continuous Tenses

(Active Voice).

3. Тексти: “Forests and Forestry in Great Britain”;

“Forests and Forestry in the USA”.

Pre-reading Activities

1. Discuss the following questions: 1. Is Great Britain a sufficiently forested country in your opinion?

2. What is the difference between Ukrainian and Britain’s climate?

Does it influence vegetation? How do you think?

3. Do you know what tree species grow in this country? What kind of

forests predominates: broadleaved or coniferous?

2. Read aloud and translate the international words:

Plantation, production, products, primarily, process, сommission,

innovation, popularity, dominate, productivity.

3. Translate the words with the prefix re-:

Replant, rebuild, rewrite, reforestation, replace, remake, reconstruction.

4. Write the verbs from which the following nouns are formed. Translate

them

Afforestation, management, settlement, conservation, harvesting,

consumption, ownership, modification, selection, difference,

operation, innovation.

5. Before reading the text learn the new words:

virtually adv фактично, дійсно, по суті

consumption n споживання

29

process v обробляти, переробляти

compete v конкурувати

innovation нововведення

revitalise v воскрешати, відновлювати, оживляти,

реконструювати

forecast n,v прогноз, передбачення

surplus n,adj лищок, зайвина, решта; надмірний,

додатковий

formerly adv раніше, колись

former adj колишній, попередній

whether чи

primarily adv спершу, спочатку, перед усім

sustain v підтримувати, підпирати

habitat n місце поширення, ареал (тварин, рослин)

enjoyment n втіха, приємність, задоволення

access n доступ

fulfil v виконувати

requirement n вимога, необхідність

Sitka spruce n ялина срібляста, ялина приморська

Norway spruce n ялина звичайна

Scots pine n сосна звичайна

target n мета

achieve v досягати

fertile adj родючий

sawnwood n пиломатеріал

6. Read and translate the text:

FORESTS AND FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN

Britain is one of the least afforested countries in the Northern

Hemisphere. Today virtually all of Britain's 2.2 million hectares (about 5.4

million acres) of woodland consists of artificial plantations. Forests and

woodland in England, Scotland and Wales provide only 15% of home

consumption of wood products. Timber imports cost over £6 billion a year,

the fourth biggest import after vehicles, food and fuel. Timber supply is

forecast more than to double over the next 20 years. There is a surplus of

formely industrial or agricultural land that could grow trees.

Now Britain has one of the world’s most advanced timber processing

industries and can compete on quality and technological innovation.

Management is being revitalized by multi-purpose forests. Forests,

whether they are primarily productive or ancient and semi-natural in

30

character, will not only produce timber but improve the landscape, create

and sustain wildlife habitats and provide enjoyment through public access.

About 70 per cent of productive forest is coniferous as they are quick

growing.

Sitka spruce, the best –growing species in Britain, continues to fulfil

the main production requirements, but other softwood species such as

Norway spruce and Scots pine are also grown.

The Forestry Commission, established by the Government in 1919, is

one of Britain’s biggest landowners with almost 40 per cent of productive

forests in England, Scotland and Wales. The Forestry Commission has run

a reforestation programme since the 1950s. The annual programme in

recent years has been 100 million new trees planted each year.

Broadleaves dominate new planting, and little more than half the

annual target is being achieved. The most common trees are oak, beech, ash

and elm. Pine and birch predominate in Scotland. Fast-growing broad-leaf

species such as poplar will gain popularity. On moist, fertile, lowland sites

they can achieve the same timber results as high-yielding conifers but in

half the time.

The four principal product sectors are paper and board, wood-based

panels, sawnwood and other industrial wood.

There are 17 national Forest Parks, managed by the Forestry

Comission, which lie in some of the most beautiful parts of Britain.

Post-reading Activities

1. Choose synonyms to the following words:

1. forecast n a) uphold, support v

2. purpose n b) previous, preceding,

foregoing adj

3. sustain v c) provision, purchasing n

4. encourage v d) prediction, prophecy n

5. former adj e) aim, target, objective n

6. supply n f) promote, embolden, hearten v

2. Decide whether the following statements are true or false:

1. Britain is one of the most afforested countries of the Northern

Hemisphere.

2. Britain's woodland for the most part consists of artificial plantations.

3. Forests in England, Scotland and Wales provide about 50% of home

consumption of wood products.

31

4. Now Britain has one of the worst timber processing industries in

Europe and cannot compete on quality and technological innovation

with other countries.

5. Coniferous forests are the most productive as they are quick growing.

6. Fast-growing broad-leaf species such as oak will gain popularity.

7. Great Britain imports about 90 percent of its timber.

3. Give antonyms to these words:

1. artificial adj a) deforestation n

2. import n b) treeless adj

3. encourage v c) natural adj

4. reforestation n d) export n

5. afforested p.p. e) discourage, dishearten, hinder v

4. Fill in the blanks with the words using the text:

1. Today ... all of Britain's 2.2 million hectares (about 5.4 million acres)

of woodland consists of ... plantations.

2. There is a surplus of ... industrial or agricultural land that could grow

trees.

3. Now Britain has one of the world’s most ... timber processing

industries and can ... on quality and technological innovation.

4. Forests will not only produce … but … the landscape, create and …

wildlife habitats and.

5. The Forestry Commission is one of Britain’s biggest ... with almost

40 per cent of ... forests in England, Scotland and Wales.

(formerly, artificial, sustain, virtually, advanced, timber, productive,

compete, improve, landowners)

5. Translate the following sentences and explain the use of underlined

Tense-forms as well as the meaning of “one/ones; that/those”:

1. British forestry has entered a phase in which social and

environmental criteria are as important as economic ones to achieve

a more balanced outlook for the future.

2. Just as the functions of agriculture are being extended, so too are

those of forestry.

3. In the early 1990s, 12 areas near big towns or cities were designated

suitable for “community forests”, where planting mixed species is

encouraged and where wildlife and public enjoyment are priorities.

4. A new National Forest is also being created on more than 300 square

km of the English Midlands1 and a similar project is underway in

central Scotland.

32

5. Within these areas, private, business, local authority, conservation

and forestry interests are being encouraged to work together to create

new woodlands and manage existing ones better.

6. In 1992 the Forestry Commission was reorganised into the

Department of Forestry. 1 Midlands – Центральні графства Великої Британії

6. Read the text and say what each paragraph is about. Provide each

paragraph with a suitable heading

7. Study the text and answer these questions:

1. Is Britain one of the most afforested countries of the Northern

Hemisphere?

2. What part of Britain’s woodland do artificial plantations make up?

3. What kind of forests is the most productive? Why?

4. What softwood species grow in Great Britain?

5. The Forestry Commission is one of the biggest landowners in GB,

isn’t it?

6. How long has a reforestation programme been carried out in Great

Britain?

7. How many trees have been planted yearly according to this

programme in recent years?

8. What are the most common trees in Great Britain?

9. Which fast-growing broadleaved tree will be the most widespread in

GB?

10. What are the main principal product sectors?

8. Read the text once again and prepare to retell it

Vocabulary, grammar and speech exercises to the text “Forests and

Forestry in the USA”

1. Try to translate the following word-combinations without dictionary:

major formations tropical rain forests

boreal forests giant sequoia trees

temperate savannas narrow coastal strip

Pacific coastal forests Southwestern United States

deciduous-evergreen forests construction industry

lumber production remaining output

converted to pulpwood commercial softwoods of

importance

33

2. What parts of speech do these words belong to? Pay attention to the

suffixes and prefixes. Translate each word:

Subarctic, recognize, nearly, formation, coastal, deciduous, commercial,

furniture, manufacture, procedure, three-fifths, management, continually,

reviewing, importance.

3. Match the following English tree names with their Ukrainian

equivalents using the vocabulary given below:

1) Loblolly pine a) липа американська

2) mahogany b) ялиця дугласова

3) buckeye c) сосна віргінська чорна

4) basswood d) червоне дерево

5) Douglas-fir e) сосна болотна

6) holly f) дерево залізне

7) redwood g) кінський каштан

8) bay tree h) гікорі

9) slash pine i) кедр ладанний

10) hickory j) падуб, гостролист

11) incense-cedar k) лаврове дерево

12) ironwood l) мамонтове дерево

4. Choose a suitable word:

1. Such … trees as incense-cedar, Douglas-fir, Jeffrey pine, ponderosa

pine grow in the Sierra Nevada.

2. The rest goes to make crates, furniture, railroad ties, sporting goods,

toys, and thousands of other … .

3. … which are broad-leaved and usually shed leaves in autumn

provide fine woods for the manufacture of furniture, flooring,

paneling and other products. Popular hardwoods include birch,

mahogany, maple, oak, beech, sweet gum, ash and walnut.

4. In the United States, the construction … uses about 50 percent of the

lumber production.

(softwoods, products, hardwoods, industry)

5. Before reading the text - learn the vocabulary:

bay tree n лаврове дерево

formation n екол. фітоценоз, рослинне

угруповання

mahogany n червоне дерево

holly n падуб, гостролист

live oak n дуб віргінський

34

pitch pine n смоляниста сосна

Loblolly pine сосна віргінська чорна

slash pine сосна болотна

basswood n липа американська

buckeye n кінський каштан

cucumber magnolia n магнолія, огіркове дерево

hickory n гікорі (американський горіх)

black cherry n черемха віргінська; вишня чорна

або озерна

Jack pine n сосна Банкса

ironwood n дерево залізне

incense-cedar n річний кедр (лібоцедрус), кедр

ладанний

Douglas-fir n ялиця дугласова

Jeffrey pine n сосна Джеффрея

ponderosa pine n пондерозова/пондозова сосна

redwood n каліфорнійське мамонтове дерево

crate n ящик, тара для упаковки

railroad tie n залізнична шпала

flooring n підлога, настил

panel n, v панель, фільонка; обшивати

панелями

sweet-gum tree n ліквідамбар, стіракк

walnut n волоський горіх

turpentine n скипидар, терпентин, живиця

pitch n, v вар, пек, смола. дьоготь; смолити

resin n, v смола, камідь; смолити

wood tar n, v смола, деревний дьоготь; мазати

дьогтем, смолити

care n, v турбота, піклування, догляд;

доглядати, дбати

procedure n юр. парл. процедура, спосіб дії,

методика проведення (досліду,

аналізу)

review n, v огляд, перегляд (справи);

переглядати, оглядати

6. Read and translate the text:

35

FORESTS AND FORESTRY IN THE USA

Today, the United States, excluding Hawaii, has about 753 million

acres (305 million hectares) of forests. They cover a little less than a third

of the country.

The forests of the United States include nearly all the major

formations, except for tropical rain forests, boreal forests, and subarctic

woodlands. One common system recognizes seven U.S. formations. They

are (1) subtropical forests, (2) southern deciduous-evergreen forests, (3)

deciduous forests, (4) northern deciduous-evergreen forests, (5) temperate

savannas, (6) mountain evergreen forests, (7) Pacific coastal forests. These

forests include such tree species as: mahogany, and sabal palm (in southern

Florida); bay, holly, live oak, and magnolia (along the Atlantic and Gulf

coasts); pitch pine, loblolly, longleaf and slash pine (along the Gulf Coastal

Plain from Florida to Texas); ash, basswood, beech, buckeye, cucumber

magnolia, hickory, sugar maple, yellow-poplar, and several kinds of oaks

(in the central Appalachian Mountains region); beech, black cherry, red

maple, red oak, and white elm (in the north-eastern and north-central

deciduous forests); white-cedar, hemlock, and jack, red, and white pine,

basswood, beech, sugar maple, white ash, and yellow birch, black ash,

ironwood, black spruce and larch (in the northern deciduous-evergreen

forests); juniper (in the South-western United States); incense-cedar,

Douglas-fir, Jeffrey pine, ponderosa pine (in the Sierra Nevada);

magnificent giant sequoia trees (in central California); forests of redwood,

the tallest living trees (along a narrow coastal strip of the Pacific Ocean).

There are over one thousand species of trees in the USA. But only

about one hundred have much commercial value as lumber.

In the United States, the construction industry uses about 50 percent of

the lumber production. The rest goes to make crates, furniture, railroad ties,

sporting goods, toys, and thousands of other products.

Softwoods make up about three-fourths of the production, and

hardwoods about one-fourth. Nearly half the timber output is used for

making lumber, and about one-third is converted to pulpwood, which is

used to manufacture paper. Most of the remaining output goes into

plywood and veneer.

The commercial softwoods of importance are: southern yellow pine,

Douglas fir, hemlock, Sitka spruce, larch, white fir, Loblolly pine, Slash

pine, Ponderosa pine, California redwoods.

Hardwoods which are broad-leaved and usually shed leaves in autumn

provide fine woods for the manufacture of furniture, flooring, paneling and

36

other products. Popular hardwoods include birch, mahogany, maple, oak,

beech, sweet gum, ash and walnut.

Forests in the South supply about one-third of the lumber, nearly

three-fifths of the pulpwood, and almost all the turpentine, pitch, resin, and

wood tar produced in the USA.

Most part of the forest land is privately owned and consists of small

parks and farms. The care of these forests lies on the small owners.

The United States government has often passed laws to protect forest

resources. It established procedures for continually reviewing the

management of U.S. forests.

There are about 150 national forests in the USA.

Post-reading Activities

1. Make up word combinations using the text:

1. commercial a) production

2. boreal b) industry

3. construction c) owned

4. lumber d) value

5. railroad e) forests

6. privately f) output

7. remaining g) ties

2. Decide whether the following statements are true or false:

1. Today forests cover more than two thirds of the United States’ land

area.

2. The forests of the United States include a few major formations.

3. Such trees as basswood, beech, buckeye, white-cedar, hemlock,

mahogany, cucumber magnolia, larch, and juniper grow in the USA.

4. Redwoods are the tallest living trees and grow along the Atlantic

Ocean coastal strip.

5. Most of tree species in the USA have much commercial value as

lumber.

6. In the United States, the construction industry uses about 50 percent

of the lumber production.

7. Hardwoods provide fine woods for the manufacture of paper,

plywood and veneer, crates, sporting goods, toys, matches and

thousands of other products.

8. The commercial softwoods of importance are: birch, mahogany,

maple, ash, oak, and beech.

9. Forests in the South supply almost all the turpentine, pitch, resin, and

wood tar produced in the USA.

37

10. The United States government always approves laws and procedures

for continually reviewing the management of U.S. forests in order to

protect forest resources.

3. Find synonyms to the following words: 1) value n a) products, produce n

2) commercial adj. b) method n

3) boreal adj. c) trading, profitable adj.

4) manufacture n d) transform v

5) output n e) worth n, importance n

6) convert v f) north, nortern adj.

7) procedure n g) making, production n

4. Fill in the blanks with the words using the text:

1. Forests cover a little … than a third of the United States.

2. The forests of the United States include …all the major formations,

… tropical rain forests, boreal and subarctic woodlands.

3. Douglas-fir, …-cedar, Jeffrey pine, ponderosa pine grow in the

Sierra Nevada.

4. Forests of … , the tallest living trees grow along a … coastal strip of

the Pacific Ocean).

5. There are over one … species of trees in the USA. But only about

one hundred have much … value as … .

6. About one-third of the timber output is … to pulpwood, which is

used to manufacture … .

7. Most of the remaining … goes into … and veneer.

(lumber, narrow, output, nearly, less, incense, converted, redwood,

thousand, except for, commercial, plywood, paper)

5. Translate into English in written form

Ліси США охоплюють близько третини загальної площі країни. Вони

включають майже всі види лісів за винятком тропічних, північних і

субарктичних. Такі рідкісні дерева, як каліфорнійське мамонтове

дерево, липа американська, гікорі, пондерозова сосна, ялиця

дугласова, залізне дерево та ін. – можна знайти тільки тут. В США

ростуть більше однієї тисячі видів дерев, проте лише сто з них є

цінними для використання в промисловості (виготовлення

пиломатеріалів).

6. Read the text and say what each paragraph is about. Provide each

paragraph with a suitable heading

38

7. Look through the text and answer the following questions:

1. What part of the total area do forests cover in the Unites States?

2. How many formations do forests of the U.S. include?

3. How many tree species grow in the USA?

4. How many trees have commercial value as lumber?

5. Name the commercial softwood and hardwood trees of great

importance.

6. What part of the lumber production does the construction industry

use?

7. What part of the timber output is converted to pulpwood?

8. How is the remaining output used?

9. Which forests supply almost all the turpentine, pitch, resin and wood

tar produced in the USA?

10. Are there privately owned forests in the USA?

8. Try to retell the text according to your plan

Модульно-контрольний тест №1

I. Choose the right answer. 1. … film was very exciting – I enjoyed it.

1 some

2 any

3 a

4 the

2. He washed … and had dinner.

1 herself

2 himself

3 they

4 she

3. The flat is empty. We haven’t got any … yet.

1 furniture

2 furnitures

3 the furniture

4 few furnitures

4. It’s one of … castles in Britain.

1 old

2 the eldest

3 elder

4 the oldest

39

5. I watched … interesting programme on TV last night.

1 -

2 an

3 a

4 the

6. We invited Mary to stay with … in … house.

1 he, his

2 her, she

3 they, it

4 us, our

7. Money … not everything.

1 is

2 are

3 do

4 does

8. The film we saw last night was … (little / interesting) of all I’ve seen this

month.

1 interesting

2 less interesting

3 more interesting

4 the least interesting

9. .... is the largest ocean in the world.

1 The Pacific Ocean

2 Pacific Ocean

3 this Pacific Ocean

4 that Pacific Ocean

10. This is …very boring book. I don’t want to read it.

1 -

2 an

3 a

4 the

11. They live in the country. … house isn’t big, but … is comfortable.

1 his, he

2 their, it

3 it, their

4 they, he

12. There … a lot of people at the party.

1 was

2 wasn’t

40

3 were

4 has been

13. Your friend looked upset yesterday. I’m glad he looks … today.

1 more happy

2 happier

3 happy as

4 happy as

14. … man who lives next door to me is a vet.

1 -

2 an

3 a

4 the

15. There are … pens on the desk.

1 any

2 some

3 little

4 much

16. Hurry up! We’ll miss the train. Can’t you run … ?

1 as fast as

2 fastest

3 faster

4 more fast

17. Is it … to go there by car or by train?

1. cheap

2. cheaper

3. the cheapest

4. more cheap

18. It is ... room in the house.

1 coldest

2 most coldest

3 the coldest

4 colder

19. I had ___ money, so I couldn't buy lunch.

1 some

2 a little

3 little

4 much

20. Last Saturday we went fishing, but we didn’t catch many... .

41

1 fish

2 fishs

3 fishings

4 fishes

21. Don’t forget to lock … door when you leave.

1 the

2 an

3 a

4 -

22. Do you know that woman? – Yes, I know … .

1 him

2 she

3 her

4 it

23. How was your driving test? – Oh, not so bad really. It was much … I’d

expected, in fact.

1 as easy

2 easiest

3 more easier

4 easier than

24. China has got ... population in the world.

1 a large

2 a larger

3 the largest

4 more larger

25. There weren’t … people in the street.

1. much

2. many

3. little

4. a little

26. This room is not so … as that one on the first floor.

1. comfortable

2. more comfortable

3. the most comfortable

4. less comfortable

27. He spoke English badly - … than expected.

1. worse

2. badly

3. more badly

4. most badly

42

28. Three natural zones of vegetation are distinguishable from north to south: the

Polissya, …, the Steppe.

1. woodland

2. the forest-steppe

3. marshland

4. valleys and floodplains

29. The most common … trees in the Polyssia are: oak, beech, ash, birch, elm,

hornbeam, etc.

1 coniferous

2 broadleaved

3 gymnosperm

4 evergreen

30. Which of these variants names only conifers?

1 Larch, elm, cedar, juniper

2 Larch, spruce, cedar, juniper

3 beech, elm, cedar, juniper, pine

4 buckwheat, wheat, rye, beet, oats

31. Choose a synonym to the word temperate:

1 abundant

2 purified

3 moderate

4 additional

32. A tree is divided into three main parts: roots, ... and crown.

1 flowers

2 buds

3 leaves

4 trunk

33. Choose an antonym to the word moist:

1 fertile

2 arid

3 poor

4 damp

34. … trees lose their leaves each winter and grow new ones each spring.

1 Coniferous

2 Deciduous

3 Evergreen

4 Gymnosperm

35. The emblem of Kyiv is the five-pointed leaf of the … .

1 oak

2 chestnut

43

3 beech

4 ash

36. If a tree is cut down, its age can be found by counting the number of … on

the stump.

1 harvesting

2 rings

3 cultivation

4 places

37. The … come from trees such as oak, beech, elm, sweet chestnut, willow, and

walnut.

1 gymnosperms

2 softwoods

3 hardwoods

4 coniferous

38. The wood of trees can be divided into two classes, the hardwoods and the ... .

1 hardwoods

2 softwoods

3 pith

4 bark

39. One of the most important things produced by plants is … .

1 rubber

2 glass

3 wood

4 plastic

40. Підберіть антонім до слова drainage:

1 irrigation

2 cultivation

3 fertilization

4 draining

44

UNIT 5

NATURE OF WOOD

Зміст уроку:

1. Лексична тема: Structure and Properties of Wood.

2. Граматичний матеріал: English Tenses in Passive Voice; Modal

Verbs.

3. Тексти: “Structure of Wood”; “Properties of Wood”.

Pre-reading Activities

1. Discuss the following questions: 1. You have studied the subject “Wood Science”, haven’t you?

2. Do you remember the main parts of a tree trunk in its cross section?

3. What two main groups are forest trees divided into? What kind of

wood do they have?

2. Find Ukrainian equivalents for these words:

1) trunk a) голонасінні

2) xylem b) пробкове дерево

3) cambium c) ядрова деревина

4) gymnosperms d) покритонасінні

5) stump e) стовбур

6) accumulation f) камбій

7) angiosperms g) ксилема

8) parenchyma h) пень

9) balsa i) накопичення

10) heartwood j) паренхіма

3. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following word combinations:

woody plants environmental conditions

hardwood trees softwood trees

a cambium layer annual rings

periodic growth growth rings

trunk cross section physical properties of wood

4. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian using a dictionary

and paying attention to underlined words:

1. The vascular cambium is indistinguishable with the naked eye.

2. The sapwood is the portion of the xylem that stores food produced in

photosynthesis and conducts water and dissolved nutrients to the crown of

a tree.

45

3. The proportion of early- and latewood affects the physical properties of

wood.

4. The cellular composition and arrangement of wood varies among

species.

5. Gymnosperm wood is relatively simple in structure. Its most striking

feature is the absence of vessels and hence the name nonporous.

5. Before reading the text learn the new words:

xylem n ксилема

stump n пень, обрубок

cross section n поперечний зріз

trunk, stem n стовбур

reveal v виявляти, розкривати

successive adj послідовний, наступний, подальший

bark n кора

pith n серцевина

sheath v футляр

оболонка

layer n шар

vascular cambium судинний камбій

induce v спонукати, спричиняти, вводити

distinct adj відмінний, чіткий, виразний, ясний

dense adj щільний, густий

distinguishable adj помітний, видимий

sapwood n заболонь

heartwood n ядрова деревина

accumulation n накопичення, нагромадження, скупчення,

акумуляція

inhibitory n заборонний, стримуючий, гальмуючий

ray n промінь, проблиск, радіус

eventually adv зрештою, в кінцевому рахунку, за певних

обставин

impart v ділитися, надавати, наділяти, передавати

decay n розпад, гниття, розкладання, ослаблення

transverse adj поперечний

radial adj радіальний, променевий

tangential adj тангенціальний, дотичний, спрямований по

дотичній до певної кривої

axial adj осьовий

axis вісь, головне стебло

file n ряд, низка

46

low magnification незначне збільшення

expose v виставити, показувати, розкривати

band n стрічка, смужка, низка, кайма

slight adj незначний, неміцний

taper конус; конусоподібний; звужувати

respective adj відповідний, дбайливий

account for пояснювати

grain n (of wood) волокно, текстура деревини, зерно, деревний

узор (візерунок)

pattern n узор, зразок, модель, шаблон, схема

pit n яма, пора, поглиблення, западина, щербина

duct n канал, прохід, капіляр

pit duct поровий канал

gum ducts смола, камедь

occur v відбуватися, траплятися, зустрічатися

gymnosperms голонасінні, хвойні породи дерев

angiosperms покритонасінні

balsa n бальза, пробкове дерево

tracheid n трахеіда, волокно хвойної деревини

vessel members судини

fibre n видовжена деревна клітина, волокно, фібр,

фіброва тканина

parenchyma n паренхіма, паренхімна клітина

knot n сук, вузол

compression n стискання, компресія, здавлювання, згущування

tension n напруження, розтягнення;

tension wood деревина з розтягнутими волокнами; біла

деревина листяних порід; нарости на поверхні

гілок та совбурів

shake n щілина, тріщина

pitch pocket смоляна кишеня

deviate v відхилятися, відступати

аdversely adv несприятливо, шкідливо, протилежно

6. Read and translate the text

STRUCTURE OF WOOD

General xylem structure and cell types.

Examination of a stump or the cross section of a tree trunk reveals a series

of successive growth layers of wood that surround a small central pith and

47

are protected by a layer of bark. Between the bark and the wood is a narrow

sheath of tissue called the vascular cambium. It is indistinguishable with

the naked eye and produces all the cells that develop into xylem, or wood.

In the temperate zones each growth ring of wood may be a product of one

year’s growth, but various environmental conditions may induce in each

year the formation of more than one growth layer or discontinuous growth

layers. For these reasons, the term growth ring is preferred over annual

ring.

Earlywood and latewood.

Growth rings are visible because of distinct boundaries that result from the

transition of earlywood to latewood. Earlywood cells are produced by the

cambium early in the growth period and are typically less dense than the

latewood cells because wider cells with thinner walls predominate in the

earlywood. The latewood forms a distinct boundary between growth rings

because of its sharp contrast to the earlywood of the following season. The

transition from earlywood to latewood in the same growth ring is more or

less gradual. The relative amounts of early- and latewood are affected by

environmental conditions and differences in tree species. The proportion of

early- and latewood affects the physical properties of wood.

Sapwood and heartwood.

The sapwood is the portion of the xylem that stores food produced in

photosynthesis and conducts water and dissolved nutrients to the crown of

a tree. As a tree ages, the earlier produced growth rings of xylem usually

become nonfunctional and develop into heartwood. Formation of

heartwood involves the accumulation of metabolic by-products that may be

inhibitory or even toxic to living cells. Movement of these substances

occurs along the rays toward the centre of the tree where they eventually

result in the death of living cells. Although sometimes pale, heartwood is

generally darker in colour than the sapwood and is often preferred for many

uses because the gums and resins deposited in the cell cavities and spaces

between cells impart resistance to insects and decay, and they give the

wood a rich colour.

Transverse, radial, and tangential sections.

Examination of a block of wood with the aid of low magnification reveals

two distinct systems of cells. The axial system contains files of cells with

their long axes oriented vertically in the stem, while the radial system

comprises files of cells oriented horizontally with respect to the stem axis.

Each of the two systems has its characteristic appearance in the three kinds

48

of sections employed in the study of wood: transverse, radial, or tangential.

The transverse, or cross section, cuts at right angles to the main axis of the

tree to reveal the smallest dimension of cells in the axial system. The

radiating pattern of vascular rays across growth rings is exposed. When a

tree is cut lengthwise, either radial or tangential sections are obtained.

The radial section passes through the pith and exposes the rays as

horizontal bands lying across the axial system. Growth rings appear as

parallel bands. A tangential section cuts at a tangent to the growth rings and

cuts rays perpendicular to their horizontal extent to reveal the height and

width. Growth ring arrangement is paraboloid in appearance. This occurs

because the wood is cut at an angle due to the slight taper of the tree trunk.

The different structural aspects of wood revealed in these respective

sections accounts for the various grains or patterns seen in sawn lumber.

Cell types.

Wood is a composite of tiny cells. Indicative of their small size is the

estimate that one cubic metre of spruce wood contains 350,000,000,000-

500,000,000,000 cells. Differences in cell form and arrangement account

for an anatomy unique to each tree species. The principal cell types of

wood are tracheids, vessel members, fibres, and parenchyma. Most cells

are tubelike and are arranged parallel to the axis of the trunk. The tracheid

is a primitive cell type with closed ends.

Vessel members present wide variation in length, from 0.3 to 1.3

millimetres. Diameters range, in general, from about 0.01 to 0.5

millimetres. Pits in the sidewalls of vessel members generally are smaller

than those in tracheids.

Fibres, too, are shorter than tracheids (one to two millimetres on the

average) and have narrow diameters, closed ends, and thick walls. Cells

with characteristics of more than one type of the basic cells occur in wood

and are known as vascular tracheids, fibre tracheids, and libriform fibres.

Parenchyma cells are the simplest cell type in wood. They are blocklike

and very small (0.1-0.2 millimetres in length). The epithelial cells that line

resin canals and gum ducts are specialized parenchyma cells. Almost all

wood cells in living trees are dead.

Structural variations and defects.

The cellular composition and arrangement of wood varies among species.

This influences appearance and properties and makes for a wide choice of

woods for various uses. It also is the basis for wood identification. Woods

of gymnosperm species, such as pine and spruce, are known as softwoods,

whereas those of broad-leaved angiosperm species, such as oak and beech,

49

are hardwoods. However, the implied distinction is not true; some

hardwoods (e.g., balsa) are softer than some softwoods (e.g., yew).

In terms of wood anatomy, trees are placed in two general categories—

porous or nonporous. With only rare exceptions these anatomical

categories correspond to the taxonomic classification of trees.

Gymnosperms are nonporous and angiosperms are porous. Gymnosperm

wood is relatively simple in structure. Its most striking feature is the

absence of vessels and hence the name nonporous. The wood consists

primarily of tracheids and fibres in the axial system. Axial parenchyma and

resin canals are present in certain species, but radial parenchyma is always

present and constitutes the rays, sometimes together with radial tracheids.

The wood of angiosperm trees consists of vessels, tracheids, fibres, and

parenchyma in various proportions. All four cell types occur in the axial

system. The size and distribution of vessels allows for further classification

as ring-porous and diffuse-porous woods. Parenchyma cells and

occasionally tracheids constitute the radial system.

Variation in wood is caused by the presence of defects such as knots,

spiral grain, compression and tension wood, shakes, and pitch pockets.

Knots are caused by inclusion of dead or living branches as a tree grows in

circumference. Spiral grain is the spiral arrangement of cell elements with

regard to tree axis. Compression and tension wood are structural

abnormalities in gymnosperms and angiosperms, respectively, that form

when trees deviate from the normal, vertical position because of wind or

other loads. Shakes are separations of wood tissue, and pitch pockets are

separations filled with resin. Defects, according to kind and extent, may

adversely affect the appearance, strength, dimensional stability, and other

properties of wood.

Post-reading Activities

1. Learn the following words and word-combinations and make up

sentences with them:

Growth ring, earlywood, gymnosperm, sapwood and heartwood, the

transverse or cross section, cell types of wood, softwoods, hardwoods,

angiosperm.

2. Choose synonyms to the following English words

1) signify v a) influence v

2) occur v b) explain v

3) adversely adv c) enlargement n

4) magnification n d) happen, take place v

5) affect v e) mean v

50

6) account for f) disadvantageously adv

3. Decide whether the following statements are true or false:

1. Approximately in the centre of the trunk cross section there is a

narrow sheath of tissue called the vascular cambium.

2. The term “growth ring” is preferred over “annual ring”.

3. Growth rings are invisible with the naked eye.

4. Earlywood cells are produced by the cambium early in the growth

period and are typically less dense than the latewood cells.

5. The heartwood is the portion of the xylem that stores food produced

in photosynthesis and conducts water and dissolved nutrients to the

crown of a tree.

6. Examination of a block of wood with the aid of low magnification

reveals two distinct systems of cells.

7. The wood of gymnosperm trees consists of vessels, tracheids, fibres,

and parenchyma in various proportions.

4. Match the expressions below with their definitions:

1. The woody part of plants: the supporting and

water-conducting tissue, consisting primarily of

tracheids and vessels.

a) The sapwood

2. The portion of the xylem that stores food

produced in photosynthesis and conducts

water and dissolved nutrients to the crown of

a tree.

b) The axial system

3. The system of cells which contains files of

cells with their long axes oriented vertically in

the stem.

c) The heartwood

4. The system of cells which comprises files of

cells oriented horizontally with respect to the

stem axis.

d) Xylem

5. The darker and harder central part of the

xylem.

5. Answer the following questions on the text:

e) The radial system

1. Which parts of a tree we can see in the trunk cross section?

2. Where is the vascular cambium situated?

3. Is it visible with the naked eye? Describe its function, please.

4. Why is the term “growth ring” preferred over “annual ring”?

5. Why do these rings have distinct boundaries?

6. Does the proportion of early- and latewood affect the physical properties

51

of wood?

7. What is rhe function of the sapwood in a live tree?

8. Describe the formation of the heartwood and its importance for a tree.

9. How many main systems of cells are there in the wood? Call them,

please.

10. Each of the two systems has its characteristic appearance in the three

kinds of sections employed in the study of wood: transverse, radial, or

tangential, doesn’t it?

11. Which principal cell types of wood do you know?

12. What kinds of trees are porous/nonporous trees?

Vocabulary, grammar and speech exercises to the text “Wood

Properties”

1. Try to translate the following word-combinations without a dictionary:

a unit volume of wood, the density of wood, the content of

extractives, moisture content, mechanical properties, the surrounding

atmosphere, thermal and acoustical properties, dielectric property of wood,

the force of an electric field, building construction, acoustic purposes.

2. What parts of speech do theses words belong to? Pay attention to the

suffixes and prefixes. Translate each word:

Determination, numerically, identical, obvious, presence,

comparable, saturation, hygroscopic, hygroscopicity, completely,

importance, consequent, relation, negligible, abnormality, formation,

strength, available, tension, elasticity, longitudinal, treatment.

3. Before reading the text learn the new words:

density n щільність

specific gravity n питома вага/ відносна базова густина

volume n об'єм

ratio n співвідношення, пропорція

attribute v приписувати, передавати, пояснювати

void n пустота, порожнеча, прогалина

cell lumen n порожнина клітини

oven-dry weight абсолютно суха вага

oven n сушильна піч

saturation n насичення, просочування

merely adv просто, лише, тільки

fibre saturation

point

точка насичення волокна

52

balsa n бальза, пробкове дерево

expose v виставляти, піддавати дії

consequent adj послідовний, наступний

dimension n вимір, міра, величина

finishing n оздоблення, обробка, закінчення, завершення

fluctuate v коливатися

shrinkage n усадка, стиснення, усушка, збігання

swelling n набухання

closer adv ближче

reverse n зворотний бік, протилежність

dimensional

changes

зміни розмірів

anisotropic adj анізотропний

roughly adv приблизно

volumetric

shrinkage

oб'ємна усадка (усушка)

negligible adj незначний

longitudinal adj поздовжній

abnormality n aномалія, ненормальність, неправильність

checking n розтріскування (поява тріщин внаслідок

усушки дерев)

сrack n тріщина, розколина, щілина

warping n викривлення, скручування,

honeycombing внутрішні тріщини

collapse n руйнування, крах, обвал

obstacle n перешкода, перепона, завада

impregnation n просочування, насичування

eliminate v ліквідувати, усувати, скорочувати

binding adj сполучний, зв'язуючий, в'яжучий

magnitude n величина, важливість, велич

elastic properties пружні властивості

confusion n плутанина

drastically adv радикально, кардинально

grain n структура, текстура (деревини); жилка, фібра,

волокно, зерно, зернистість

shear n зріз, зсув

cleavage n розщеплення, розколювання

static bending статичному вигин

impact bending динамічний або ударний вигин

shock n удар, поштовх, струс

toughness n міцність

53

respective n відповідний

stress n надавлювання, нажим, напруга

load n навантаження

elastic limit межа пружності

modulus of

elasticity

модуль пружності, модуль Юнга

stiffness n жорсткість, негнучкість

rupture n розрив, перелом, розтріскування, тріщина

bending strength міцність на вигин, опір згинанню

resilience n пружність, еластичність, пружна деформація,

ударна в’язкість

working stress робоча напруга

knot n сук, вузол

deviation n відхилення, девіація, порушення

ignite v запалюватися

heating value теплопродуктивність, теплотворна здатність

insulator n ізолятор

noteworthy adj вартий уваги, визначний

sustain v підтримувати, видержувати, зазнавати

dielectric constant діелектрична постійна

assume v вважати, припускати, вживати, присвоювати

electrical moisture

meter

електричний вологомір

amplify v підсилювати

absorb v поглинати

pitch of sound висота звука

acute adj тонкий, сильний, різкий

partition n перегородка, внутрішня стінка

WOOD PROPERTIES

Density and specific gravity.

Density is the weight or mass of a unit volume of wood, and specific

gravity is the ratio of the density of wood to that of water. In the metric

system, density and specific gravity are numerically identical; e.g., the

average density of the wood of Douglas fir is 0.45 grams per cubic

centimetre (28 pounds per cubic foot) and its specific gravity 0.45, because

one cubic centimetre of water weighs one gram. The density of wood varies

from about 0.1 to 1.2 grams per cubic centimetre (specific gravity 0.1 to

1.2). Differences between species and among samples of the same species

are attributable to different proportions of wood substance, void volume

54

(volume of cell lumens and wall spaces), and the content of extractives.

The amount of extractives in wood varies from less than 3 percent to more

than 30 percent of the oven-dry weight. It is obvious that the presence of

these materials, located to a large extent within the cell wall, can have a

major effect upon the density.

Determination of the density of wood in relation to that of other materials is

difficult because wood is hygroscopic, and both its weight and volume are

greatly influenced by moisture content. In order to obtain comparable

figures, weight and volume are determined at specified moisture contents.

The standards are oven-dry weight (practically zero moisture content) and

either oven-dry or green volume (moisture content above fibre saturation

point, which averages about 30 percent).

Most mechanical properties of wood are closely correlated to density and

specific gravity. It is possible to learn more about the nature of a wood

sample by determining its specific gravity than by any other simple

measurement.

Hygroscopicity.

Wood is hygroscopic and can absorb water as a liquid, if in contact with it,

or in the form of vapour from the surrounding atmosphere. Though wood

may absorb other liquids and gases, water is the most important. Because

of its hygroscopicity, wood, either as a part of the living tree or as a

material, always contains moisture. (Water and moisture are used here

without distinction.) This moisture affects all wood properties, but it should

be noted that only moisture contained in cell walls is important; moisture in

the cavities merely adds weight.

The amount of moisture held in cell walls varies from about 20 to 35

percent (on the basis of oven-dry weight of wood). The theoretical point at

which cell walls are completely saturated and cell cavities empty is known

as the fibre saturation point. Beyond this point, moisture goes into the

cavities, and when these are completely filled, the maximum moisture

content of the wood is reached. Moisture content of some woods can be

high. Very light woods, such as balsa, can hold up to about 800 percent,

pine 250 percent, beech 120 percent, and so on.

When green wood is exposed to the atmosphere, its moisture content

gradually decreases. Moisture in the cell cavities is lost first.

Hygroscopicity is of primary importance because moisture in wood affects

all wood properties. It has a direct relation to weight of logs and green

lumber, with consequent influence on transportation costs.

Gluing and finishing and the mechanical, thermal, and acoustical

properties of wood are all affected by its moisture content.

55

Shrinkage and swelling.

Wood is subject to dimensional changes when its moisture fluctuates below

the fibre saturation point. Shrinkage of the cell wall, and therefore of the

entire wood, occurs as moisture escapes from between long-chain cellulose

and hemicellulose molecules. These molecules can then move closer

together. The amount of shrinkage that occurs is generally proportional to

the amount of water removed from the cell wall. Swelling is simply the

reverse of this process. It is characteristic that dimensional changes are

anisotropic; i.e., different in axial, radial, and tangential directions. Average

values for shrinkage are roughly 0.2 percent, 4 percent, and 8 percent,

respectively. Volumetric shrinkage averages 12 percent. These values refer

to changes from green to oven-dry conditions and are expressed in percent

of green dimensions. The negligible longitudinal shrinkage of normal wood

is one of the characteristics that makes lumber and lumber products such

usable building materials. The factors, in addition to moisture content, that

affect shrinkage and swelling are density (specific gravity), extractives,

mechanical stresses, and abnormalities in wood structure.

Dimensional changes in wood caused by shrinkage and swelling may result

in change of shape, checking (formation of cracks), warping,

honeycombing, and collapse. Thus, the fact that wood shrinks and swells

constitutes a great obstacle to its utilization. Several methods are used to

improve the dimensional stability of wood, including resin impregnation to

replace water in cell walls and treatment with various chemicals to

eliminate the binding sites for water molecules. Though suitable for some

commercial use, these are sufficiently expensive to limit their application to

specialty items.

Mechanical properties.

The mechanical or strength properties of wood measure its ability to resist

applied forces that might tend to change its shape and size. Resistance to

such forces depends on the magnitude and manner of application of the

force. It also depends on various characteristics of the wood, such as

moisture content and density. The term strength is often used in a general

sense to refer to all mechanical properties. This can lead to confusion since

there are many different types of strength and elastic properties. A wood

that is relatively strong with respect to one strength property may rank

lower in a different property when compared to another species. It is also

important to note that wood has drastically different strength properties

parallel to the grain than it does across the grain—i.e., is anisotropic.

The mechanical properties of wood include strength in tension and

compression (axial and transverse), shear, cleavage, hardness, static

56

bending, and shock (impact bending, toughness). Respective tests

determine stresses per unit of loaded area (at elastic limit and maximum

load) and other criteria of strength, such as modulus of elasticity (a

criterion of stiffness), modulus of rupture (bending strength), elastic

resilience, and toughness. Tests are normally conducted with small, clear

specimens, usually two by two inches or two by two centimetres in cross

section. Laboratory data are analyzed to produce working stresses, which

are available for use by engineers and architects in designing wooden

structures.

Density is the best index of the strength of clear wood; higher density

indicates greater strength. The most important strength-reducing factors are

wood defects, such as knots, abnormal anatomy resulting from compression

and tension, and grain deviations.

Thermal properties.

Although wood expands and contracts with varying temperature, these

dimensional changes are small in comparison to the shrinkage and swelling

caused by variation of moisture content. In most cases expansion and

contraction are negligible and without practical importance; only

temperatures below 0 C (32 F) may cause surface checks, and in living

trees, unequal contraction of outer and inner layers may result in frost

cracks. Such low thermal expansion and contraction, in conjunction with

low heat conductivity, constitute advantages of wood when it is exposed to

fire. In addition, the low heat conductivity of wood makes it desirable for

building construction.

Exposed to high temperatures, wood burns; at a temperature of about

400 C (752 F) wood ignites easily because of the production of flammable

gases. The heating value of one kilogram of dry wood is about 4,000-5,000

kilocalories. Differences among species derive from differences in density

and the presence of extractives (e.g., resin in pines).

Electrical properties.

Very dry, especially oven-dry, wood constitutes an excellent insulator. As

moisture content increases, however, electric conductivity increases; and

the behaviour of saturated wood approaches that of water. Noteworthy is

the spectacular decrease of electric resistance when moisture content

increases from zero to fibre saturation point. Within this range, electric

resistance decreases about 10,000,000 times, whereas from fibre saturation

point to maximum moisture content it decreases only about 50 times or

less. Other factors, such as species and density, have little effect on the

electric resistance of wood.

57

Important also is the dielectric property of wood. Wood is a nonconductor

of electricity but will sustain the force of an electric field passing through

it. This property, expressed in dielectric constant, assumes a practical

importance with wood in drying, gluing (with high-frequency electric

current), or making electrical meters for measuring its moisture content.

Acoustic properties.

Wood can produce sound (by direct striking) and can amplify or absorb

sound waves originated from other bodies. For these reasons, it is a unique

material for musical instruments and other acoustic purposes. The pitch of

sound produced depends on the frequency of vibration and the dimensions,

density, moisture content, and modulus of elasticity of the wood. Larger

dimensions, lower moisture content, and higher density and elasticity

produce sounds of higher pitch (more acute in tone). Sound waves

originating from other bodies and striking wood are partly absorbed and

partly reflected. The sound may be amplified, as in violins, guitars, organ

pipes, and other musical instruments, or absorbed, as in wooden partitions.

Normally, wood absorbs only a small portion of acoustic energy (3-5

percent), but special constructions with empty spaces and porous insulation

boards may increase this capacity up to 90 percent.

Post-reading Activities

1. Match the following English word-combinations to their Ukrainian

equivalents:

1) fibre saturation point a) абсолютно суха вага

2) specific gravity b) oб'ємна усадка

(усушка)/всихання

3) impact bending c) статичний вигин

4) volumetric shrinkage d) питома вага/відносна базова

густина

5) cell lumen e) динамічний/ударний вигин

6) static bending f) точка насичення волокна

7) oven-dry weight g) порожнина клітини

2. Fill in the blanks with the words given below:

1. Determination of the density of wood in relation to that of other

materials is difficult because wood is …, and both its weight and volume

are greatly influenced by moisture content.

2. Hygroscopicity is of primary importance because … in wood affects all

wood properties.

58

3. … of the cell wall, and therefore of the entire wood, occurs as moisture

escapes from between long-chain cellulose and hemicellulose molecules.

4. … is the best index of the strength of clear wood; higher density

indicates greater strength.

5. Although wood expands and contracts with varying temperature, these

dimensional changes are small in comparison to the shrinkage and …

caused by variation of moisture content.

6. The … of one kilogram of dry wood is about 4,000-5,000 kilocalories.

7. Very dry, especially oven-dry, wood constitutes an excellent … .

(Shrinkage, insulator, moisture, swelling, hygroscopic, heating value,

Density)

3. Choose synonyms to the following English words:

1) ignite v a) support v

2) preservative adj b) nearer adv

3) closer adv c) resilience n

4) dielectric adj d) approximately adv

5) sustain v e) conservative adj

6) rouphly adv f) firmness, toughness n

7) elasticity n g) inflame, fire v

8) hardness n h) non-conductor n

4. Study the text and answer the following questions:

1. What does the term “density of wood” mean?

2. Give a definition to the term “specific gravity” of wood.

3. Are “density” and “specific gravity” numerically identical in the metric

system?

4. What materials have a major effect upon the density?

5. Does moisture content influence weight and volume of wood?

6. What is the fibre saturation point?

7. What mechanical properties of wood do you know?

8. What are the most important strength-reducing factors of wood?

9. Does wood expand and contract with varying temperature?

10. What makes wood desirable for building construction?

11. What can you say about the dielectric property of wood? Is it an

excellent insulator? How does this property depend on moisture content of

wood?

12. Why is wood a unique material for musical instruments?

5. Complete these sentences with the terms from the box

59

density acoustic properties fibre saturation point

specific gravity mechanical or strength properties

1. … is the ratio of the density of wood to that of water.

2. The theoretical point at which cell walls are completely saturated and

cell cavities empty is known as the … .

3. … is the weight or mass of a unit volume of wood.

4. The … of wood measure its ability to resist applied forces that might

tend to change its shape and size.

5. … are wood capacities to produce sound (by direct striking) and to

amplify or absorb sound waves originated from other bodies.

6. Give a brief summary of the text.

7. Try to retell the text using your plan.

UNIT 6

WOODWORKING

Зміст уроку:

1. Лексична тема: Wood Utilization and Woodworking Technology.

2. Граматичний матеріал: Sequence of Tenses. Indirect Speech.

3. Тексти: “Wood Utilization”; “Wood Drying and Preservation”.

Pre-reading Activities

1. Discuss the following questions: 1. What main aspects is Woodworking Technology concerned with?

2. Have you had practical training in this discipline? What have you done?

3. What's new in woodworking technology?

2. What parts of speech do these words belong to? Pay attention to the

suffixes and prefixes. Translate each word:

Performance, directly, preservative, circular, advantageous, wasteful

extensively, thinner, reduction, relative, application, auxiliary, installation,

suitable, growth, sufficient, impregnation, efficient, humidity, width,

commonly.

3. Translate and learn the following word-combinations:

A forest stand, products of round form, primary processing of wood,

related treatments, further processing, approximate dimensions,

preservative treatment, extensively used, circular saws, extensively used,

60

essential preparation of lumber, proper drying, the main sawn-wood

product, air-drying yard, evaporated moisture, other auxiliary equipment.

4. Choose a suitable word:

1. Lumber is the main … product.

2. Drying is an essential preparation of lumber and wood. It is

accomplished in the … or in kilns.

3. … is conducted in a closed chamber, under artificially induced and

controlled conditions of temperature, relative humidity, and air

circulation.

4. Wood is subject to deterioration by … (causing stain and decay),

insects, marine organisms, fire, and other … agents.

(Kiln-drying, open air, fungi, sawn-wood, destructive)

5. Translate these sentences in written form, paying attention to

Participle I, and Absolute Participle Construction

1. The rapid development of science and technology, the appearance of

new, varied materials (including polymers) have not reduced the

industrial use of timber.

2. The forest, being the greatest biological composition in the world,

assisting in air purification against dust and enriching it with oxygen, is

an important regulator of the gas balance in nature.

3. Deciduous trees lose their leaves each winter and grow new ones each

spring, the buds containing the new shoots and leaves often being

protected with scales against cold weather.

4. There are a number of species, or kinds, of willow tree, the one most

frequently seen in England being the white willow.

5. Pine cones are the flowers and they are either male or female, the male

cones being smaller than the female.

6. Remnants of the natural vegetation of the Steppe are protected in nature

reserves, the largest being the Askaniya-Nova reserve in Kherson.

7. The low yields being the result of moisture deficiency, a farmer should

take it into consideration.

8. Seeds emerging from greater depths in sandy soil, than in clay soil, it is

customary to plant deep in dry soil in order to place the seeds in contact

with moisture.

6. Before reading the text - learn the vocabulary:

be concerned with мати справу з

relate v мати відношення, установлювати зв'язок

treatment n обробка, просочування (деревини), догляд

61

drying n cушіння, висушування

preservation n збереження, зберігання

performance n продуктивність, виконання, здійснення, робота

pole n cтовп, жердина

post n стовп, підпірка

round wood круглий ліс

roundwood раундвуд (експортний лісоматеріал довжиною від 7

до 10 футів і товщиною від 6-9 дюймів)

mine timber кріпильний ліс (лісоматеріал для кріплення в

шахтах)

piling n забивання паль, шпунтовий ряд, ряд паль

(pile) foundation фундамент із паль

wharf n (warves pl) пристань

fence n паркан

guard n огорожа, щит

support n підпора

subject v піддавати

preservative

treatment

обробка (деревини) антисептиком

sawn wood пиломатеріал

lumber n ліс, лісоматеріал, колоди, будівельний матеріал,

пиломатеріал

dimension n розмір, величина

loosely adv вільно, широко

saw n; v пила, пилити

hew v рубати, тесати, розрубувати

sawmill n лісопилка, лісопильня, лісопильна рама

conversion n перетворення, трансформація, зміна, переробка

breakdown n; v розбивка (на частини), аварія, розподіл, поломка;

розбивати, тесати великі колоди для лісопильні

board n дошка

ripping n поздовжне розпилювання

anticipate v передбачати, очікувати

mist n туман

carriage n перевезення, транспортування, візок, каретка

(станка), рама, полозки, несучий пристрій

head saw перший по ходу процеса поздовжнопильний

агрегат на лісопильному заводі

band saw стрічковопильний станок

gang saw лісопильна рама, рамна пила; рейковий станок

circular saw кругла, циркулярна пила; круглопильний станок

62

edge n край, кромка,

endless adj нескінченний, рулонний

powered adj ведучий (про колесо), механізований, самохідний

free-running автономний

reciprocating adj зворотно-поступальний

reciprocating frame поршнева рама

blade n лезо

mount v монтувати, установлювати

predetermined зумовлений, встановлений заздалегідь

lateral adj латеральний, бічний, боковий

remouvable adj змінний, змінюваний, пересувний

shaft n вал

wasteful adj марнотратний, неощадливий

advantageous adj сприятливий, вигідний

yield n вихід, дохід, кількість вироблюваної продукції

grade n сорт (пиломатеріалів), ступінь, ранг, відбір, розряд,

якість

slab n неперемолоті шматки деревини, кусок, плита

resawing n реброве розпилювання

edging n окантовка (зрізування канта у колоди чи дошки),

обрізка

wane n обзол, сліди кори на дошці

sidewise adv косо, збоку, боком

magnitude n величина, інтенсивність

finishing n оздоблення, обробка, завершення

obstruct v перешкоджати, блокувати, заважати

debris n сміття, брухт, уламки, будівельне сміття

fan n вентилятор

predryer n попередня сушарка (сушильний циліндр)

induced викликаний, вимушений, індукований

pipe coil змійовик із труб

blower n повітродувка

solvent n розчинник, розчин

infrared radiation інфрачервоне випромінювання

deterioration n псування, погіршення

stain n пляма, обезбарвлення

inhibit v перешкоджати, стримувати

durability n міцність, довговічність

steep v відмочувати, замочувати

storage tanks резервуари для збереження

pump n помпа, насос

63

boiler plant котельна установка

WOOD UTILIZATION

This text is concerned with the main products of primary processing of

wood, and related treatments, such as drying and preservation, that ensure

its better performance in use. Some of these products, such as poles, posts,

and railroad ties, are used directly, but most constitute intermediate

materials that by further processing are manufactured into final products or

structures.

Roundwood products.

Poles, posts, and certain mine timbers are products in round form. Poles are

used in telecommunication lines (telegraph, telephone) or as pilings (i.e.,

foundations for wharves or buildings), and posts in fences, highway guards,

and various supports. As a rule, these products are subjected to preservative

treatment. The bark is removed in the forest or factory.

Sawn wood.

Lumber is the main sawn-wood product. Lumber of large dimensions

(more than about 10 centimetres in width and thickness) suitable for heavy

constructions is called timber. This term, however, is also loosely applied

to wood of a forest stand and to products of round form. Another important

product made by sawing, and sometimes by hewing, is railroad ties.

Lumber is usually the product of the sawmill and is produced in varying

sizes (usual, approximate dimensions: thickness two to 10 centimetres,

width eight centimetres and over, length two to six metres). Conversion of

logs to lumber involves breakdown into boards of various thicknesses,

resawing, ripping, and crosscutting. The organization of production varies

by manufacturing plants, but a generalized scheme is as follows. Logs,

transported from the forest, are stored in water, usually a pond or river, or

in a ground storage yard. If a long ground-storage time is anticipated, the

logs are kept under a constant water mist. Each log enters the mill on a

conveyor; in large operations it is mechanically debarked and in some is

crosscut to length. Supported on a carriage, it is brought to a head saw,

which may be of three types: band saw, gang saw, or circular saw. A band

saw consists of an endless band of steel, equipped with teeth usually on one

edge only and moving around two wheels—one powered and the other

free-running. Gang saws commonly consist of a reciprocating (vertical or

horizontal) frame in which a number of saw blades are mounted at

predetermined lateral distances. A circular saw consists of a circular blade

having teeth (sometimes remouvable) on its periphery and mounted on a

64

shaft. Band and gang saws have relatively thin blades and are therefore less

wasteful than circular saws; band and circular saws permit changing board

thickness and turning of the log after each cut; therefore, breakdown is

more advantageous in terms of yield and grade. In general, and except for

logs of very large diameter, gang saws are extensively used, especially in

Europe, as headsaws for softwoods, and band saws are used for hardwoods.

Breakdown is accomplished in one or more operations by the use of one,

two, or more machines in combination; e.g., if two gang saws are used, the

first saw remouves slabs (the outside pieces cut from a log) and, in certain

cases, some boards. The piece produced is then turned 90 and introduced

into the second saw, which converts it to boards. The second operation may

be considered resawing; in general, resawing consists of either dividing

thick boards into thinner ones or producing boards from slabs. Ripping, or

edging, is the removal of wane or bark from the sides of boards by passing

them through a band saw or a machine that has two small circular saw

blades mounted on a shaft; one is stationary and the other may move

sidewise, thus setting board width. Finally, certain boards are crosscut to

square their ends and remove defects. Modern sawmills are controlled with

the aid of computers and other types of electronic equipment.

Drying.

Drying is an essential preparation of lumber and wood. Proper drying

reduces the magnitude of dimensional changes due to shrinkage and

swelling, protects wood from microorganisms, reduces weight and

transportation costs, prepares wood better for most finishing and

preservation methods, and increases its strength. Drying is accomplished in

the open air or in kilns. Other special methods of drying also exist.

The air-drying yard is located close to the lumber plant on a dry site, where

air movement is not obstructed by tall trees or buildings. The ground

surface is kept free from debris and vegetation. The time required to air dry

from green to 20 percent moisture content varies in general from about 20

to 300 days for material 2.5 centimetres thick, depending on species, place,

and time of the year.

Air drying can be accelerated by means of fans, the application of “solar

heat,” and “predriers” (fans and low-temperature heating). With beech,

walnut, and some other woods, steaming is also employed before air

drying; this reduces drying time by increasing the rate of drying and at the

same time darkens the wood and makes it more desirable for use as

furniture.

Kiln-drying is conducted in a closed chamber, under artificially induced

and controlled conditions of temperature, relative humidity, and air

65

circulation. This method permits much faster reduction of moisture content

to levels independent of weather conditions: reduction of moisture from 20

to 6 percent is accomplished in two to 15 days, and from green to 6 percent

in two to 50 days for material 2.5 centimetres thick. The source of heat is

usually steam circulating in pipe coils. Relative humidity is controlled by

allowing steam to enter the chamber through a perforated pipe; such control

is necessary in order to regulate the exit of moisture and avoid defects such

as checking (cracking or splitting). In order to obtain satisfactory results air

movement is necessary to carry the heat from its source to the lumber and

to carry away the evaporated moisture; air circulation is produced by means

of fans located within the kiln, and sometimes by blowers placed outside.

Kiln-drying normally involves temperatures below 100 C (212 F), usually

in the range 40 -75 C (104 -167 F). Such temperatures are high enough to

kill insects, which is another advantage of kiln-drying over air drying.

In addition, wood may be dried by special methods that include the use of

solvents, vapours, and chemicals and high-temperature drying, boiling in

oily liquids, vacuum drying, electric drying, and drying by infrared

radiation. The last three methods are expensive and therefore not

commercially applicable.

Preservation.

Wood is subject to deterioration by fungi (causing stain and decay), insects,

marine organisms, fire, and other destructive agents. By far the most

important cause of wood loss is decay. Wood decays if the conditions are

suitable for the growth and activity of fungi. Such conditions include

favourable moisture, air, and temperature. A moisture content below 20

percent inhibits growth of fungi. If wood is kept under water, it also cannot

be attacked because of the lack of sufficient available oxygen. There are

many examples of wooden structures lasting hundreds or even thousands of

years; e.g., in the tombs of pharaohs. Under conditions favourable for fungi

(for example, when wood is used in contact with soil) no wood is immune,

although some species do better than others. The durability of exposed

timber, such as railroad ties or mine timbers, can be greatly increased by

impregnation with toxic chemicals. The application of preservatives is

accomplished by brushing, spraying, dipping, steeping, hot and cold bath,

and diffusion, but impregnation under pressure is the most efficient. This

requires special installations such as treating cylinders (up to 50 metres in

length and three metres in diameter, storage tanks, pumps, a boiler plant

(for steam production), and other auxiliary equipment.

66

Post-reading Activities

1. Choose synonyms to the following English words:

1. vapour n a) freely adj

2. moisture n b) profitable adv

3. hew v c) applicable adj

4. loosely adv d) expect v

5. advantageous adv e) cut v

6. allow v f) steam n

7. suitable adj g) humidity n

8. anticipate v h) permit v

2. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Correct the

false ones:

1. Lumber of large dimensions suitable for heavy constructions is called

timber. This term also means “wood of a forest stand” and “products of

round form”.

2. Logs, transported from the forest, are always stored in a ground storage

yard.

3. Except for logs of very large diameter, gang saws are extensively used,

especially in Europe, as headsaws for hardwoods, and band saws are used

for softwoods.

4. Proper drying reduces the magnitude of dimensional changes due to

shrinkage and swelling, protects wood from microorganisms, reduces

weight and transportation costs, prepares wood better for most finishing

and preservation methods, and increases its strength.

5. Air drying permits much faster reduction of moisture content to levels

independent of weather conditions.

6. Kiln-drying normally involves temperatures above 100 C (212 F) to kill

insects.

7. The durability of exposed timber, such as railroad ties or mine timbers,

can be greatly increased by impregnation with toxic chemicals.

3. Choose antonyms to these words:

1. dryness n 1. inefficient adj

2. naturally adv 2. reforestation n

3. mature adj 3. inhibit v

4. efficient adj 4. artificially adv

5. useful adj 5. immature adj

6. cutting n 6. humidity n

7. permit v 7. destructive adj

67

4. Fill in the blanks with the words (given below) using the text:

1. Poles, posts, and certain mine timbers are products in … .

2. … are used in telecommunication lines (telegraph, telephone) or as

pilings, and … in fences, highway guards, and various supports.

3. … of logs to lumber involves breakdown into boards of various

thicknesses, resawing, … , and crosscutting.

4. A … consists of a circular blade having teeth (sometimes remouvable)

on its periphery and mounted on a shaft.

5. The … yard is located close to the lumber plant on a dry site, where air

movement is not obstructed by tall trees or buildings.

6. Wood may be dried by special methods that include the use of … ,

vapours, and chemicals and high-temperature drying, boiling in oily

liquids, vacuum drying, electric drying, and drying by … radiation.

(Conversion, posts, ripping, round form, air-drying, poles, infrared, circular

saw, solvents)

5. Give definitions of the following words and word combinations:

resawing, lumber, ripping, or edging, timber

1. … is usually the product of the sawmill and is produced in varying

sizes (usual, approximate dimensions: thickness two to 10

centimetres, width eight centimetres and over, length two to six

metres).

2. … is the removal of wane or bark from the sides of boards by

passing them through a band saw or a machine that has two small

circular saw blades mounted on a shaft; one is stationary and the

other may move sidewise, thus setting board width.

3. … is lumber of large dimensions (more than about 10 centimetres

in width and thickness) suitable for heavy constructions. This term

is also loosely applied to wood of a forest stand and to products of

round form.

4. … consists of either dividing thick boards into thinner ones or

producing boards from slabs.

6. Study the text and answer these questions:

1. What is this text concerned with?

2. What rounwood products do you know? Where are they used?

3. Are these products subjected to preservative treatment?

4. What is the difference between two terms: “lumber” and “timber”?

5. What operations does conversion of logs to lumber involve?

6. Where are logs stored before treatment?

68

7. Which three types of a head saw are used? Describe each of them,

please.

8. Which saws are extensively used for softwoods (for hardwoods)?

9. What does “proper drying” mean?

10. Which are two main methods of drying?

11. Describe the method of air drying. What can accelerate this

process?

12. How is kiln-drying conducted? What advantages does it have?

13. What are other special methods of drying?

14. What causes wood deterioration?

15. What greatly increases the durability of wood?

7. Look through the text and say what each paragraph is about. Write

down a summarizing sentence for each paragraph.

8. Write a brief summary of the text.

9. Try to retell the text using your summary.

UNIT 7

WOOD PRODUCTS.

Зміст уроку:

1. Лексична тема: Wood Products. Pulp and Paper Industry.

2. Граматичний матеріал: Non-finite Forms of the Verb: Infinitive,

Gerund, Participle. Subjunctive Mood. 3 types of Conditionnal

Sentences. 3. Текст: “Wood products”; “Pulp and Paper Manufacture”.

Pre-reading Activities

1. Discuss the following questions: 1. What glued-wood products do you know?

2. What other wood products are manufactured in our country?

3. Is pulp and paper industry highly developed in Ukraine?

Where are the largest pulp and paper mills located?

2. What parts of speech do these words belong to? Pay attention to the

suffixes and prefixes. Translate each word:

Operation, formation, proportion, reduction, pollution, resistance, pressing,

finishing, debarking, loading, property, density, renewable, semichemical,

mechanical, subsequent, synthetic, utilize, characterize, rapidly, commonly.

69

3. Translate and learn the following word-combinations:

laminated constructions, the total number of layers, a processing mill,

natural or synthetic resins, properly used, boiling water, exterior/interior

plywood, dimensional stability, in contrast, advantages over natural wood,

in curved form, impermeable material, to increase resistance to, water

consumption, a wasteful operation.

4. Translate the following sentences and explain the use and the

functions of the Non-Finite forms of the verb:

1. The forests of the world provide numerous benefits in addition to

being a source of wood products.

2. Industrial and private owners may be most interested in producing a

harvestable product for a processing mill.

3. Forest management originated in the desire of the large central

European landowners to secure dependable income to maintain their

castles.

4. It is possible that a forest can be managed in such a way that a modest

timber crop may be harvested indefinitely year after year.

5. Sustainable forest management is the use of forests and forest lands in a

way, and at a rate, that maintains their biodiversity, productivity,

regeneration capacity, vitality and their potential to fulfil, now and in

the future.

6. Plywood has many advantages over natural wood, an important one

being greater dimensional stability.

Notes: sustained forest (yield) management - система безперервного відновлення

лісу; лісове господарство, розраховане для постійного користування

5. Before reading the text - learn the vocabulary:

veneer n шпон

sheet n шар, пласт

uniform adj однорідний, рівномірний

rotary cut лущений

lathe n токарний верстат, лущильний верстат

peel v чистити, злущувати, дерти кору

slice n; v тонкий шар, зріз; різати (скибочками),

sliced veneer різаний, струганий шпон

tapered конічний, конусоподібний

flitch фанерний кряж некруглої форми для

виробництва струганої фанери, брус

figured wood деревина з візерунковою структурою

plywood n клеєна фанера

70

laminated шаруватий, листовий, пластинчастий,

ламінований

glue n; v клей; клеїти

adhesive n; adj клей; липкий, клейкий

alternate layers шари, що чергуються

solid wood тверда, цільна деревина

reconstitute v відтворювати, відновлювати

wood-core ядрова зона деревини (в стовбурі)

core n ядро, серцевина, середина, внутрішній шпон

wood chips n тріска

flakes n (pl) деревна стружка пластинчатої форми

starch n крохмаль

urea-formaldehyde n карбамідо-фармальдегід

exterior plywood фанера, призначена для використання на

відкритому повітрі

adaptable що легко пристосовується, піддається

адаптації

bend n; v вигин; згинати, вигинати

blanket n ковдра, захисний шар

impermeable adj водонепроникний, герметичний

beam n балка, колода

decking n опалубка, настил, оздоблення, палубний

матеріал

checking n розтріскування, утворення тріщин

weathering n вивітрювання, ерозія, витримування

деревини

fibreboard n фібровий картон

particle board ДСП

shaving n тріска, стружка

splinter n; v осколок, планка, тріска; роздробляти,

розщеплювати

residue n залишок

valve n клапан, вентиль

wet felting мокре валяння

rosin n каніфоль

interior finishing внутрішнє оздоблення

chip v колоти, стругати, обтісувати

grinding n подрібнення, мелення

screen v сортувати, просіювати

thicken v ущільнювати, згущувати, потовщувати

bleach v білити

71

artificial limbs протези

blinds (Venetian) жалюзі (венеціанські)

bowling pins кеглі

casket n скринька, шкатулка

clothespin n прищіпка

insulating pins ізоляційні контакти

oar n весло

pallet n піддон, паллет

scaffolding n будівельні ліси

shingle n покрівельна дранка

vat n бочка, кадка

wood flour деревна маса

WOOD PRODUCTS

Veneer.

Veneer is a thin layer, or sheet, of wood that is uniform in thickness—

commonly about 0.6-eight millimetres. According to the method of

production, it is classified into rotary cut (cut in a lathe by rotating a log

against a knife, similar to peeling), sliced (cut sheet by sheet from a log

section or “flitch”), and sawn (produced by sawing with a special tapered

saw). More than 90 percent of all veneer is rotary cut, but figured woods

producing veneer for furniture and other decorative purposes are sliced;

sawn veneer is seldom produced because it is a wasteful operation.

Veneers are used primarily for plywood and furniture, but they are also

used in toys, containers of various kinds, matches, battery separations, and

other products. An experimental product related to veneer is slice wood;

this is thicker, and its production is less wasteful than lumber of the same

thickness.

Plywood and laminated constructions.

Plywood and laminated constructions are glued-wood products. Although

gluing is an old art, practiced since ancient times, the modern development

of various products was made possible by the improvement of glues—

especially by the production of synthetic resin adhesives.

Plywood is a panel product manufactured by gluing together one or more

veneers to both sides of a veneer, solid wood, or reconstituted wood core.

In the case of solid-wood-core plywood and reconstituted-wood-core

plywood, an additional intermediate step is the production of cores, which

are made by lateral gluing of blocks or strips of wood or by gluing oriented

wood chips or flakes with resin adhesives.

72

In plywood the grain of alternate layers is crossed, in general at right

angles; species, thickness, and grain direction of each layer are matched

with those of their opposite number on the other side of the core; usually

the total number of layers is odd (three, five, or more). Thus assembled, the

panels are brought to presses for gluing with either natural (animal, casein,

soybean, starch) or synthetic resins, such as phenol- or urea-formaldehyde.

Certain synthetic resins, such as phenol-formaldehyde, properly used, may

produce joints more durable than the natural wood itself—highly resistant

to weather, microorganisms, cold, hot and boiling water, and steam and dry

heat; such plywood is known as exterior plywood (in contrast to interior).

Plywood has many advantages over natural wood, an important one being

greater dimensional stability. Its uniformity of strength, resistance to

splitting, panel form, and decorative value make it adaptable to various

uses. In addition to flat panels, plywood is manufactured in curved form

(molded plywood), used for boats, furniture, and many other products; this

is done by bending and gluing veneer sheets in one operation—by use of

curved forms in a press or by fluid pressure applied with a flexible “bag” or

“blanket” of an impermeable material.

Another important glued product is laminated wood. This is produced

mainly from lumber with the grain of all boards parallel to one another.

The product is used in beams, columns, and arches for buildings, boat

keels, aircraft carrier decking, and helicopter propellers. In curved

products, production involves simultaneous bending and gluing. Laminated

wood possesses several advantages over solid wood. Large members of

various sizes and shapes impossible to make from solid wood can be

fabricated; the individual boards used, due to their relatively small

thickness, may be properly dried without checking, and defects, such as

knots, may be removed; structures may be designed on the basis of required

strength, and wood of low grade can be positioned accordingly; gluing

permits utilization of small dimensions.

Special products are made of veneer sheets that are impregnated with

synthetic resin, assembled parallel or in the conventional plywood manner,

then pressed and glued. This results in “improved wood,” characterized by

high density; improved dimensional stability, strength, and appearance; and

resistance to fungi, insects, fire, and weathering. Finally, veneer and

plywood are fabricated into sandwich constructions by gluing in

combination with other materials, such as fibreboard, paper, cloth,

asbestos, metal, and plastics.

Particle board.

This panel product is manufactured of particles of wood glued together.

73

Particles are flakes, shavings, or splinters produced by cutting or breaking.

Boards are produced either with the same particle geometry throughout or

in layers—with different particle patterns on the faces and in the core.

Particle board production is a relatively new industrial development, begun

in the early 1940s and rapidly expanding since in all countries. It was made

possible by the development of synthetic resins and has greatly contributed

to better wood utilization by permitting the use of residues of other wood-

using industries and of harvesting operations in forests. Debarking is not

always necessary.

Fibreboard.

This panel product is made of fibres of wood. As in the case of particle

board, unbarked wood of low quality may be utilized through pulp

preparation, sheet formation, pressing, and finishing treatment. Pulping is

usually mechanical or semichemical, but a so-called explosion process is

also used, in which chips are subjected to high-temperature steam in a

“gun” or high-pressure vessel; ejected through a quick-opening valve, they

are reduced to pulp. Two basic processes—wet felting and air felting—are

employed in sheet formation. Before entering into sheet formation, certain

materials are added to the pulp to improve water resistance, strength, and

other properties. In wet felting, glue (synthetic resin) is usually not used,

though in the dry process it is added in a proportion of 1-4 percent (on the

basis of dry fibre mass). Other additives, such as rosin, paraffin, wax, and

chemicals, are used to increase resistance to microorganisms, insects, and

fire. Air felting offers advantages with regard to water consumption and

pollution and, for this reason, is preferred over the wet process. Air felting

produces either semidry wood (12-45 percent moisture content) or dry

wood (8-10 percent).

In general, panel products (plywood, particle, and fibreboard) serve a wide

range of uses: building construction, including walls, floors, roofs, and

doors; exterior siding, interior finishing (e.g., wall paneling), and shelves;

furniture; shipbuilding; automobile manufacture; refrigeration cars; toys;

concrete formwork; and many others. Special types combine decorative

value with thermal- and sound-conditioning properties.

Pulp and paper.

Wood is the main source of pulp and paper. Preliminary production steps

are debarking and chipping. Pulping processes are of three principal types:

mechanical, or grinding; chemical, or cooking with chemicals added; and

semichemical, a combination of heat or chemical pretreatment with

subsequent mechanical reduction. The yield of pulp ranges from about 40

74

percent by chemical methods to 95 percent by mechanical ones. Chemical

processes are based on either acids (sulfite pulping) or alkalies (alkaline

pulping, including the soda and the sulfate process). The pulp produced is

washed, screened, thickened by the removal of most water, and bleached.

Paper manufacture involves beating the pulp, loading, introducing various

additives, refining, and running the pulp into the paper machine.

Other products.

The total number of products made of wood and its derivatives (e.g.,

cellulose) is enormous, according to some estimates as high as 10,000.

Mechanically derived products.

In addition to those already mentioned, some of the principal applications

of wood include agricultural tools, aircraft, artificial limbs, barrels, baseball

bats, baskets, blackboards, blinds (Venetian), bobbins, bowling pins,

caskets, clothespins, crates, excelsior (wood-wool), fishing rods, golf clubs,

handles, ice-cream spoons, insulating pins, ladders, oars, pallets, patterns

and models, parquet flooring, pencils, picture frames, rules, scaffolding,

scientific instruments, shingles, skis, sleighs, smoking pipes, spools, tennis

rackets, toothpicks, vats, wood flour, and many others.

Notes: Flakeboard is the same as particleboard. A board composed of wood flakes

bonded together with a synthetic resin or other suitable binder under heat and pressure.

Post-reading Activities

1. Choose synonyms to the following English words:

1. commonly adv a) collect v, put together

2. layer n b) remainder, remnant, rest

3. assemble v c) artificial adj

4. residue n d) generally, usually

5. refine v e) sheet n

6. synthetic adj f) purify v

2. Decide whether the following statements are true or false:

1. According to the method of production, veneer is classified into rotary

cut, sliced, and sawn veneer.

2. Special products are made of veneer sheets that are impregnated with

natural resin, assembled parallel or in the conventional plywood

manner, then pressed and glued.

3. Veneer and plywood are fabricated into sandwich constructions by

gluing in combination with other materials, such as fibreboard, paper,

75

cloth, asbestos, metal, and plastics.

4. Particle board is manufactured of particles of wood glued together.

5. Particle board production is a relatively new industrial development,

begun in the early 1980s and rapidly expanding since in all countries.

6. Pulping processes are of two principal types: mechanical, or grinding;

and chemical, or cooking with chemicals added.

7. The total number of products made of wood and its derivatives (e.g.,

cellulose) is enormous, according to some estimates as high as 10,000.

3. Choose Ukrainian equivalents to these words:

1. plywood a) внутрішнє оздоблення

2. fibreboard b) верстат

3. lathe c) клеєна фанера

4. interior finishing d) будівельні ліси

5. scaffolding e) фібровий картон

6. shaving f) різаний, струганий шпон

7. sliced veneer g) тріска, стружка

4. Fill in the blanks with the words given below:

1. The modern development of various wood products was made possible

by the improvement of glues—especially by the production of synthetic

resin … .

2. According to the method of production, veneer is classified into … cut

(cut in a lathe by rotating a log against a knife, similar to peeling), … (cut

sheet by sheet from a log section or “flitch”), and … (produced by sawing

with a special tapered saw).

3. In plywood the grain of … layers is crossed, in general at right angles;

species, thickness, and grain direction of each layer are matched with those

of their opposite number on the other side of the core; usually the total

number of layers is … (three, five, or more).

4. In curved products, production involves simultaneous … and gluing.

5. Boards are produced either with the same particle geometry throughout

or in layers—with different particle patterns on the faces and in the … .

6. Two basic processes—wet felting and … felting—are employed in sheet

formation.

7. Before entering into sheet formation, certain materials are added to the

… to improve water resistance, strength, and other.

(sawn, alternate, rotary, adhesives, pulp, sliced, core, properties, bending,

air, odd)

5. Match the words and expressions below with their definitions:

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1) Particle board

a) is a panel product manufactured by

gluing together one or more veneers to

both sides of a veneer, solid wood, or

reconstituted wood core.

2) Veneer

b) is an important glued product produced

mainly from lumber with the grain of all

boards parallel to one another.

3) Plywood

c) is a thin layer, or sheet, of wood that is

uniform in thickness—commonly about

0.6-eight millimetres.

4) Laminated wood

d) is a panel product manufactured of

particles of wood (flakes, shavings, or

splinters) glued together.

6. Study the text “Wood Products” and answer these questions:

1. How is veneer classified according to the method of production?

2. Where are different types of veneer used?

3. What glued-wood products are manufactured in our country’s mills?

4. Is the total number of layers in plywood odd or even?

5. What plywood is known as exterior plywood?

6. Which wood (natural or plywood) has more advantages?

7. What uses of plywood do you know?

8. How is laminated wood produced?

9. Where and how is laminated wood used? Give some examples, please.

10. Why are sheets of veneer impregnated with synthetic resin?

11. What particles of wood may be used for particleboards manufacture?

12. How is fibreboard produced?

13. Describe two main processes employed in sheet formation (wet felting

and air felting).

14. How are panel products (plywood, particle, and fibreboard) used in our

life?

15. What mechanically derived products do you know? Give some

examples, please.

7. Try to retell the text using your plan.

Vocabulary, grammar and speech exercises to the text “Pulp and Paper

Manufacture”

1. Translate the following word-combinations:

The paper making process, sheet formation, the resulting pulp,

77

a relatively high yield of pulp, non-permanent types of paper, wood(en)

chips, sulfate process, alkaline solution, additional ingredients, the final

stage of process, the overall process, an absorbent material.

2. Find synonyms to these words:

1) convert v a) coarse adj

2) soluble adj b) fabrication, production n

3) rough adj c) transform, change v

4) manufacture n d) phase n

5) stage n (of a process) e) dissoluble adj

3. Match the following English words with their Ukrainian equivalents:

1. require a) обертатися

2. bleach b) надлишок, перевищення

3. revolve c) виконувати, здійснювати

4. exceed d) вигляд

5. excess e) білити

6. appearance f) потребувати

7. accomplish g) перевищувати

8. heat h) поглинати

9. absorb i) нагрівати

10. hang j) сушити

11. dry k) вішати

4. Before reading the text “Pulp and Paper Manufacture” - learn the

vocabulary:

groundwood pulp деревна маса

soluble adj розчинний, здатний розпадатися

digester n автоклав, варочний котел

sulfate n сульфат

revolving обертовий, що обертається

shade n відтінок

sulphite n сульфіт

alkaline adj лужний

rough adj грубий

sodium sulfide сульфід натрію

caustic sodium каустичний гідроксид натрію

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hydroxide

impurities n pl домішки

recycled перероблений, викоростаний вдруге

extraction n витягання, видобуток

glossy adj глянсовий, блискучий

dilute розводити, розбавляти

strain v напинати, натягати, розтягати, цідити

screen n решето

fine adj тонкий, делікатний, витончений, хороший

mesh n отвір (решета), ячейка, меш

squeeze v вижимати, давити, тиснути

mould n форма, шаблон, матриця

reel n котушка, барабан, мотовило, рулон

accomplish v виконувати, здійснювати, досягати,

завершувати

absorbent n; adj поглинач, абсорбент; абсорбуючий,

поглинаючий

felt n повсть, фетр, сукно, на яке викладаються

листи (на паперовій фабриці)

blotter n промокальний папір

laundry n пральня, білизна

Pulp and Paper Manufacture

The paper making process follows three steps: preparation of the fibers,

sheet formation, and drying.

Preparation of the Fibers

During the first step of the paper making process, the material used to

make the paper is converted to pulp, which is a concentrated mixture of

fibers that are suspended in liquid. Generally, the fibers are found naturally

in softwood trees, hardwood trees, or other plants.

When plants are used to make paper, it is usually necessary to use a

special chemical process to break down the lignin found inside the cell

walls of the plant.

There are two ways to break down the pulp used to make paper:

mechanically and chemically. When it is broken down mechanically, the

resulting pulp is known as "groundwood pulp". This process does not

79

require chemicals, but the lignin is not removed. This results in a relatively

high yield of pulp, but the paper does turn yellow as it ages. Therefore, this

type of paper is generally used for newspapers and other non-permanent

types of paper.

Chemically broken down pulp is called "chemical pulp." The primary

reason to break the pulp down in this manner is to remove the lignin by

breaking it down and making it soluble. Removing the lignin also helps

break down the wood chips to prepare them for the next step in the paper

making process.

Generally, this is done with the Kraft process.The Kraft process, also

referred to as the sulfate process or as Kraft pulping, is a process used to

produce paper pulp. The wooden chips are placed inside large pressure

vessels that are called digesters. The digester is a special piece of

machinery. Its purpose is to cook small wood chips for several hours in

order to soften them. These softened chips are then passed to a machine

that whitens them to the desired shade. The digester itself can be

horizontal, upright, revolving, spherical, or cylindrical. There are two types

of digesters: sulphite and sulphate. The sulphite digester utilizes calcium

acid sulphite to aid in the process, which is usually referred to as the acid

process. The sulphate process, also known as the Kraft process, uses an

alkaline solution (sodium sulfide and caustic sodium hydroxide) instead.

The Kraft process is newer than the sulphite process, but it is used by more

companies because it is less corrosive and damaging to the equipment. It is

also more efficient at removing the lignin and results in a stronger fiber. On

the other hand, the fiber created with the Kraft process is rougher and

contains more impurities than that created with the sulfite process. This

makes paper made with the Kraft process more difficult to bleach.

If the fibers used to make the paper are recycled, it is not necessary to

undergo this process because the lignin has already been removed. If the

lignin is not removed from the pulp, the resulting paper will turn yellow

when it is exposed to light and air.

After the extraction of the fibers, they are bleached if necessary and any

additional ingredients are added to change the appearance of the paper.

Products such as Kaolin, for example, are sometimes added to make the

paper look glossy for use in items such as magazines.

Sheet Formation

The next step is sheet formation. At this stage in the process, the pulp

mixture is diluted some more with water. Then it is strained through a

moving screen made of fine mesh in order to create a fibrous web. At this

time, a watermark may be impressed into the paper if desired. Then, the

moving web of pulp is pressed and allowed to dry. Pressure may be applied

80

to help squeeze out the water.

The resulting paper sheet can be removed from the mesh screen mould

while it is still wet or it may be removed after it is completely dry in order

to undergo additional processing. With most paper, it undergoes the

Fourdrinier process in order to form a web of fibers or a reel in a thin sheet.

Once try, the sheet can be cut to size.

Drying

The final stage of the paper making process is drying, which is

accomplished with time and pressing of the paper. The exact method for

drying depends on the overall process used to make the paper.

When pressing is used, the excess water is removed by force. Once forced

out, an absorbent material is used to collect the water. Felt, which is not the

same as the typical felt used in crafts and other projects, is usually used on

paper machines to accomplish this task. When paper is made by hand, a

blotter sheet is used to absorb excess water.

Air and heat are also used to remove the water. In the early years, this

was accomplished by hanging the paper sheets out like laundry. Today,

heated drying mechanisms are usually used; with the most common being

the steam-heated can dryer. These dryers are capable of reaching over 200

degree Fahrenheit and can dry paper to less than 6% moisture.

Post-reading Activities

1. Choose antonyms to the following English words

create v partial, incomplete, not full adj

suited light adj

entire adj break, destroy v

heavy adj dryness n

moisture n inappropriate, unsuitable, unfit adj

2. Decide whether the following statements are true or false:

1. When plants are used to make paper, it isn’t necessary to break down

the lignin found inside the cell walls of the plant.

2. When the pulp is broken down mechanically, the resulting pulp is

known as "chemical pulp".

3. Removing the lignin also helps break down the wood chips to prepare

them for the next step in the paper making process.

4. The Kraft process, also referred to as the sulfite process or as Kraft

pulping, is a process used to produce paper pulp.

5. The sulphite digester utilizes calcium alkaline sulphite to aid in the

process, which is usually referred to as the acid process.

81

3. Make up sentences using the text:

1) The function of a digester is a) the overall process used to

make the paper.

2) The sulphite digester utilizes

calcium acid sulphite to aid in the

process,

b) vegetation, soil composition,

and the slope of the land.

3) With most paper, it undergoes the

Fourdrinier process in order to

c) with the most common being

the steam-heated can dryer.

4) The exact method for drying

depends on

d) to cook small wood chips for

several hours in order to soften

them.

5) Today, heated drying mechanisms

are usually used;

e) which is usually referred to as

the acid process.

4. Fill in the blanks with the words or word combinations:

lignin sheet formation digesters dryers pulp

1. The paper making process follows three steps: preparation of the

fibers, … , and drying..

2. The material used to make the paper is converted to … .

3. When plants are used to make paper, it is usually necessary to use a

special chemical process to break down the … found inside the cell

walls of the plant.

4. The wooden chips are placed inside large pressure vessels that are

called … .

5. The … are capable of reaching over 200 degree Fahrenheit and can

dry paper to less than 6% moisture.

5. Read and translate the additional material. Express the main idea of

the text in the shortest possible way:

A paper mill is a type of factory that makes paper from wood pulp and

other special ingredients. This is accomplished through a variety of special

machines, including a tree chipper, a digester, and a Fourdrinier machine.

The first known operating paper mill was in operation in 794 in

Baghdad. From here, the technology spread to Europe. Today, paper mills

use great amounts of water, energy, and wood and follow a complex

process in order to produce paper. These modern machines are as much as

500 feet in length and move at speeds of over 100 mph, which makes them

capable of producing sheets of paper as much as 400 inches wide.

82

Due to the Kraft process used to separate the lignin from the plant

products used in the paper making process resulting in a sulfur byproduct

(hydrogen sulfide gas and other sulfur gas compounds), paper mills are

associated with unpleasant smells.

The Kraft process was developed in 1884 by Carl Dahl, with the

name of the process coming from the German word “kraft,” meaning

strong. The first kraft mill in the United States was not built until 1911 and

was located in Pensacola, Florida. Today, the process is used in

approximately 80% of paper production. Those companies using the Kraft

process are easy to recognize by their strong, offensive smell.

The undesirable smell associated with paper mills only occurs if the

mill is also a pulp mill. In some cases, mills focus on only pulp processing

or paper processing. All of the major mills, however, engage in both

processes. The offensive smell is caused by the cooking process used to

soften the pulp in order to form it into paper. Despite the bad smells they

emit, the airborne particles are not harmful to a person’s health.

Biological pulping is another form of pulping that is currently being

researched. This process is similar to chemical pulping, but utilizes fungi to

break down the lignin rather than chemicals. The potential environmental

benefits of this type of pulping are outstanding.

After the pulp is produced, it is bleached in order to create white

paper. The chemicals that have been used in this process have caused

environmental concerns. Therefore, the pulp industry has been using

chlorine alternatives, such as hydrogen peroxide, oxygen, and ozone. After

being bleached, the pulp is moved through the Fourdrinier machine where

it is dried and shaped.

Notes: airborne - що переноситься через повітря; emit - випускати

6. Study the text and answer these questions:

1. How many steps does the paper making process follow?

2. Is it necessary to remove the lignin from the pulp? Why?

3. What ways to break down the pulp are there?

4. What does the “groundwood pulp” mean?

5. What pulp is called “chemical pulp”?

6. What is “the Kraft process”? Describe it.

7. What is the function of the digester?

8. What are two main types of the digesters?

9. Which of two processes is more efficient: sulphite or sulphate?

10. What advantages does each process have?

11. When is the pulp usually bleached?

12. How is the excess water removed?

83

13. What is the final stage of the paper making process?

7. Try to retell the text using your plan.

Модульно-контрольний тест №2

1. My friend never … football.

1 play

2 plays

3 played

4 is playing

2. While Tom … the dinner, the phone … .

1 cook, ring

2 is cooking, rang

3 was cooking, rang

4 cooks, rang

3. My aunt … South America yet.

1 hasn’t

2 wasn’t in

3 hadn’t been to

4 hasn’t been to

4. Kate … type since she went to college.

1 has been able to

2 can’t

3 can

4 have been able to

5. You … this composition for two hours and can’t complete it.

1 Have written

2 Had written

3 Have been writing

4 wrote

6. He … not smoke so much.

1. need

2. have

3. must

4. is

7. Experts say that in the 21st century hydrogen ..... by thermochemical

decomposition of water.

1 will obtain

2 obtain

3 will be obtained

84

4 be obtained

8. Have you had a holiday ......?

1 just

2 ever

3 this year

4 for along time

9. If the tickets ..... too expensive, we won't go to the concert.

1 will be

2 is

3 are

4 was

10. I … understand what he was saying because he was speaking Spanish.

1 couldn’t

2 can’t

3 can

4 was able to

11. We … about him when he suddenly … in.

1. just talked … came

2. just talked … was coming

3. were just talking …comes

4. were just talking … came

12. If the weather … fine tomorrow, we are going to have a picnic.

1. will be

2. is

3. shall be

4. was

13. Many forests and river ecosystems ... .

1 have lost

2 have been lost

3 lost

4 been lost

14. When my friend ... the University he will be a forester.

1 will graduate from

2 graduate from

3 graduates from

4 graduated from

15. I think I … at home this evening.

1 stay

85

2 stays

3 ‘ll stay

4 stayed

16. I … TV from 6 till 9.

1 will be watch

2 will have been watching

3 will watch

4 will be watching

17. We … already … the work and can go home.

1 are done

2 have done

3 will have done

4 will do

18. I … remember to go to the bank. I haven’t got any money.

1 don’t have to

2 needn’t

3 must

4 shouldn’t

19. The children are drawing. They … since they came home.

1 have been drawing

2 drew

3 have drawn

4 draw

20. On Friday afternoon before a three-day holiday weekend, the highways …

people on their way out of the city.

1 are crowding by

2 are being crowd with

3 are crowded with

4 crowd by

21. The last decade of the 20th century ... the warmest on record in Europe.

1 was

2 is

3 have been

4 were

22. We … the exhibition before it is over.

1. will have seen

2. will see

3. would have seen

4. would see

86

23. She looked tired. She … letters all morning.

1. had typed

2. have been typing

3. had been typing

4. is typing

24. When will I have my car? It … to your house the day after tomorrow.

1. is delivered

2. will be delivered

3. would be delivered

4. has been delivered

25. We … meet at 5 o'clock.

1. Have to

2. need

3. are to

4. ought

26. They … while they … their car.

1. quarreled … washed

2. quarrelling … washing

3. were quarrelling … washed

4. were quarrelling …were washing

27. We are going to buy a car. By the end of next month our family … money

for it.

1. will have been saving

2. will save

3. will have saved

4. will be saving

28. Pete … the article since two o’clock.

1. has been translating

2. is translating

3. translated

4. was translating

29. How long … you … French?

1 Do, learn

2 Are, learning

3 Have, learnt

4 Have, been learning

30. The book … into Ukrainian at the moment.

1 is translating

2 has translated

3 is being translated

87

4 has been translating

31. Wood is a … resource – in contrast to coal, ores, oil and gas.

1. alternate

2. intermediate

3. renewable

4. natural

32. The trees in a tropical deciduous forest are of many ...(usually deciduous)

species

1. coniferous

2. broadleaf

3. gymnosperms

4. needle-leaf

33. Choose the word that doesn’t belong with others.

1. Spruce

2. larch

3. cypress

4. willow

34. A tree is a woody plant with a single trunk and a more or less definite … .

1. nutrients

2. buds

3. crown

4. fruits

35. Crown has much to do with the … of trees.

1. reproduction

2. increment

3. protection

4. conveying

36. Crown consists of branches and … .

1. roots

2. twigs

3. bark

4. annual rings

37. Twigs bear …, leaves, flowers and fruits.

1. scales

2. ovary

3. buds

4. ovules

38. Choose the word that doesn’t belong with others.

88

1 oak

2 beech

3 hornbeam

4 spruce

39. … trees lose their leaves each winter and grow new ones each spring.

1 Coniferous

2 Deciduous

3 Needleleaf

4 Gymnosperms

40. Forests of the world fall into two major categories: ... ("needle-leaf") forests

of tree that are usually evergreen and "broadleaf” forests of usually deciduous

trees (that shed their leaves annually).

1 coniferous

2 angiosperms

3 hardwoods

4 deciduous

89

SUPPLEMENTARY READING

Furniture Industry

The production process

A basic preliminary in all furniture production is the provision of working

drawings. In a firm of any size there is invariably a special department

where full-size drawings are prepared from small-scale drawings provided

by the designer. In some cases the designer may make his own full-size,

detailed drawings; but in a large firm it is more usual for a draftsman to

work out the practical details, though usually in consultation with the

designer, who advises on proportions and decorative details. The hand

craftsman, in contrast, usually does the whole thing himself. In the small-

scale drawing the general form and essential requirements are worked out;

the full-size drawing shows proportions and constructional details. A

sample piece is made to check the design and cutting problems. Cutting

lists are prepared; the cost of materials, fittings, finish, etc. figured; and an

estimate of machining and assembly time worked out. When the work is to

be produced in quantity, costs are lowered considerably because only one

setting of the machine and only one set of cutters are needed for the whole

run of any particular part.

Selection of timber, already passed through the seasoning kiln and

converted to standard thicknesses, follows. The wood passes to the

machine shop, where it is sawed to size, planed, molded, grooved, or

rebated as required. When a number of parts must be cut exactly alike, they

are clamped in forms having the proper contour and are then brought in

contact with high-speed rotating knives that shape the part to proper size as

the form rides against a guide on hand or automatic shapers and routers.

Intricately carved pieces such as legs are roughly carved on multiple-

spindle carving machines. These duplicate a master leg by means of a

follower point that is guided along the surface of the model and imparts the

same motions to as many as 32 high-speed rotating knives as they whittle

the leg blanks. After the rough carving, the pieces are machine sanded and

finished by a hand carver.

If veneering is required, this is now done. Jointing follows—tenoning,

dowelling, dovetailing, etc. Automatic machines often combine several

operations. Exposed parts are sanded on edge belt sanders, three-drum

travelling-bed sanders, or belt sanders. Rounded parts are sanded on soft

pneumatic drums, and carved parts are sanded on a buffer, a machine in

which shredded sandpaper is supported by brushes on a revolving wheel.

Finally the work passes to the assembly shop where door frames are put

together, drawers glued up, and carcasses assembled. After the glue has set,

90

the parts may be returned to the machine department for machining that

could not be performed before assembly, such as sanding the joints and

shaping the edges. Then it returns to the assembly department for final

assembly. Air-driven clamps are used when the design permits; otherwise

the piece is pressed by hand clamps. Unless electronically cured glues are

used, clamps must be applied long enough to ensure a good bond. The

completed article is cleaned to remove excess glue, inspected, and hand

sanded. Finally, staining and spray polishing is done and fittings added.

In individually crafted work there is always a great deal of fitting to be

done—doors trimmed and drawers made to run easily without slackness. In

mass-production work this problem would be serious. It is almost entirely

avoided by making drawers an easy rather than snug fit and by sanding the

edges of doors to templet size so that they automatically fit the carcasses,

which in their turn are made to standard size.

Furniture Manufacturing Process Flow

Phase 1 (Receiving Timber)

Timber taken from our storage area will be checked and measure to ensure

sizes and moisture content is within requirements. Each bundle is

documented and release to production floor for processing.

Phase 2 (Cutting & Molding)

Selecting from the received timber bundle, each piece of timber is carefully

cross cut into lengths required. Cut timber is then bundled on pallets, which

is then processed at our molding section to achieve the shapes and sizes

required. Documentation and identification of each bundle is properly done

here to ensure chain of custody procedure is followed.

Phase 3 (Component Fabrication)

Molded timber is processes by different machines depending on its shape

and design to acquire its features. These components are then carefully

sanded to round all sharp edges and smoothen out all surfaces.

Phase 4 (Assembly)

Each components will be assembled accordingly to form the part of the

intended furniture. Joints are glued together to form a strong bond.

Assembled parts are then stacked together and labeled for traceability.

Phase 5 (Finishing & Packing)

Assembled parts are dipped in teak oil and wiped dry to achieve the

brown/teak finishing. Teak oil acts as repellent of wood destroying insects,

fungicide, as well as providing some weather and UV resistants to the

wood. These parts are left for a period of time for the teak oil to cure and

dry. They are inspected again before being packed into carton boxes.

Phase 6 (Delivery)

91

Finished products will be loaded into containers according to customer's

order. These containers are then shipped out to our customers from all

around the world.

Woodworking

The decline of the direct link between customer and maker, due to the rapid

development of retail trade, was largely made possible by the invention of

everal woodworking machines, mostly steam powered. Much handwork

remained, however, and only large manufacturers could afford major

machinery installation. In the early 20th century it was still possible for a

cabinetmaker in Britain or Europe to earn a living, though in most cases he

installed a basic machine such as a circular saw or worked in a district in

which machine shops were available. Thus in Shoreditch, London, whole

streets of houses were occupied by cabinetmakers, often several in one

house, who made pieces that varied from the finest individual items to the

cheapest, turned out in pairs or perhaps six at a time. These men had their

machining done in the trade machine shops that abounded in the district.

The shops produced nothing themselves but performed any machining that

was brought to them: sawing, spindle molding, fretting, turning, planing,

and so on. These practices continued up to the beginning of World War I

and for a time afterward, although most of the large stores also had their

workshops where they made not only individual items for customers but

also furniture in quantity to pattern.

But in the U.S., the development of mass-production furniture manufacture

was already well advanced, with the principal manufacturing centres at

Grand Rapids, Michigan; Jamestown, New York; and High Point, North

Carolina. “Grand Rapids” became a byword for inexpensive furniture of

reliable quality. Furniture factories have never become large in comparison

with the huge production units in such industries as automobiles and

steel—few today employ more than 100 persons—because of the

continuing need for some hand operations. But their machines for many

purposes and the volume in which they operated gave them insuperable

advantages in cost over the old-fashioned craftsman. Mass-produced

furniture began to have a serious impact in Britain and Europe between the

wars.

The shortage of timber during and after World War II made conditions

extremely difficult for the furniture maker; but in the 1950s there was a

gradual return to more decorative furniture, marked by the introduction of

new materials, new machines, adhesives, and finishes.

Modern commercial furniture production may be roughly divided into

groups: general furniture—bookcases, wardrobes, tables, etc.; chairs and

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upholstered suites; and specialized items. Each of these may be further

subdivided according to quality and type. In addition to this commercial

furniture there are the specialized items made by a few hand craftsmen to

special commission. Such goods are necessarily expensive, partly because

they are individual pieces made singly to design and also because the best

selected materials are used. Furthermore, hand methods are largely used

that are costly because they are time-consuming. Even in this field,

however, the machine has encroached to an extent. Thus a circular saw is

invariably installed because its advantages are so obvious. There is no

merit in laboriously ripping boards to size when a machine will do the work

as well or better.

Though furniture produced by modern hand craftsmen is beautifully made

from the best materials, it often requires considerable discernment to detect

the difference between it and the best commercial furniture.

Period furniture

In a class by itself is the manufacture of reproduction period furniture. The

best work in this field is of an extremely high standard; and, although it

often has to make concession to modern materials in using veneered

plywood or laminated board for parts, it usually follows traditional methods

of construction, at least where visible machine work would be obvious. On

the other hand, all veneers are put down in a press, moldings worked on the

spindle molder, and shapes cut on the bandsaw or jigsaw.

It is in this work that wood carving is chiefly used. Because of its high cost,

carving has largely disappeared from modern commercial furniture, but to

the manufacturer of reproduction furniture it is an obvious necessity. From

early times and certainly from the 17th century, wood carving has been a

separate trade. A highly skilled calling, it demands artistic sense as well as

manual dexterity. It has become divided into classes of which furniture and

indoor decoration represent only one branch, with further subdivision

within the branch.

In the commercial grade of furniture there is wide variation in quality, from

the lowest priced goods to high-grade items in which individual hand

workmanship is used for processes where the quality would suffer if the

machine were used. Thus drawer dovetails are cut by hand, and sometimes

even hand-cut joints are used.

Modern factory layout

Most modern factories are laid out on mass-production lines. The earlier

factories often had a cabinet shop, which had its rows of benches for

individual work; a cabinetmaker needing machining done carried his wood

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to the machinist. Today the timber is cut to usable sizes in a main

conversion shop and brought to the required moisture content in a kilning

section. In the kiln, air is forced through stripped stacks by fans that

periodically change the direction of the air flow. In recent years radio-

frequency heating has been widely used to dry both natural wood and

plywood. The applied radio frequency produces molecular activity in wood

and resins (such as those in plywood glue); part of the molecular energy is

converted into heat that greatly reduces the time required to dry the wood

thoroughly and evenly and to set the glue. The wood is placed in a press

between two metal plates to which the power is applied; great thicknesses

of wood can be dried evenly by this method.

From the drying section the wood proceeds to the planing and jointing

shop, in which it is reduced to the required section and any tenoning,

dowelling, or dovetailing carried out. There is also a veneer department,

and in many respects this has become one of the most important

departments. In it veneers are jointed in width where necessary, and a

remarkable recent invention is a machine that sews veneers together with

fine fibreglass, the stitching passing through half the thickness of the

veneer only. It does this with amazing speed and accuracy. Where required,

veneers are matched, giving a balanced appearance; and any small defects

are repaired by placing a waste veneer beneath, cutting through both

simultaneously, and interchanging the cutout pieces. Veneer pressing

follows, and, although multiplate presses are still used to an extent, the

tendency in large-production work is toward the progressive presser. At

one end of this the resin glue is applied with a spreader, the veneers placed

in position on the groundwork, and the whole passed in batches beneath the

presser where it is heat cured in about a minute and ejected at the other end

ready for further operations.

It is in the assembly shop that the line or conveyor-belt system begins. This

is not usually in continuous movement but takes the form of a series of

loose rollers over which the work can easily be pushed by one man. Special

cramping jigs are set up so that, for example, a wardrobe can be glued up in

one operation by power-driven rams. The jig ensures squareness, and the

resin glue is cured in a matter of seconds by radio-frequency heating. In

fact, by the time the operator has applied glue to the joints of one set of

parts, the previous assembly has hardened and can be removed to the

conveyor, leaving the jig free for another cramping operation.

From this point onward the work remains on the conveyor belt, passing to a

sanding shop where joints are levelled and finally to the finishing shop

where it is stained, spray polished, and fine sanded and waxed. Lastly there

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is a fitters’ shop, where doors are hinged, handles put on, mirrors fitted, and

so on.

Before passing to stock or to the packers’ department every piece has to be

passed by an examiner who chalks any defect or attaches a small, coloured

label indicating that there is a fault in either the woodwork or the finish.

Only a constant flow of orders in large quantities justifies such a setup.

Smaller firms contract their veneering to outside specialists, have their

turning done outside, and also any other work for which they are not

equipped. The aim is to maintain a constant flow of production, which

involves a balance in personnel in the various departments to avoid a

holdup in any stage.

The production process

A basic preliminary in all furniture production is the provision of working

drawings. In a firm of any size there is invariably a special department

where full-size drawings are prepared from small-scale drawings provided

by the designer. In some cases the designer may make his own full-size,

detailed drawings; but in a large firm it is more usual for a draftsman to

work out the practical details, though usually in consultation with the

designer, who advises on proportions and decorative details. The hand

craftsman, in contrast, usually does the whole thing himself. In the small-

scale drawing the general form and essential requirements are worked out;

the full-size drawing shows proportions and constructional details. A

sample piece is made to check the design and cutting problems. Cutting

lists are prepared; the cost of materials, fittings, finish, etc. figured; and an

estimate of machining and assembly time worked out. When the work is to

be produced in quantity, costs are lowered considerably because only one

setting of the machine and only one set of cutters are needed for the whole

run of any particular part.

Selection of timber, already passed through the seasoning kiln and

converted to standard thicknesses, follows. The wood passes to the

machine shop, where it is sawed to size, planed, molded, grooved, or

rebated as required. When a number of parts must be cut exactly alike, they

are clamped in forms having the proper contour and are then brought in

contact with high-speed rotating knives that shape the part to proper size as

the form rides against a guide on hand or automatic shapers and routers.

Intricately carved pieces such as legs are roughly carved on multiple-

spindle carving machines. These duplicate a master leg by means of a

follower point that is guided along the surface of the model and imparts the

same motions to as many as 32 high-speed rotating knives as they whittle

95

the leg blanks. After the rough carving, the pieces are machine sanded and

finished by a hand carver.

If veneering is required, this is now done. Jointing follows—tenoning,

dowelling, dovetailing, etc. Automatic machines often combine several

operations. Exposed parts are sanded on edge belt sanders, three-drum

travelling-bed sanders, or belt sanders. Rounded parts are sanded on soft

pneumatic drums, and carved parts are sanded on a buffer, a machine in

which shredded sandpaper is supported by brushes on a revolving wheel.

Finally the work passes to the assembly shop where door frames are put

together, drawers glued up, and carcasses assembled. After the glue has set,

the parts may be returned to the machine department for machining that

could not be performed before assembly, such as sanding the joints and

shaping the edges. Then it returns to the assembly department for final

assembly. Air-driven clamps are used when the design permits; otherwise

the piece is pressed by hand clamps. Unless electronically cured glues are

used, clamps must be applied long enough to ensure a good bond. The

completed article is cleaned to remove excess glue, inspected, and hand

sanded. Finally, staining and spray polishing is done and fittings added.

In individually crafted work there is always a great deal of fitting to be

done—doors trimmed and drawers made to run easily without slackness. In

mass-production work this problem would be serious. It is almost entirely

avoided by making drawers an easy rather than snug fit and by sanding the

edges of doors to templet size so that they automatically fit the carcasses,

which in their turn are made to standard size.

The art of chair making

Chair making has been a separate branch of furniture making since the

mid-17th century. One of the most intricate branches of woodwork, it

involves odd angles, compound shapes, and awkward joints and at the same

time calls for maximum strength, chairs being subjected to more strain than

most other furniture. There are three main types of chairs: the Windsor

chair, made largely from turned parts, with solid wood seat; the framed

type of dining chair with either loose or stuff-over seat; and the upholstered

chair.

In Britain the Windsor chair belongs traditionally to the High Wycombe

District of Buckinghamshire where beech trees abound. Until relatively

recent times men worked in huts in the beech woods making turned parts

for chairs. They felled the trees, cut the trunks and larger branches into

suitable lengths, and split them into pieces of a section large enough to

permit chair legs and uprights to be turned and also to provide lighter

members for rails, etc. They turned the parts on a primitive pole lathe in

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which a cord was attached to a treadle, taken around the wood to be turned

and up to a springy sapling anchored at the lower end to pegs outside the

hut. The power was supplied by treadle, the cord revolving the wood; then

as the foot was raised the spring of the sapling lifted the treadle and at the

same time turned the work backward. The turning gouge or chisel could be

used on the downward stroke of the foot only, but the economy of effort

was amazing. A complete leg could be rounded, the curves and beads

formed, and the ends brought to the required diameter in a matter of

seconds. Of course, working in green timber enabled the turning to be done

much more easily and quickly than if the wood was dry.

These bodgers, as they were called, made only the turned parts and

delivered them to chairmaking firms for assembling. They had no overhead

expenses, no power costs, and the only lighting they needed in winter was

an oil lamp or candles. They were long able to compete with powered

workshops.

The manufacture of the Windsor chair of Victorian and Edwardian times

was a specialized trade. The seat, invariably of elm, was hollowed out

(bottomed) with a form of adze, and the holes for the legs were bored with

a brace fitted with a spoon bit held at the required angle solely by

judgment. The better chairs had a hooped back of yew. Today this hand

work has been replaced by boring machines that are fitted with a jig to

maintain the correct angle. The hollowing of the seat is machined to an

extent, but the depth is only slight, compared with the early hand work.

Furthermore, traditional timbers—elm, beech, and yew—are frequently

replaced by imported timbers.

The quality of framed chairs of the dining type varies widely, but perhaps

the outstanding general feature of modern dining chairs is the wide use of

dowelled joints rather than mortise and tenon. In the late 19th century this

had already occurred to a large extent, the chairmaker’s kit of tools

invariably including a dowel plate with a series of holes through which the

craftsman hammered roughly squared pegs to form the dowels. Today

machine-made dowels are universal, with a glue-escape slot cut in.

Dowelling is a far quicker and consequently cheaper process than mortising

and tenoning, especially in shaped work where the curved part frequently

must be joined at odd angles.

When a chair has compound curvature it becomes difficult and expensive

to make. A chair back may be shaped in both front and side elevation (and

often in plan as well). Taste and experience are indispensable in providing

a continuous curve that will be aesthetically satisfying from every angle.

Over the years, experience has been built up, especially on traditional

models following period lines; a chairmaker’s workshop invariably carries

97

bundles of templets in plywood for the various parts of chairs, with the

fullness provided (where necessary) for a good line.

Dining chairs may be made in sets of half-dozens or dozens, or more

cheaply in batches of 50 or 100, depending upon the capacity of the

factory. In some cases parts are standardized and interchangeable in

different designs of chairs.

The upholstering of dining chairs is a separate trade, though carried out in

the same factory, and may be of the loose seat, stuff-over, or plywood-

covered type. Traditional stuffing materials such as horsehair have largely

been replaced by foam rubber and synthetics.

Fully upholstered furniture

The manufacture of fully upholstered pieces is often a separate branch,

though large manufacturers often make both upholstered and

nonupholstered types. It remains to a great extent a handicraft, for the skill

of trained and experienced craftsmen is needed in turning out quality

pieces. The standard upholstery foundation consists of a system of coiled

steel springs resting on a webbing of burlap and tied to the furniture frame,

which may be of wood, fibreglass, or plywood. The springs are embedded

in a filling material, such as rubberized hair, foam rubber, palm fibre, or

Spanish moss; and the spring system is topped by a thick padding of cotton

or foam rubber in sheet form. Muslin is frequently employed as an inner

covering for this assembly, while a durable upholstery fabric is used as an

outer and finishing cover. Loose cushions are filled with special spring

units in a bedding of foam rubber or down; the springs are covered with

layers of cotton, and the entire assembly is encased in upholstery fabric.

Only a few mechanical aids have proved satisfactory in upholstering.

Multiple layers of fabric can be cut efficiently and economically by

machines in production-line operations, and staples are used instead of

tacks on less expensive pieces. But the mass production of such

components as the basic coiled-spring system and the mechanical handling

of such materials as the bedding, or filler, have not proved efficient and

economical. Some useful substitutes have been found, however, for the

coiled-spring supporting unit; they include the modern nonsagging springs

that may be clipped to the frame and the steel bands that are held to the

frame by helical springs. Sponge rubber may be molded to constitute a

complete seat that is firm and comfortable. Webbed seat frames also are

used, and the natural resiliency of wood is utilized in building springy

plywood supporting structures.

98

GRAMMAR MATERIAL

The Article Артикль

В англійській мові є два артиклі (articles): неозначений a (an) й

означений the.

Неозначений артикль

Неозначений артикль (the indefinite article) а вживається перед

словами, що починаються з приголосного, тоді як an – перед словами,

що починаються з голосного.

Неозначений артикль утворився від числівника one (один) і тому

вживається тільки перед обчислюваними іменниками в однині.

Перед абстрактними і конкретними іменниками, які не мають

форми множини, артикль не вживається.

Неозначений артикль вживається:

1) з іменником – іменною частиною

складного присудка His brother is a doctor.

2) з іменником – підметом після

зворотів there is (there was, there will

be)

There is a table in the middle of

the room.

3) з додатком після дієслова have I have a brother.

4) перед іменниками в однині після

слів such, rather, quite і т.д. She is such a good student.

5) після слова what в окличних

реченнях

What a good idea!

Але: what beautiful music!

6) з деякими словами: a lot, a few, a

little, a bit та ін... He speaks English a little.

7) у значенні числівника one a) перед

числівниками hundred, thousand,

million, dozen;

б) в кількісних словосполученнях

a) The library has a hundred

books.

b) half a kilo; a pound of sugar;

60km an hour; a bottle of milk

8) коли мається на увазі “будь-який”

“кожний” A child can understand it.

9) коли мова йде про особу чи

предмет, що вперше згадується It happened in a small town.

10) перед іменником-прикладкою,

яка вказує на те, ким є особа або чим

є предмет, до якого вона відноситься

Volodymyr Ivanov, a student of

our group, has made a very

interesting report.

99

Означений артикль

Означений артикль the (the definite article) походить від

вказівного займенника that. Він вживається перед іменниками в

однині та в множині у тих випадках, коли йдеться про певний, вже

відомий чи згадуваний раніше предмет або поняття, а також тоді, коли

предмет чи явище уточнюється контекстом чи ситуацією.

Означений артикль вживається:

1) коли перед іменником стоїть:

а) порядковий числівник:

б) прикметник у вищому ступені:

в) один з прикметників last, next,

same, following, very, only (єдиний):

He was the first to come.

This is the most beautiful

flower.

Answer the following questions.

Але: next door, last week

2) перед іменником, за яким йде

означення, виражене іменниковим

сполученням, означувальним

підрядним реченням,

дієприкметником, інфінітивним чи

герундіальним означувальним

зворотом:

The winter of last year wasn’t

frosty.

This is the man I told you about.

3) з іменниками, що означають

предмети, єдині у своєму роді:

the earth, the sun, the moon, the

world, the sky, the Bible, the

truth, the President, etc.

4) у сталих виразах:

in the afternoon, in the evening,

on the left, on the right, the

other day, etc.

5) у виразах типу the more…, the

better…

the more we learn, the more we

know

6) перед прізвищами, коли маються

на увазі всі члени певної родини. У

цьому випадку прізвище ставиться у

формі множини:

the Taylors

7) перед назвами більшості газет і

пароплавів; перед назвами готелів

the Daily Mail, the Titanic, the

Guardian, the Hilton Hotel

8) перед назвами народів (іменник у

формі множини) the Ukrainians, the Americans

9) перед прикметниками і

дієприкметниками, які вживаються

як іменники у значенні множини:

the poor, the unemployed, the

blind

10) перед назвами деяких країн the US, the United Kingdom,

the Netherlands

100

11) перед назвами міст та установ,

географічними назвами з

прийменником of:

The Bank of England, the

University of London, the city

of Kyiv, the lake of Geneva

12) перед назвами річок, гірських

хребтів, півостровів, морів, океанів,

архіпелагів, пустель:

the Dnieper, the Crimea, the

Black Sea, the Carpathians, the

Alps, the Sahara

13) перед необчислюваними

іменниками у тих випадках, коли

мається на увазі обмежена, певна

кількість речовини:

Give me the bread, please.

The water is frozen.

Але: Water is a liquid

14) перед іменниками в однині, коли

останній означає цілий клас

предметів:

The pine grows in northen

countries.

The rose is a beautiful flower.

Артикль не вживається:

1) перед власними іменами, в тому

числі й тоді, коли перед ними

стоїть звання, титул і т.п.:

Professor Snow, Mister Pollit,

Inspector Mitchell

2) якщо перед іменником стоїть

вказівний, присвійний,

неозначений чи заперечний

займенник, а також

many/much/every/each:

some/many books, her hat, this

street, every morning, no/much

money

3) перед іменником-додатком до

присудка, що виражений

дієсловами to elect, to appoint:

he was elected chairman

4) перед назвами міст, вулиць,

площ, континентів, країн,

штатів, графств:

London, Trafalgar Square, South

America, Califrnia

Але: the Hague

5) перед назвами місяців, днів, пір

року, святами:

6) Але якщо мова йде про частину

певного року, то перед назвою

пори року ставиться означений

артикль:

in April, on Wednesday, in

summer, Indepenence Day

but: in the winter of 1992

7) перед абстрактними і

речовинними іменниками, яких

не можна перерахувати і які

вживаються в загальному

значенні:

freedom, metal

Knowledge is power.

8) перед множиною злічуваних a) Squares have four equal sides.

101

іменників, коли зміст потребує

неозначеного артикля, напр.

перед іменниками, що

означають “будь-яких”

представників данного класу та

в інших випадках – див.

таблицю ”неозначений

артикль”:

Children can understand it.

b) Both his sons are students.

c) The test was carried out by

J.Brown and P.White, assistants

to Professor Smith.

d) What fine bridges!

These are rather good cigarettes.

9) перед такими іменниками,

якщо вони мають узагальнююче

значення: man/woman, nature,

fate, fortune, heaven,paradise,

hell, etc.

Man must take care of animals.

Nature is threatened.

10) В газетних та журнальних

заголовках, об’явах, телеграмах

Arrival of Polish Trade

Delegation

11) перед словами breakfast, lunch,

dinner вжитих у загальному

значенні:

We have breakfast at 8 o’clock.

but: That was a very nice lunch.

12) перед звертаннями: May I ask you a question,

professor?

13) якщо після іменника стоїть

кількісний числівник у значенні

порядкового

Unit five, page seventeen

14) перед іменниками, що

означають назви наук, ігор,

хвороб:

They play tennis well.

Flu can be dangerous.

He studies history and literature.

15) Перед назвами окремих

гірських вершин та островів,

озер, якщо перед ними стоїть

слово “lake”

Everest, Ben Nevis, Cuba,

Bermuda, Lake Ontario

16) Перед назвами університетів,

аеропортів, мостів, парків,

будинків, що часто складаються

з двох слів, якщо перше слово

означає ім’я особи або місто:

Edinburg Castle, Buckingham

Palace, Victoria Station, Hyde

Park, London Zoo, Cambridge

University, London Bridge

17) Перед назвами ресторанів,

магазинів, банків, готелів, якщо

перше слово - ім’я людини, в

чию честь вони названі

(іменники на –s, -‘s):

Harrods (shop), Maxim’s,

Macdonalds (restorants),

Claridge’s (hotel), Lloyds Bank

18) у деяких виразах: at night, by train (plain, ship),

102

from morning till night, to go to

bed, by heart, day after day, etc.

Тренувальні вправи

Вправа 1. Заповніть пропуски артиклями a, an, the:

1. Have you made all … arrangements for our holiday yet? – Yes, I think

so. – Did you find … good hotel? – Well, it isn’t … luxurious hotel, but

it’s near … centre of … city and each bedroom has … private bathroom.

2. Is this … old car? – Four years old. Come and have … look at it. – Were

you … first owner? – No, I got it two years ago.

3. Have … Browns gone on holiday?

4. Did you go to … bank to change ... money into French francs?

5. I’ll book … taxi to take us to … airport, so we can leave our car at

home.

6. I’m … doctor. I’ve just started work at … hospital in Hills Road. I’m on

call … lot of … time and I have to find … car which is really reliable.

… car I used to have always breaking down and giving me problems.

Вправа 2. Поставте замість пропусків a, an, the або some там, де

це необхідно: 1. I bought … butter and … sugar. – Are you going to make … cake?

2. What did you have for … lunch today? - … piece of cheese and …

bread.

3. I need … information for my history project. – Why don’t you go to …

library?

4. I’m going to … post office. Do you need anything? – Could you get me

… stamps and … envelope, please?

5. Grandpa is in … hospital. Grandma went to … hospital to see Grandpa.

6. You need … visa to visit … foreign countries.

7. When we reached … city centre, … shops were still open but most of

them were already closed.

8. Have you finished with … book I lent you last week?

Вправа 3. Поставте замість пропусків артикль the (де необхідно):

1. I think this bag is … Brenda’s.

2. The hotel is called … Park Hotel.

3. Let’s play … football on Sunday.

4. In … evening we often listen to … radio and watch … television.

5. Yesterday we had … dinner in a restaurant.

6. He tried to park his car but … space wasn’t big enough.

7. Do you think … rich should pay more taxes?

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8. … whale is a mammal but it lives in … sea.

9. I’m learning to play … piano.

10. I like listening to … music.

11. The film wasn’t very good but I liked … music.

12. Mr. Smith went to … school to meet his son’s teacher.

The Noun Іменник

Іменники діляться на власні (Proper Nouns) та загальні (Common

Nouns).

1. Власні іменники: London, the Caucasus, the French Revolution,

Sunday, May.

2. Загальні іменники: water, boy, country, darkness, family.

Загальні іменники діляться на злічувані (countable nouns) та незлічувані

(uncountable nouns).

1. Злічувані іменники: a book – books, a girl – two girls, a car – many

cars.

2. Незлічувані іменники:

a) назви абстрактних понять: freedom, air, love, knowledge;

б) назви речовин, матеріалів: gold, sugar, coal, tea.

Незлічувані іменники вживаються тільки в однині (singular).

Злічувані іменники вживаються в однині (singular) і множині (plural).

Утворення множини іменників.

1. Шляхом додавання закінчення –s:

lamp - lamps, chair - chairs, shoe – shoes, flower - flowers

2. Додаванням закінчення –еs:

а) до іменників, що закінчуються на –s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -tch,

-x: dish – dishes, lunch – lunches, watch – watches, class –

classes, box - boxes

б) до іменників, що закінчуються на –о:

echo – echoes, hero – heroes, potato - potatoes

В деяких іменниках на -о допускаються обидві форми:-

es або -s: mosquitoes/mosquitos, volcanoes/volcanos,

tornadoes/tornados, zeroes/zeros

Винятки:

Pianos,

videos, zoos,

autos, photos,

solos, kilos,

rhinos,

sopranos,

memos,

radios, studios

в) до іменників, що закінчуються на -f або -fe, причому

-f замінюється на -v + es: calf-calves, leaf-leaves, self-

Винятки:

roof-roofs

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selves, half-halves, life-lives, shelf-shelves, knife-knives,

loaf-loaves, thief-thieves, wolf-wolves, scarf-scarves

Іменник wharf має дві форми: wharfs/wharves

belief-beliefs

chief-chiefs

cliff-cliffs

safe – safes

г) до іменників, що закінчуються на -y після

приголосної: lady – ladies, story – stories, city – cities

до іменників, що закінчуються на -y після голосної

добавляється –s: boy – boys, toy - toys

3. Деякі іменники мають однакову форму в однині та

множині: deer, fish, means, series, sheep, species, swine

4. В деяких іменниках міняється коренева голосна:

man-men, woman-women, child-children, mouse-mice, ox-

oxen, louse-lice, foot-feet, goose-geese, tooth-teeth

Деякі іменники латинського та грецького походження зберігають свої

форми: criterion-criteria, analysis-analyses, bacterium-bacteria,

phenomenon-phenomena, basis-bases, curriculum-curricula, crisis-crises,

datum-data, cactus-cacti/cactuses, hypothesis-hypotheses, medium-media,

stimulus-stimuli, oasis-oases, memorandum-memoranda, syllabus-

syllabi/syllabuses, parenthesis-parentheses, thesis-theses, formula-

formulae/formulas, appendix-appendices/ appendixes, vertebra-vertebrae,

index-indices/indexes, radius-radii

У складних іменниках:

а) форму множини приймає лише головний іменник:

a mother-in-law – mothers-in-law, passer-by – passers-by;

б) які утворені з інших частин мови – -s додається в кінці слова:

forget-me-not – forget-me-nots, merry-go-round - merry-go-rounds;

в) якщо першим словом є man або woman – обидва слова приймають

форму множини: man-servant - men-servants, woman-doctor - women-

doctors

Необчислювані іменники

(Uncountable Nouns)

Food bread, butter, cheese, meat, salt, sugar, pepper, bacon,

chocolate, honey, jam, etc.

Fluids water, coffee, tea, milk, oil, soup, wine, lemonade

Materials,

liquids, gases

gold, iron, silver, glass, paper, wood, cotton, wool,

ice, gasoline, blood, steam, air, oxygen, nitrogen,

smoke, smog, pollution, etc.

Particles chalk, dirt, dust, flour, grass, hair, sand, rice, wheat,

corn, etc.

Abstract nouns beauty, confidence, courage, education, fun,

happiness, health, help, honesty, hospitality,

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importance, intelligence, knowledge, luck, music,

patience, peace, progress, politics, recreation,

significance, sleep, truth, wealth, advice, slang,

information, news, evidence, space, energy, grammar,

behaviour, work, chaos etc.

Fields of study chemistry, history, literature, mathematics,

psychology, economics, physics, engineering, etc.

Recreation baseball, soccer, tennis, chess, bridge, poker, athletics,

travel, billiards etc.

General

activities driving, studying, swimming, travelling, walking, etc.

Natural

phenomena

weather, heat, humidity, lightning, rain, dew, fog,

hail, snow, thunder, wind, darkness, light, sunshine,

electricity, fire, etc.

Others

clothing, equipment, furniture, garbage, jewellery,

luggage, baggage, machinery, mail,

money/cash/change, scenery, traffic, etc.

Перед необчислюваними іменниками можна вживати слова чи

словосполучення, що вказують на кількість речовини: a bottle/ jar/ cup/

jug/ glass/ can/ tin/ loaf/ piece/ bar/ kilo/ packet, etc.

Наприклад: two bottles of champagne, a glass of water, a cup of coffee, a

quart of milk, a loaf of bread, a spoonful of fat, a grain of rice, a bowl of

soup, a bag of flour, a piece of furniture, a piece of paper, a piece of

jewellery.

Іменники, які вживаються тільки у формі множини:

Назви

предметів, що

складаються з

двох рівних

частин

scissors, spectacles/glasses, earrings, scales, tongs,

trousers, shorts, socks, tights, pajamas, jeans, gloves,

etc.

та інші goods, clothes, stairs, arms, riches, proceeds, wages,

contents

His wages are high. Його заробітна плата висока.

The contents of his article have not been Зміст цієї статті не змінився.

changed.

Деякі особливості вживання іменників у множині та однині.

1. Багато збірних іменників мають лише форму однини, але значення

множини: police, people, cattle, etc.

Cattle are mainly raised in the North of this country.

Велика рогата худоба в основному розводиться на півночі цієї країни.

The police have arrested these thieves.

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Поліція арештувала цих злодіїв.

Але такі збірні іменники як: government, staff, team, family, audience,

committee, etc. можуть вживатися з дієсловом і в формі однини

(залежно від контексту). Порівняйте:

The committee is ready to give its recommendations.

Комітет готовий надати свої рекомендації.

The committee are separated from the families for long periods of

time.

Члени комітету давно знаходяться окремо від своїх родин.

2. Слова, які означають назви національностей/мов, що закінчуються

на – ese, -ch, -sh можуть мати значення однини чи множини – залежно

від значення слова (у множині вони не мають закінчення –s):

Chinese, French, – мови; the French – французи, the Chinese – китайці.

English is spoken in many countries.

The English love tea.

3. З іменниками у формі множини, що означають суму грошей, період

часу, відстань, та ін., - дієслово вживається у формі однини:

Three years is a long time to be without a job.

4. а) Деякі іменники можуть вживатися як у формі множини, так і у

формі однини: fruits (різні сорти фруктів), fishes (різні види риб),

people(s) (народ, нація – народи, нації):

Fruit is cheap in summer.

There are apples, plums, pears and other fruits on the table.

б) Potatoes, carrots, onions, oats – на відміну від української,

вживаються у множині:

Carrots are widely grown in this region.

Морква широко вирощується в цьому регіоні.

Spanish onions are sweet.

Іспанська цибуля – солодка.

Але: а carrot /potato, an onion – одна морквина, одна

картоплина/цибулина.

в) Деякі необчислювані іменники (залежно від значення слова)

можуть вживатися як обчислювані: hair – волосся, a hair – волосина;

experience – досвід, experiences – враження; paper – папір, a paper –

газета та ін.

Тренувальні вправи

Вправа 1. Утворіть форму множини іменників:

1 child _____ children ___ 7 ox__________________

2 zero ________________ 8 goose________________

3 mouse ______________ 9 sheep ________________

4 monkey_____________ 10 species_______________

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5 industry_____________ 11 belief_______________

6 woman______________ 12 leaf_________________

Вправа 2. Розкрийте дужки, поставивши іменники у формі

множини:

1. Those (mountain) are higher than these (hill).

2. These (tree) are older than those (bush).

3. The (price) for (potato) are not high.

4. He always takes a lot of (photo) during (vacation).

5. What (flower) do you like? – I like (rose), (daisy) and (tulip).

6. What (play) do you prefer? – I prefer (comedy) and (tragedy).

7. What do you grow in your garden? – (Onion), (carrot), (tomato) and

(potato).

Вправа 3. Позначте літерою ’C’ (countable)- обчислювані іменники

та літерою ‘U’ (uncountable)- необчислювані іменники:

1. advice … 11. suitcase …

2. plate … 12. behaviour …

3. money … 13. honey …

4. safe … 14. weather …

5. equipment … 15. scenery …

6. deer … 16. child …

7. car … 17. friend …

8. furniture … 18. oxygen …

9. piece … 19. exercise …

10. can … 20. coffee …

ПРИСВІЙНИЙ ВІДМІНОК

(The Possessive Case)

Іменник у присвійному відмінку стоїть перед іншим іменником і є

означенням до нього. На українську мову він перекладається родовим

відмінком іменника або присвійним прикметником: Peter’s note-book

зошит Петра, Петрів зошит.

Утворення присвійного відмінка

1. Додаванням апострофа і –s:

Kate’s brother брат Каті

Alice’s adventures Алісині пригоди

2. Якщо іменник в однині закінчується на –s, -ss, -x, то додається

здебільшого тільки апостроф, хоча звичайне позначення –’s також

можливе:

James’ (або James’s) coat пальто Джеймса

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3. Якщо іменник у множині закінчується на –s, до нього додається

лише апостроф:

The students – the students’ meeting

4. Якщо іменник у множині не закінчується на –s, тo ’s,

додається:

Children’s toys

У присвійному відмінку вживаються іменники, що означають:

1. Назви істот the hawk’s nest

2. Час і відстань three weeks’ holiday

3. Назви країн, міст, а також

слова country, town, city, world,

ocean, river, sun, moon

Kyiv’s theatres, the world’s

population

4. Збірні іменники типу:

government, party, crew, family,

society

the company’s success

5. У стійких словосполученнях

a stone’s throw – незначна

відстань, to one’s heart’s content –

досхочу

6. Із словами today, yesterday,

tomorrow та ін.

yesterday’s excursion, last

Saturday’s newspaper

7. Словосполучення Jack and Jill’s apartment

Тренувальні вправи

Вправа 1. Утворіть словосполучення, вживаючи, де це можливо,

присвійний відмінок:

e.g. the window / the room - the window of the room

the watch / Mike – Mike’s watch

1. the laboratories / the Institute 7. the cinema / the town

2. the daughter / Charles 8. the name / the street

3. the economic policy / the government 9. the eyes / the cat

4. the birthday / my friend 10. the shoes / the children

5. the car / my neighbours 11. the goods / the factory

6. the roof / the house 12. the newspaper / today

Вправа 2. Перепишіть речення, починаючи його з підкресленого

слова:

e.g. Tourism is the main industry in this country.

This country’s main industry is tourism.

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1. The football match tomorrow has been cancelled.

Tomorrow _____________________________.

2. Exports from Britain to the United States have fallen recently.

Britain __________________________________________.

3. The storm last week caused a lot of damage.

Last ______________________________.

4. The new manager of the company is very qualified.

The company ____________________________.

Вправа 3. Виберіть правильний варіант:

a. Joanna eats apple / an apple every morning.

b. Kate rarely has biscuit / a biscuit with her coffee.

c. Margaret has got very long black hair / hairs.

d. Sorry I’m late. I had trouble / troubles with the car this morning.

e. We are late because they’re re-surfacing the motorway and the traffics /

traffic are/is terrible.

f. I want something to read. I’m going to buy a / some paper.

g. He was asked to leave the college because of a bad behaviour /

behaviour at the end of term party.

h. It’s not a bad room, but the furniture’s / furniture take/takes up too

much space.

The Pronoun Займенник

Класифікація займенників

1. Особові I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they

2. Присвійні my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their

mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs

3. Вказівні this – these, that – those, such

4. Питальні who (whom), whose, which, what, where (в питальних

реченнях)

5. Сполучні who, whose, which, that (в підрядних реченнях)

6. Зворотні myself, yourself, himself, etc.

7. Взаємні each other, one another

8. Заперечні no, nobody, none, nothing

9. Неозначені some, any, all, both, each, every, other, another, one

10. Кількісні much, many, little, few

Особові займенники

Число Особа Називний відмінок Об’єктний відмінок

Однина 1 I (я) me (мене, мені)

110

2

3

you (ти)

he (він)

she (вона)

it (воно)

you (тебе, тобі)

him (його, йому)

her (її, їй)

it (його, йому, їй)

множин

а

1

2

3

we (ми)

you (ви)

they (вони)

us (нас, нам)

you (вас, вам)

them (їх, їм)

They saw me in the street. Вони бачили мене на вулиці.

He showed her a picture. Він показав їй картину.

I met them at the station. Я зустрів їх на вокзалі.

Займенник it замінює іменники – назви неістот, абстрактних

понять та тварин коли їх стать невідома, а також іменник baby.

Займенник it також вживається:

а) як підмет у безособових реченнях:

It is snowing. Йде сніг.

б) у значенні вказівного займенника:

It must be a visitor. Це, напевно, відвідувач.

It is very interesting. Це дуже цікаво.

в) як слово, що вводить речення, якщо підмет, виражений

інфінітивом, герундієм чи підрядним реченням, стоїть після присудка:

It’s nice to see you again. Приємно Вас знову бачити.

г) з деякими дієсловами у пасивному стані: it is said – кажуть, it is

known – відомо та ін.

It is reported the delegation has already been arrived.

Повідомляють, що делегація вже прибула.

д) у підсилювальних зворотах it is + підмет + that/who:

It is this book that I gave you yesterday.

Саме цю книжку я дав тобі вчора.

Присвійні займенники

Число Особа

Відносна форма

(що вживається перед

іменником)

Абсолютна форма

(що вживається

самостійно)

Однина

1

2

3

my (мій)

your (твій)

his (його)

her (її)

its (його)

mine (мій, мої)

yours (твій)

his (його)

hers (її)

its (його)

Множина 1 our (наш) ours (наш)

111

2

3

your (ваш)

their (їхній)

yours (ваш)

theirs (їхній)

She has lost her textbook. Вона загубила свій підручник.

This working place is yours. Це робоче місце – ваше.

He is an old friend of mine. Він мій старий приятель.

Вказівні займенники

Однина Множина

This – цей, ця, це These – ці (або це)

That – той, та, те Those – ті (або то, це)

Such – такий, така, таке, такі

Присвійні займенники this (these), that (those) можуть вживатися в

значенні іменника або прикметника:

Як іменник:

This is my child. Це моя дитина.

These are my children. Це мої діти.

Як прикметник:

I am busy at this moment. Я зайнятий зараз.

I’ll be back by that time. До того часу я повернусь.

Зворотні займенники

Особа Однина Множина

+ self + selves

1

2

3

myself

yourself

himself

herself

itself

ourselves

yourselves

themselves

Неозначено-особова форма oneself

Вони вживаються як зворотні та підсилювальні займенники.

Зворотні займенники завжди пов’язані з дієсловами. У реченні

вони стоять після дієслова і виконують функцію додатка.

Перекладається дієсловом з часткою –ся, або відповідає займеннику

себе (собі, собою).

She doesn’t like to wash herself. Вона не любить вмиватися.

He saw himself in the mirror. Він побачив себе в дзеркалі.

I am not pleased with myself. Я незадоволений собою.

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Підсилювальні займенники відповідають українському сам.

They did this home task Вони виконали це завдання

самі.

themselves.

Зворотній займенник oneself вживається з інфінітивом дієслів та

коли підмет виражено неозначеним займенником one.

To amuse oneself. Розважатися.

One should take care of oneself. Треба самому турбуватися

про себе.

З такими дієсловами, як to wash, to dress, to shave, to bathe, to

hide зворотний займенник часто опускається, а з дієсловами to feel, to

behave – не вживається.

He washed, shaved and dressed. Він помився, поголився та

одягнувся.

He feels well. Він добре себе почуває.

He behaved like a child. Він поводився як дитина.

Неозначені займенники

До неозначених займенників належать some, any, one, а також

складні займенники somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone,

anything.

Займенники some, any

Можуть вживатися перед обчислюваними та необчислюваними

іменниками. Означають невизначену (невелику) кількість предметів

або речовини.

Some вживається в стверджувальних реченнях і не завжди

потребує перекладу.

Any вживається в заперечних та питальних реченнях, часто не

перекладається. В стверджувальних реченнях any вживається в

значенні «будь-який».

Але якщо в загальному питанні висловлюється прохання чи щось

пропонується, то замість any вживається some.

Переклад some, any українською мовою

Some

Ask some experienced

Перед обчислюваними

іменниками однини Any

Is there any hotel

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person

Запитай якусь

досвідчену людину

«якийсь, який-небудь» nearby?

Чи є поблизу який-

небудь готель?

Some days he earns

more, some days less.

В деякі дні він

заробляє більше, в

деякі – менше.

Перед обчислюваними

іменниками множини

«які-небудь, деякі,

декілька»

Did you meet any

difficulties?

У вас були які-небудь

труднощі?

Give me some work, I

have nothing to do.

Дайте мені яку-

небудь роботу, мені

нічого робити.

Give him some water.

Дайте йому води.

Перед

необчислюваними

іменниками

«який-небудь,

небагато»

Або зовсім не

перекладається

Any help will be

valuable.

Будь-яка допомога

буде корисною.

Have you any milk?

У вас є молоко?

Складні неозначені займенники somebody, someone, something,

anybody, anyone, anything є займенниками-іменниками. Вони

вживаються в загальному і присвійному відмінках. У загальному

відмінку ці займенники виконують функції підмета і додатка (іноді

іменної частини присудка), а в присвійному відмінку – функцію

означення:

Somebody knocked on the door. Хтось постукав у двері.

There was someone’s book На столі була чиясь книжка.

on the table.

You can have anything you like. Можеш взяти все, що тобі

подобається.

Займенники both (both of), neither (neither of), either (either of)

Займенник both вживається :

1. Як займенник-прикметник. Іменник до якого він відноситься

вживається як з артиклем the (ставиться після both), так і без нього:

Both (the) brothers live in Kyiv

2. Як займенник-іменник:

He gave me two articles yesterday; I have read both

(прочитав обидві).

В реченні both може стояти:

1. Після займенників we, you, they перед присудком:

We both participated in this work.

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2. Після дієслова to be:

You are both right.

3. Якщо присудок має складну форму both стоїть після

модального або першого допоміжного дієслова:

We must both go there.

They have both been working here since morning.

4. В коротких відповідях both стоїть перед допоміжним або

модальним дієсловом:

Who is going there? We both are.

Who can do it? We both can.

5. Після займенників в об’єктному відмінку:

He invited us both.

We both, they both = both of us, both of them.

We both know it = Both of us know it.

Both не вживається в заперечних реченнях, замість нього

вживається neither of.

Both … and перекладається як …так і

He likes both biology and chemistry.

1. Займенник either вживається в значенні “той або інший, один з

двох” перед іменником в однині.

You may go by either road.

Але: I didn’t like either of the films.

2. Either вживається також із значенням “і той і інший, обидва,

кожен з двох”.

Коли either є підметом речення – дієслово ставиться в однині:

Either of the examples is correct.

3. В заперечних реченнях означає “також”:

I didn’t like them either.

Займенник neither – перекладається “ні той, ні інший”:

Neither boy was over 15.

Neither of them could swim.

В заперечних реченнях означає “також” (вживається як

прислівник). В таких реченнях – з so, neither, nor, not … either –

використовуються допоміжні дієслова:

We shan’t go there. - Neither shall I. (Я також).

He’s feeling tired. - So am I.

I passed the exam and so did Tom.

I can’t remember her name. – Neither can I / Nor can I.

Either …or (або … або), Neither … nor (ні … ні)

She is either at work or at home. It is neither cold nor warm today.

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Вона або на роботі, або вдома. Сьогодні ні тепло, ні жарко.

Займенник no

Означає “ні один, ніякий, жоден”.

No sensible man would say that. Жодна розумна людина цього не

скаже.

There is no doubt about it. У цьому нема ніякого сумніву.

No вживається перед обчислюваними та необчислюваними

іменниками, має те ж значення, що й not a, not any:

He has no sister = He hasn’t a sister

He has no sisters = He hasn’t any sisters

Займенник all

Всі

(з обчислюваними іменниками у

множині,

з дієсловом у формі множини)

Весь, вся, все

(з необчислюваними іменниками

у множині, з дієсловом у формі

множини)

All are ready. – Всі готові. All is ready. – Все готово.

We all know it. = All of us know it. All day = the whole day

Займенник one

1. Може бути підметом у реченні. Перекладається безособовим

реченням:

One must know this rule. Потрібно знати це правило.

One може вживатися у формі присвійного відмінку:

One must do one’s duty. Треба виконувати свій

обов’язок.

2. Вживається в ролі слова-замінника:

Which dictionary do you prefer – this one or that one? (цей чи той?)

I don’t like these maps. Can you show me better ones?

Займенники much, many, little, few.

З обчислюваними

іменниками

З необчислюваними

іменниками

“багато” many books

many people

much time

much noise

“мало” few flowers

few mistakes

little money

little knowledge

a few – “небагато, кілька” a little – “небагато, трохи”

Many people think so. Have you got much time?

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There were very few people in the street. There is very little water in the

kettle.

(дуже мало людей – негативне значення) (дуже мало води - негативне

значення).

There were a few people in the street. There is a little water in the

kettle.

(декілька чоловік – позитивне значення) (небагато, трохи води -

позитивне значення)

Much, many вживаються в основному в питальних та заперечних

реченнях, а в стверджувальних реченнях – краще вживати a lot of:

We haven’t got much time. We spent a lot of money.

Тренувальні вправи

Вправа 1. Заповніть пропуски займенниками some, any, no:

1. Have you got … coffee? – No, I haven’t got …coffee.

2. Would you like … tea?

3. Don’t worry. I’ve got …free time. I’ll go shopping.

4. I’m going to buy … oranges.

5. There is … milk left in the fridge.

6. I’m afraid there is … tea left.

7. You can call me … time you like.

Вправа 2. Заповніть пропуски займенниками any, anyone, anybody,

anything, anywhere:

1. You can ask me … you want.

2. … can go to the new sports center.

3. What shall I wear to the party? – Wear … you like. It’s up to you.

4. If … needs help, they can ask me.

5. We left the door unlocked. … could have come in.

6. What time do you want dinner? – Oh, … time you like.

7. Where can I find this magazine? – At … shop in the centre.

8. Where shall we go for our holidays? … as long as it’s hot!

9. Who can drive the company car? - … who has a driver’s license.

10. When can we meet for lunch? Oh, … day next week. I haven’t made

any plans.

Вправа 3. Заповніть пропуски займенниками every, everyone /

everybody / everything / everywhere:

1. … you need is on the table.

2. … person in my family has their own car.

3. My uncle knows … about gardening.

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4. Ann knows … in her street.

5. … looks tired today.

6. When I arrived home, … had gone out.

7. Your desk is untidy. There are papers … .

8. Jill doesn’t do any of the housework. Her husband does …

Вправа 4. Поставте much, many, a lot of:

1. I’ve got … spare time today.

2. There isn’t … snow on the ground. – No, the sun has melted it.

3. How … times did you have a shower yesterday?

4. There are …flowers in the garden. – Yes, they are beautiful, aren’t

they?

5. Have you got any money? – Yes, I’ve got … .

6. Have you got any vegetables? - Yes, but … .

7. Can you lend me some money? – No, sorry –I haven’t got … money

with me.

8. We’ll have to hurry. The man was badly injured in the accident. He

lost … blood.

9. Don’t disturb me. I’ve got…work to do.

10. We didn’t take … photographs when we were on holiday.

Вправа 5. Виберіть правильний варіант: 1. When will you be back? −Soon. I’m only going away for a few / a

little days.

2. When can I come and visit you? –Come on every / any Tuesday. I’m

free on that day.

3. Who’s coming to the party? – I’ve invited everyone / anyone from

the office.

4. I’ve lost my keys. I can’t find them anywhere / nowhere. – Don’t

worry. I’m sure they’re everywhere / somewhere in this room.

5. I asked everyone / someone, but nobody / anybody wants to help me

with my project.

6. Did you buy the biscuits I wanted? – No, they didn’t have any / no in

the supermarket.

7. How do you like your coffee? – I think you’ve put too much / too

many milk in it.

The Adjective Прикметник

Ступені порівняння

Degrees of Comparison

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Односкладові прикметники Багатоскладові прикметники

Cold Important

Ступені порівняння:

1. основна форма cold

2. вищий ступінь colder

3. найвищий ступінь (the)

coldest

1. important

2. more important

3. (the) most important

Двоскладові прикметники, що закінчуються на – y, -er, -ow,-le

утворюють ступені порівняння як і односкладові:

Busy – busier – (the) busiest

Clever – cleverer – (the) cleverest

Narrow – narrower – (the) narrowest

Simple – simpler – (the) simplest

Особливі форми ступенів порівняння

Good – better – (the) best

Bad – worse – (the) worst

Little – less– (the) least

Far – farther, further – (the) farthest, furthest

Old – older, elder – (the) oldest, eldest

Many/much – more – (the) most

Notes: further – має також значення додатковий, подальший,

наступний: further growth/information/education, etc.

Сполучник than

This room is (much) larger than that one.

This room is (the) largest in the house/(of all the ones).

This room is less comfortable than that one.

Значення вищого ступеня прикметників може підсилюватися за

допомогою таких слів: a bit, a little (трохи); much, a lot, far (значно,

набагато):

Let’s go by car. It’s much cheaper.

She works a lot harder than most of her friends.

Can you speak a bit (a little) more slowly?

Her illness was far more serious than we thought.

Парні сполучники

As … as – такий же … як Not so … as – не такий … як

(однакові якості предметів) (заперечення однакових якостей)

His coat is as warm as yours. His coat is not so warm as yours.

При порівнянні предметів з однаковою мірою якості –

прикметник ставиться в основній формі між as…as:

My room is as comfortable as yours.

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В заперечній формі перше as часто замінюється на so –

not so (as) …as: He isn’t so (as) young as my brother.

Вищий ступінь порівняння прикметників та прислівників з

артиклем the утворює особливу граматичну конструкцію:

The colder the weather is, the warmer clothes we wear.

Чим холодніша погодаб тим тепліший одяг ми вдягаємо.

The earlier we leave, the sooner we’ll arrive.

The more you have, the more you want.

Якщо перед прикметником в найвищому ступені порівняння стоїть не

the, а а/an – це вказує не на найвищу, а лише на високий ступінь

якості предмета:

This is a most interesting book. Це досить цікава книга.

Послідовність розташування прикметників перед іменниками:

Size Age Shape Colour Origin Material

A small old square blue Thai silk scarf.

Але перед прикметником частіше всього стоять 1-3 прикметника:

An expensive Persian silk carpet.

Прикметники, що називають суб’єктивні характеристики предмета,

стоять на першому місці: a boring old black-and-white film.

The Adverb Прислівник

Послідовність розташування прислівників після дієслова

Якщо два і більше прислівників у реченні:

Manner place time

(how) (where) (when)

He was studying hard in his room last night.

Якщо дієслово вказує на рух (come, go, leave etc.) – порядок інший:

Place manner time

She came home by bus yesterday.

Ступені порівняння прислівників

1. Односкладові прислівники + early:

Fast – faster –fastest

Early – earlier –earliest

2. Багатоскладові:

Clearly – more clearly –most clearly

Often – more often –most often

Якщо за прислівником в найвищому ступені порівняння йде

прийменниковий зворот з “of”, артикль “the” може вживатися:

Mother always gets up (the) earliest (of all).

Особливі форми ступенів порівняння

120

Well – better –best

Badly – worse –worst

Much – more –most

Little – less –least

Far – farther, further –farthest, furthest

(далеко – далі – дальше за все) – більш вживана форма – further

Further (прикметник) Further (прислівник)

Further development What happened further?

(подальший розвиток) (Що трапилося далі?)

Тренувальні вправи

Вправа 1. Розставте прикметники перед іменниками,

дотримуючись правил послідовності:

a wooden / small / table

1. some round / China / beautiful plates

2. a crystal / Venetian / blue / vase

3. a(n) gold / expensive ring

4. two silver / old / candlesticks

5. a(n) antique /wooden / lovely / radio

Вправа 2. Виберіть правильну форму (прикметник чи

прислівник): 1. I’m going to Alison’s house for dinner tonight. – You’ll enjoy it. Alison

is a very good / well cook.

2. I’m going to the shops now. – Make sure you carry the eggs careful /

carefully. Don’t break them.

3. I organized a party for my friends, last weekend. All the guests arrived

early and waited quiet / quietly until Edith got there.

4. Have you finished that puzzle already? – Yes, it was really easy / easily.

5. We went into the garden because it was a very warm / warmly day.

6. The guests all gave Edith nice / nicely presents and she thanked them

sincere / sincerely.

7. They danced happily / happy to the music and had a wonderful /

wonderfully time. The party was successful / successfully.

Вправа 3. Доповніть речення різними ступенями порівняння

прикметників та прислівників, вживаючи підкреслені слова:

1. Lisa is prettier than Clare.

As Clare is not as pretty as Lisa.

2. It’s the biggest house I’ve ever seen.

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Such I ___________________ a big house.

3. I’ve never heard such a beautiful song.

The It’s ________________I have ever heard.

4. Peter is more handsome than Roger.

Less Roger is __________________Peter.

5. Meat isn’t as healthy as vegetables.

Than Vegetables are _____________meat.

6. Betty is 70 years old. Graham is 70 years old, too.

Old Betty is _________________Graham.

7. My car is old. Your car is new.

Than Your car __________________mine.

8. Samantha speaks French better than Josephine.

Well Josephine doesn’t ____________Samantha does.

Вправа 4. Заповніть пропуски формою вищого чи найвищого

ступеня прислівника, додавши необхідні слова:

1. My best friend plays chess ______________I do. (well)

2. I left the party ____________you did. (late)

3. Catherine dances ____________all. (beautifully)

4. My sister drives _______________us all. (carefully)

5. The leading actress speaks _______________all. (clearly)

6. Al swims ______________you do. (fast)

Вправа 5. Заповніть пропуски формою вищого чи найвищого

ступеня прикметника, додавши необхідні слова:

1. Is the Gobi desert _____________(large) the Sahara desert?

2. Which is ____________(heavy) animal in the world?

3. Which is ______________(cold) planet in our solar system?

4. Is Mount Everest_______________(high)Kilimanjaro?

5. Which is ____________(long) wall in the world?

6. Does the blue whale make a ___________(loud) sound _________ the

polar region one?

7. Which is ____________(small) continent in the world?

The Verb Дієслово

Дієслово – частина мови, яка означає дію або стан. Воно має

особові та не особові форми.

Особові форми дієслова мають категорії особи, числа, часу, стану

(активного та пасивного) та способу дії; виступають у реченні лише у

функції присудка. В англійській мові є 3 способи дієслова:

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1. Дійсний спосіб показує, що дія розглядається як реальний факт у

теперішньому, минулому і майбутньому: Peter speaks (spoke/will

speak) English.

2. Наказовий спосіб висловлює спонукання до дії, тобто наказ,

прохання, пораду та ін.: Come in! Give me your dictionary.

3. Умовний спосіб показує, що мовець розглядає дію не як реальний

факт, а як щось допустиме чи бажане: If I were you, I would not go

there.

Основні форми дієслова:

І– інфінітив (Infinitive);

ІІ– минулий неозначений час (Past Indefinite Tense);

ІІІ– дієприкметник минулого часу (Past Participle або Participle II);

ІV– дієприкметник теперішнього часу (Present Participle або

Participle I).

Неособові форми дієслова – інфінітив, герундій, дієприкметник.

Часи дієслова

В англійській мові є чотири групи часів дієслова (кожна з них має

форми теперішнього (Present), минулого (Past), і майбутнього (Future)

часу; а також Future-in-the-Past – майбутній час в минулому):

І - Indefinite (Simple) Tenses – неозначені часи;

ІІ - Continuous (Progressive) Tenses – тривалі часи;

ІІІ - Perfect Tenses – перфектні (доконані) часи;

ІV - Perfect Continuous Tenses – перфектно-тривалі часи.

Кожна група часів вживається для вираження дії, що відбувається

в певний час за певних обставин.

І. Прості часи (Simple Tenses)

l. Present Simple

Вживання:

Present Simple вживається для вираження звичайної,

повторюваної дії, яка відбувається в теперішньому часі без

вказівки на її початок, тривалість чи завершеність. Може

передавати загальновідомі факти, істини.

Утворення:

to read

+ І, you, we, they read

I read books every day.

he, she, it - +-s, -es reads

He reads books every day.

? Do

Do you read books every day? Does

Does he read books every day?

123

- do not (don't)

I do not read books every

day.

does not (doesn't)

He does not read books every day.

Запам'ятайте:

3-тя особа однини від дієслів, що закінчуються на:

1) -ss, -ch, -sh, -х + -es:

to dress - he dresses to wash - he washes

to teach - he teaches to box - he boxes

2) -у (з попередньою приголосною) + -es → -ies:

to study - he studies to try - he tries

Але: to play - he plays (з попередньою голосною).

Обставини часу, з якими вживається Present Simple:

every day / year from time to time

usually

generally

sometimes

normally

always never

often seldom

frequently

on Sundays

rarely

twice a week

Тренувальні вправи

1. Утворіть загальні питання та заперечні речення за зразком:

Зразок: Kate speaks French. – Does Kate speak French? / She

doesn’t speak French.

1. He listens to the news in the evening. 2. She writes articles twice a

month. 3. Nurses look after patients in hospitals. 4. His sister works in a

bank. 5. The swimming bath opens at 9.00.

2. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Present Simple: 1. My friend (to work) with the computer every day. 2. Rice (not to work)

in Britain. 3. Every Saturday we (to go) to the cinema. 4. She (not to read)

newsparers. 4. The Earth (to be) round. It (to go) round the Sun. 5. In

Britain most of the shops (to close) at 5.30 p.m.

2 Past Simple

Вживання:

Past Simple вживається для вираження одноразової або постійної

чи повторюваної дії, що відбувалася в минулому, може

передавати ряд послідовних дій у минулому.

He came home at 6 o’clock.

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He lived in Poltava when he was a child.

They swam in the river every day in summer.

He stood up, came up to the window and opened it.

Утворення:

to play to go

+ II форма

-ed played

I played tennis every Sunday.

II форма

went She went to school every day.

? Did

Did you play tennis every Sunday?

- did not (didn't)

I did not play tennis every Sunday.

Прислівники, з якими вживається Past Simple:

yesterday an hour ago

last week at six o'clock

last year the other day

on Monday in 1980

Запам'ятайте:

(to) close → he closed

(to) stop → he stopped

(to) copy → he copied

Але:

(to) play → he played

Тренувальні вправи

1. Напишіть форми наступних дієслів в the Past Simple та the Past

Participle:

a) Standard verbs: to drain, to cover, to mix, to protect, to locate, to

organize, to join, to adopt, to prepare.

b) Non-standard verbs: to make, to find, to give, to do, to leave, to

spend, to be, to see, to cut.

2. Утворіть загальні питання та заперечні речення за зразком:

Зразок: He wrote a letter to his friend yesterday. – Did he write a

letter to his friend yesterday? / He didn’t write a letter to his friend

yesterday.

1. On Monday he came to the office by taxi. 2. Last month Tom and

Jim visited Scotland. 3. I last saw her over three years ago. 4. Mr

Brown told us about India. 5 Children played computer games

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yesterday. 6. We all left the party at 11 o’clock. 7. Mr Smith died five

years ago.

3. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Past Simple: 1. Yesterday Tom (to be) late for work. 2. Last night Ann (to sleep) very

well. 3. Kevin’s farther (to teach) him to drive when he was 17. 4. We

needed some money so we (to sell) our car. 5. He (to leave) the room an

hour ago. 6. Ann (to spend) a lot of money yesterday. She (to buy) a dress

which (to cost) 100$. 7. Mr Brown (to catch) the eight o’clock train

yesterday. 8. He (to send) a letter to his aunt last week.

3 Future Simple

Вживання:

Future Simple вживається для вираження 1) одноразової або

повторюваної дії в майбутньому:

They will finish school in June.

He won’t see her till Monday.

2) передбачення:

People will live on the Moon in future.

Don’t worry, you’ll pass the exam.

3) вірогідної дії (особливо після слів: to think, to expect, probably,

perhaps, to be sure, to be afraid that…):

We’ll probably go to England in summer.

4) обіцянки чи відмови:

I’ll do it. I’ll help you. I shan’t wash the dishes.

5) майбутньої дії, рішення про яку приймається в момент мовлення:

Don’t get up – I’ll open the door.

Would you like tea or coffee? – I’ll have some coffee.

6) майбутньої дії в головному реченні, якщо є підрядне речення

умови або часу:

We’ll buy it if/when we have money.

Утворення:

to read

+ will (shall)

I/we will (shall) read a book tomorrow.

She will read a journal tomorrow.

? Will (Shall)

Shall I/we read a book tomorrow?

Will you/he/they read a book tomorrow?

- will not (shall not)

I/we will not (won’t)/ shall not (shan’t) read a book tomorrow.

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He will not (won't) go to the theatre.

Слова та словосполучення, з якими вживається Future Simple:

next year soon

next week one of these days

some day perhaps

in two months probably

in 2012 to think

tomorrow to expect

the day after tomorrow to be sure

Запам'ятайте:

1. До недавнього часу допоміжне дієслово shall вживалося в

першій особі однини і множини Future Simple. У сучасній

англійській мові shall вживається дуже рідко, особливо в

стверджувальних реченнях. Але в питальних реченнях (до 1-ої

особи однини та множини) краще вживати shall.

2. Для вираження дії в майбутньому замість Future Simple у

підрядних реченнях часу та умови, які починаються

сполучниками when, after, before, till, until, if, unless, as soon as

тощо, вживається Present Simple.

If he comes I will (shall) ask him about it. - Якщо він прийде, я

спитаю його про це.

Часові форми групи Simple

Present Simple

передає

звичайну або

повторювану

дію.

Does Kate often

write letters to her

friends?

Yes, she does.

She often writes

letters to her

friends.

No, she doesn’t.

Kate doesn't write

letters to her

friends.

Past Simple

передає

одноразову або

постійну дію в

минулому.

Did Kate often

write letters to her

friends during

summer

holidays?

Yes, she did.

Kate often wrote

letters to her

friends during

summer holidays.

No, she didn’t.

Kate didn't often

write letters to her

friends during

summer holidays.

Future Simple

передає

одноразову або

повторювану

дію у

майбутньому.

Will Kate often

write letters to her

friends next

summer?

Yes, she will.

Kate will often

write letters to her

friends next

summer.

No, she won’t.

Kate won't write

letters to her

friends next

summer.

Запам'ятайте:

127

В англійській мові у формах минулого, теперішнього і

майбутнього часів групи Simple у питальних і заперечних

реченнях змінюються лише допоміжні дієслова did, do (does),

will (shall).

{

wrote

} letters to her friends. + She often writes

will write

Did

} she often write letters to her friends? ? Does

Will

{

didn't

} often write letters to her

friends. - She doesn't

won't

Допоміжні дієслова: to be, to have

Дієслово to be (бути)

Present Simple Past Simple

am, is, are was, were

I am

you are

he (she, it) is

we (you, they) are

Is she at her friend's? -Yes, she is.

(No, she isn’t.)

I was

you were

he (she, it) was

we (you, they) were

Was she at her friend's on

Saturday? -

Yes, she was. (No, she wasn’t.)

Future Simple

will be / shall be

I will / shall be

you (he, she, it) will be

we will / shall be

you (they) will be

Will she be at her friend's party on Saturday?

Yes, she will. (No, she won’t.)

Дієслово to be може мати:

1. Самостійне значення: The books are on the table.

2. Допоміжне значення для утворення тривалих часів (Continuous

tenses) і пасивного стану (Passive Voice): He is writing a letter. The

letter is written.

3. Модальне значення у сполученні з наступним інфінітивом для

вираження необхідності виконання дії: They are to meet at nine.

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4. Значення дієслова-зв’язки: She is a teacher.

Дієслово to have

Дієслово to have має 2 форми – have і has (3-я особа однини) у

теперішньому часі (the Present Simple/Indefinite tense); had – у

минулому (the Past Simple/Indefinite tense); will (shall) have – у

майбутньому (the Future Simple/Indefinite tense). Заперечні форми :

have not – haven’t, has not – hasn’t; had not – hadn’t; will not have –

won’t have, shall not have – shan’t have.

Дієслово to have може вживатися як:

1. Самостійне дієслово у значенні мати, володіти: We have a

computer.

2. Допоміжне дієслово для утворення перфектних часів (the Perfect

tenses): He has bought a car.

3. Модальне дієслово, що виражає необхідність за певних

обставин: We have to buy a new computer.

Тренувальні вправи

1. Утворіть загальні питання та заперечні речення:

1. We’ll probably go to Scotland in June. 2. You’ll never finish that book.

3. It will be spring soon. 4. She’ll be here in a few minutes. 5. We will need

the money on the 15th. 6 Tomorrow will be warm, with some cloud in the

afternoon.

2. Розкрийте дужки, поставивши дієслова в Future Simple: 1. It (not to rain) next week. 2. The weather (to get) much warmer in the

next few years. 3. I’m sure Tom (to get) the job. He has a lot of experience.

4. I think she (to go) to London. 5. I expect she (to be) back quite soon. 6.

I’m sure we (to miss) her very much. 7. He thinks Tom (to like) the present

you bought for him.

3. Виберіть правильну часову форму дієслова: Future Simple чи

Present Simle. Перекладіть речення українською мовою:

1. If I (to be) there tomorrow, I (to phone) you. 2. He doesn't know if he (to

be) there. 3. Can you look after the children while we (to be) out? 4. Before

you (to leave), you must visit the museum. 5. I (to come) as soon as I (to

finish) working. 6. Everyone (to be) surprised if he (to pass) the exam. 7.

Hurry up! If we (not to hurry), we (to miss) the train!

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Дієприкметник теперішнього часу

(Participle I)

Participle І – це неособова форма дієслова, що має властивості

прикметника, дієприслівника та дієслова. Утворюється шляхом

додавання суфікса ing до основи дієслова: to speak - speaking той,

хто каже; кажучи;

to rest – resting відпочиваючий, відпочиваючи. Перекладається

дієприкметником активного стану теперішнього часу або

дієприслівником недоконаного виду.

Додавання суфікса – ing призводить до змін в основі дієслів, які

закінчуються на:

1) наголошену голосну + приголосну:

stop – stopping; begin – beginning; prefer - preferring

2) голосну + l:

travel – travelling; compel - compelling

3) –ie: lie – lying; die –dying; tie – tying

4) приголосну + e:

come – coming; make – making

Примітка: кінцева літера -y не змінюється:

fly – flying; play – playing

Дієприкметник може виконувати такі функції в реченні:

1) обставини:

Looking through the journal she Продивляючись журнал, вона

found many interesting articles. знайшла багато цікавих статей.

2) означення:

The student reading the Студент, який читає журнал -

journal is my friend. мій друг.

3) може бути частиною присудка. В цьому випадку Participle I

разом з дієсловом to be є присудком речення в одному з

тривалих часів:

І’ll be waiting for you at 8 p.m. Я чекатиму тебе о 8-ій вечора.

Форми Participle I

Active Voice Passive Voice

Present

Participle

writing being written Дія одночасна з

дією присудка

Perfect Participle having written having been

written

Дія, що передує

дії присудка

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Present Participle може виражати дію

1) одночасну з дією , вираженою дієсловом-присудком:

Reading the English article Читаючи цю

англійську статтю,

a) I wrote out a lot of new words; я виписав багато нових слів;

b) I'll write out a lot of new words. я випишу багато нових слів.

Participle I може відноситись до теперішнього, минулого чи

майбутнього часу.

2) що відноситься до теперішнього часу, незалежно від часу

дієслова-присудка:

The students working in the field Студенти, що працюють у

came from Kyiv. полі, прибули з Києва.

3) що передує дії, вираженій присудком, якщо ці дії відбуваються

одна за одною. У такому значенні в Participle I вживаються такі

дієслова, як to arrive, to enter, to open, to close, to see, to hear, to

receive та ін.

Participle I перекладається дієприслівником минулого часу, а

дієслово-присудок в англійській мові вживається в Past Simple:

Coming home (When he came Прийшовши додому, він почав

home), he began to work. працювати.

Тренувальні вправи

1. Визначте, в якому з речень дієприкметник І вжито у функції

обставини:

1. They often worked on the farms being students. 2. The girl writing the

test is my neighbour. 3. Peter is painting the ceiling of his room now.

2. Прочитайте та перекладіть речення. Зверніть увагу на

Participle I в ролі означення та обставини:

1. The chemists dealing with this problem exchange information.

2. Hydrogen and oxygen combine chemically, forming the molecule H2O.

3. We increased the reaction rate increasing temperature.

4. They were sitting at the table discussing the article.

5. While (when) exploring the island, they found some plants never seen

before.

6. Speaking at the conference he paid particular attention to this problem.

3. Переробіть речення з складнопідрядних на прості,

використовуючи Participle I в ролі означення:

e.g. The man who sells newspapers showed me the way to the post-office.

The man selling newspapers showed me the way to the post-office.

131

1. The students who spend their holidays in the country help the farmers

with their field work.

2. Many students who learn English are members of our English club.

3. The man who is making the report is my father.

4. The women who are working in the field will go to the exhibition.

5. Most trees which grow near our building are broadleaved.

6. The girl who is going along the street is my friend.

4. Переробіть речення з складнопідрядних на прості,

використовуючи Participle I в ролі обставини:

e. g. When he reads English articles he writes out new words.

Reading English articles he writes out new words.

1. When I go to the Institute I usually meet our dean.

2. When they arrived in London, they went sightseeing the city.

3. When the students worked at this problem, they had to read many

English journals.

4. While I was waiting for you, I read this article.

5. When my friend studied at the University, he published several

scientific articles.

Дієприкметник минулого часу

(Participle ІІ)

Participle ІІ є пасивним дієприкметником, який має лише одну

форму і вживається тоді, коли іменник або займенник, до якого він

відноситься, позначає об’єкт вираженої дії. Форма Participle ІІ

стандартних дієслів збігається з формою минулого часу цих дієслів: to

open відчиняти; opened відчинив; opened відчинений.

Форма Participle ІІ нестандартних дієслів утворюється різними

шляхами: зміною кореневих голосних, кінцевих приголосних тощо. У

таблиці нестандартних дієслів дієприкметник ІІ завжди перебуває на

третьому місці: to write – wrote – written.

У реченні Participle ІІ може виконувати такі функції:

1) означення:

The article translated by our Стаття, перекладена нашими

students was very interesting. студентами була дуже цікавою.

2) обставини причини:

Packed in strong cases, goods Упаковані в міцні ящики, товари

arrived in good condition. прибули в хорошому стані.

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3) обставини часу, що в українській мові відповідають підрядним

реченням часу. Такі обставинні дієприкметникові звороти вводяться

за допомогою сполучників when, while:

When given the journal read Коли вам дадуть журнал,

the article about environment прочитайте статтю про охорону

protection. навколишнього середовища.

Тренувальні вправи

1. Визначте, в якому з речень вжито Participle ІІ: 1. Peter solved a difficult problem. 2. Have you already solved this

problem? 3. The problem solved by my friend was very difficult.

2. Прочитайте та перекладіть речення. Зверніть увагу на

Participle II в ролі означення та обставини:

1. The problems discussed at the conference are of great interest to us.

2. The data obtained must be checked.

3. These scientific articles translated by our students are rather difficult.

4. When translated into Ukrainian these articles will be of great interest to

our students.

5. When done this experiment will give good results.

6. Water becomes ice when cooled.

7. Asked whether he intended to return soon, he replied that he would be

away for about three months.

8. The Opera House built many years ago is one of the finest buildings in

our city.

9. They sent me some illustrated catalogues.

10. The improved methods of work gave good results.

3. Переробіть речення з складнопідрядних на прості,

використовуючи Participle II в ролі означення:

e. g. They study at the university which was founded 100 years ago.

They study at the university founded 100 years ago.

1. I received a telegram which was sent yesterday.

2. The problem which was solved by our students is rather difficult.

3. The method which was used is very important for this experiment.

4. The decisions which were adopted at the conference are supported by

our scientists.

5. The cotton which is grown here is of good quality.

6. The machines which are made at this plant are exported to many

countries of the world.

133

II. Тривалі часи (Progressive/Continuous Tenses) 1. Present Progressive (Continuous)

Вживання:

Present Progressive вживається для вираження дії, що відбувається

1) у момент мовлення:

They are having dinner now.

2) тимчасову дію, що відбувається в певний період теперішнього

часу (не обов’язково в момент мовлення):

She is writing a new novel.

He isn’t playing football this season.

3) запланованої майбутньої дії і в реченні вживається обставина

часу:

We are spending next weekend at home. – Ми проведемо наступні

вихідні дома.

4) Означає дію або стан, що постійно змінюється:

The population of the world is rising very fast.

Her English is getting better.

Утворення:

Simple Present дієслова to be (am, is, are) + Participle I (reading)

смислового дієслова

to read

+ I am reading the magazine (now).

He is reading a new book (at this moment).

You are reading a new book (at the present period of time).

? Are you reading the magazine?

Is he reading a new book?

Who is reading a new book?

What book are they reading?

- I am not reading the magazine.

She is not (isn't) reading a new book.

We are not (aren't) reading a new book.

Запам'ятайте:

1) Щоб передати дію, яка відбуватиметься у майбутньому, часто

вживається дієслово to go у формі Present Progressive +

інфінітив.

І am going to read a book. - Я читатиму книгу.

У цьому випадку дієслово to go означає намір виконати дію в

найближчому майбутньому.

Не is going to play tennis. - Він збирається грати в теніс.

Але: Не is going to the cinema. - Він іде в кіно.

134

2) to go у формі Present Progressive + інфінітив означає також

дію, що обов’язково відбудеться в найближчому майбутньому

і часто є обставини, які вказують на неминучість її виконання:

The sky is full of black clouds. It’s going to rain.

2. Past Progressive (Continuous)

Вживання:

Past Progressive вживається для вираження дії, що тривала у

певний момент або протягом якогось періоду часу в минулому.

Момент виконання дії може вказуватися:

а) такими обставинами часу: at 9 o’clock, at noon (опівдні), at

midnight (опівночі), at that moment, all day long (цілий день), from

6 till 8, the whole evening (весь вечір):

They were writing the test from 8 till 10.

б) іншою минулою дією, вираженою в Past Simple:

She was writing an article when her friends came.

Past Progressive (Continuous) може вирвжати дві тривалі,

одночасні дії:

While he was having his breakfast, he was reading the

newspaper.

She was cleaning the room, while he was watching TV.

Past Continuous від дієслова to go – was/were going + інфінітив –

передає намір виконання дії в минулому, перекладається як

”збирався, мав намір“:

He was going to do it but in the end he changed his mind.

Утворення:

Past Simple дієслова to be (was, were) + Participle I (reading)

смислового дієслова

to read

+ I was reading a book at three o'clock.

Tom was reading a book at that moment.

Kate was reading a book when I came.

The children were reading a book at five o'clock.

We were reading the book all day long.

? Were you reading a book at three o'clock?

When was Tom reading a book?

What book was Kate reading when I came?

Who was reading a book at five o'clock?

- I was not (wasn't) reading a book at five o'clock.

Tom was not (wasn't) reading a book when I came.

The children were not (weren't) reading the book at five o'clock.

135

We were not (weren't) reading the book all day long.

3. Future Progressive (Continuous)

Вживання:

Future Progressive вживається для вираження дії, що триватиме в

певний момент або протягом якогось періоду часу в

майбутньому.

Вживається з тими ж обставинами часу, що й Past Continuous ,

але стосовно майбутнього часу:

He’ll be watchiong TV the whole evening.

I’ll be working at 7 o’clock (from 6 till 8).

I’ll be working when he comes.

If he is sleeping when you come, wake him up.

(Якщо він спатиме коли ви прийдете, розбудіть його.)

Запам'ятайте:

Future Progressive не вживається в підрядних реченнях часу та

умови. Замість нього вживається Present Progressive.

Утворення:

Simple Future дієслова to be (will be / shall be) + Participle I

(reading) смислового дієслова

to read

+ Kate will still be reading the book at five o'clock.

When I come back, my sister will be reading the book.

I will (shall) be reading the book the whole evening.

When he is having his breakfast I will (shall) be reading the book.

? Will Kate be still reading the book at five o'clock?

What will my sister be doing when I come back?

Will you be reading this book in summer?

Who will be reading the book the whole evening?

- Kate will not (won't) be reading the book at five o'clock.

When I come back my sister won't be reading the book.

I won't (shan't) be reading this book in summer.

He won't be reading the book the whole evening.

Часові форми групи Progressive

Present

Progressive передає дію, що

відбувається у

момент

мовлення або у

І am working

(now, at this

moment). He is

working at the

factory (at the

present period of

Are you working?

Where is he

working?

I am not working.

He is not working

at the factory.

136

даний період

часу.

time).

Past Progressive передає дію, що

відбувалася у

певний момент

або період часу

в минулому.

I was working

when you came.

We were working

the whole day.

What were you

doing when I

came?

Who was

working the

whole day?

I was not (wasn't)

working when you

came.

We were not

(weren't) working

the whole day.

Future

Progressive передає дію, що

відбуватиметься

у якийсь момент

або період часу

в майбутньому.

I will (shall) be

working at five

o'clock. They will

be working when

you come back.

When will you be

working? Who

will be working

when I come

back?

I will not/won't

(shall not/shan't)

be working at five

o'clock. They will

not (won't) be

working when you

come back.

Запам'ятайте:

Дієслова, які не вживаються в часах Progressive, тому що вони не

виражають дію як процес: to see, to hear, to know, to believe, to

want, to wish, to love, to hate, to like, to have, to depend, to

belong, to feel, to understand, to need , to prefer, to realize, to

suppose, to mean, to remember, to forget, to seem, etc. Замість форм Progressive ці дієслова вживаються у формах групи

Simple:

І hear somebody knock.

Тренувальні вправи

1.Перекладіть ці речення українською мовою, поясніть вживання

Present Continuous. Утворіть загальні питання та заперечні

речення:

1. Those people are speaking French. 2. They are having dinner at the

moment. 3. The train's stopping! 4. The climate is getting warmer. 5. My

friends are playing tennis at this moment. 6. Не was watching TV all

evening yesterday. 7. The sun wasn't shining that day. 8. The children were

not listening to their teacher. 9. We'll be watching the Olympics on TV

from 6 till 10. At this time tommorow I'll be taking this exam.

2. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Present Simple або Present

Continuous: 1. He (to write) a new book now. 2. It's 17p.m. I (to wait) for my friend. 3.

She often (to read) magazines, but now she (to read) a biograhy. 4. I (to

listen) to you, (to hear) you very well and (to understand) everything. 5. I

137

(to hate) detective stories, but I (to like) this one. 6. Where you (to go)? 7. I

(to think) you are right. 8. You (to know) what I (to mean)? 9. Why you (to

look) at me like that? 10. You (to like) this music? 11. These shoes (to

belong) to me.

3. Розкрийте дужки, поставивши дієслово у відповідній формі Past

Continuous; утворіть загальні питання та заперечні речення:

1. At 7 o'clock yesterday he (to talk) to me on the telephone. 2. When I saw

her for the first time she (to dance) with my friend. 3. At lunchtime Kate (to

cook). 4. When I arrived, all the children (to sleep). 5. She (to live) in

France when her grandfarther died. 6. Peter (to watch) TV when Ann came

in. 7. When we woke up the sun (to shine) but but the birds (not to sing).

4. Розкрийте дужки, поставивши дієслово в Past Continuous, якщо

це можливо; якщо ні – в Past Simple:

1. At 7.15, when you phoned, I (to have) a shower. 2. I (to think) he (to be)

my best friend. 3. Suddenly she woke up. It (to rain). 4. While I (to read)

the newspaper, the cat (to jump) on to the table. 5. They got married while

they (to study) at Oxford University. 6. At midnight, Mary and Jack (to

drive) to Scotland. 7. My farther (to work) hard all his life. 8. When I came

in, they (to talk). 9. When I dropped the glass, it (to break).

5. Перекладіть ці речення українською мовою, поясніть вживання

Future Continuous:

1. I'll be watching TV from 6 till 9. 2. This time tomorrow he 'll be skiing.

3. Will you be passing the post office when you're in town? – Buy some

stamps for me, please. 4. Professor Smith will be giving another lecture at

the same time next week. 5. You'll recognise Ann when you see her. She'll

be wearing a yellow hat.

6. Розкрийте дужки, поставивши дієслова в Future Continuous чи в

Future Simple та перекладіть речення українською мовою:

1. It's late. I think I (take) a taxi. 2. Come at 6 o'clock. I (to wait) for you. 3.

I think it still (to rain) when the match finishes. 4. There is somebody at the

door. – I (to open). 5. When they come back from school she (to cook)

dinner for them. 6. I'll phone you at 6 o'clock. What you (to do). 7. The

phone is ringing. I (to answer). 8. You still (to work) when I return?

138

III. Перфектні часи (Perfect Tenses) 1. Present Perfect

Вживання:

Present Perfect вживається для вираження дії, завершеної до

моменту мовлення, результат якої є в теперішньому часі. Цей

дієслівний час може передавати дію, яка відбулася як перед

моментом мовлення, так і в більш віддаленому часі в

минулому.1) Увага співрозмовника концентрується на результаті

дії, а не на часі її виконання. Обставина часу – відсутня:

She has seen this film.

2) На час дії часто вказують прислівники неозначеного часу, такі

як: already (вже), never (ніколи), often (часто), always (завжди),

just (щойно), not yet (ще не), ever (коли-небудь), recently

(останнім часом), lately (за останній час, нещодавно), а також

обставини, котрі означають проміжок часу, який до даного часу

ще не завершився: today (сьогодні), this month (цього місяця),

this week (цього тижня), this year (цього року), this morning

(сьогодні вранці):

She has never eaten a mango before.

Have you ever eaten a mango?

I haven't passed my driving test yet.

Has she written the article yet?

The students have written two tests this week.

Студенти написали дві контрольні роботи цього тижня.

Зверніть увагу на те, що на українську мову Present Perfect

перекладається минулим часом.

3) Present Perfect часто вживається зі словами since, for a long

time, for ages, once, twice, many times, up to now, so far,

before тощо.

Tom hasn't been at home since he was a boy.

He has been to England many times/(a lot).

4) This is/(It’s) the first/second/third time …

This is the third time he has phoned her this evening.

Прислівники ever, never, often, seldom, just, already, як правило,

ставляться перед смисловим дієсловом. Прислівники lately,

recently, once, yet, словосполучення many times, up to now

ставляться в кінці речення.

Утворення:

Present Simple дієслова to have (have, has) + Participle II

смислового дієслова

139

to write

+ I have written the letter.

He has written the letter.

? Have you written the letter yet?

What has he written?

- I have not (haven't) written the letter yet.

He hasn't written the letter.

2. Past Perfect

Вживання:

Past Perfect вживається для вираження дії, що завершилася до певного

моменту чи до іншої дії в минулому. Цей момент може бути

позначений:

а) обставиною часу: by five o'clock, by Saturday, by the 10th of

February, by the end of the year, by that time тощо;

б) іншим дієсловом, що стоїть у Past Simple:

We had written the letter before he came.

John went home after he had gone to the store.

Past Perfect вживається переважно коли в складнопідрядних

реченнях є слова before (перед тим, як), after (після того як) або when

(коли), сполучники hardly (scarcely)… when – ледве, тільки но … як,

no sooner … than – не встиг … як:

She had hardly entered the house when it began to rain.

Ледве вона зайшла в дім, як пішов дощ.

Утворення:

Past Simple дієслова to have - (had) + Participle ІІ смислового

дієслова

to do

+ I had done my work by three o'clock.

They had done the exercise before he came into the room.

? Had you done your work by three o'clock?

What exercise had you done before they came into the room?

- I had not (hadn't) done my work by three o'clock.

They had not (hadn't) done the exercise before he came into the

room.

Запам'ятайте:

He came to Kyiv, took a taxi and went to his work. (Дві або більше

дії подаються в тій послідовності, в якій вони відбувалися, тому

вживається Simple Past.)

Kate came into the room, sat down at the table and began to read the

book which she had bought in the shop. (Остання дія здійснилася

140

раніше, ніж відбулися інші дії в минулому. Ця дія вживається у

Past Perfect).

3. Future Perfect

Вживання:

Future Perfect вживається для вираження майбутньої дії, що

закінчиться до певного моменту в майбутньому Цей момент

може бути позначений:

а) обставиною часу: by three o'clock, by Sunday, by the seventh of

May, by the end of the year, by that time тощо;

б) іншим дієсловом, що стоїть у Simple Present:

І shall have finished this work when you come.

Утворення:

Future Simple дієслова to have (will / shall have) + Participle II

(written) смислового дієслова to write

+ I will (shall) have written the composition by the end of the week.

He will have written the composition when you come to see him.

? Will you have written the composition by the end of the week?

Will he have written the composition when you come to see him?

- I will (shall) not have written the composition by the end of the

week.

He won't have written the composition when you come to see him.

Запам'ятайте:

В англійській мові у формах минулого, теперішнього і

майбутнього часів групи Perfect вживається дієслово to have у

різних дієслівних часах групи Perfect (have, has; had, will / shall

have) + Participle ІІ смислового дієслова,

У питальному реченні дієслово to have ставиться перед підметом,

в заперечному реченні після дієслова to have ставиться not.

Часові форми групи Perfect

Present Perfect передає дію, що

завершилась до

моменту

мовлення,

результат дії є в

теперішньому

часі.

І have already

spoken to my

friend about it.

Tom has brought

the book.

Have you already

spoken to your

friend about it?

Who has brought

the book?

I haven't spoken

to my friend

about it yet.

Tom hasn't

brought the book.

Past Perfect передає дію, що

I had already

spoken to my

Had you already

spoken to your

I hadn't spoken to

my friend about it

141

закінчилась до

певного

моменту в

минулому.

friend about it

before Kate came

in.

Nick had brought

the book by five

o'clock.

friend about it

before Kate came

in?

Why had Nick

brought the book

by five o'clock?

before Kate came

in.

Nick hadn't

brought the book

by five o'clock.

Future Perfect передає дію, що

здійсниться до

певного

моменту в

майбутньому.

I will (shall) have

spoken to my

friend about it

before Kate

comes in.

Nick will have

brought the book

by five o'clock.

Will you have

spoken to your

friend about it

before Kate

comes in?

Who will have

brought the book

by five o'clock?

I will not (shall

not) spoken to my

friend about it

before Kate

comes in.

Nick will not

have brought the

book by five

o'clock.

Тренувальні вправи

1.Перекладіть ці речення українською мовою, поясніть вживання

Present Perfect:

1. We have met a lot of interesting people recently. 2. I haven't seen him

this week. 3. Have you ever been to France? 4. We haven't translated this

article yet. 5. Has it stopped raining yet? 6. She hasn't studied very much

this term. 7. He has smoked ten cigarettes today.

2. Розкрийте дужки, поставивши дієслово у відповідній формі

Present Perfect; утворіть загальні питання та заперечні речення:

1. We (to know) each other for ages. 2. He (to loose) his key and can't open

the door. 3. She (to drive) never a car before. 4. They (to be) to the USA

many times. 5. I (to write) already this term paper. 6. Recently I (to meet) a

friend of mine. He (to change) very much since I saw him last. 7. He (to

stay) in this hotel since last Friday.

3. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Past Simple або Present

Perfect:

1. Tom (not to be) ill this year. 2. I (not to see) Ann last week. 3. He (to

play) never golf. 4. (To buy) you a camera yet? 5. Bob and Alice are

married. They (to be) married for 20 years. 6. You (to do) this kind of work

before? 7. He (to live) in Scotland 2 years ago.

4. Перекладіть ці речення українською мовою, поясніть вживання

Past Perfect:

142

1. I knew he (to arrive) on Monday. 2. This man was a complete stranger to

me. I (to see) him before. 3. The house was very quiet when I got home.

Everybody (to go) to bed. 4. They (to finish) the project by the end of May.

5. We (to learn) this poem before the teacher came. 6. The local cinemawas

no longer there. He (to go) away.

5. Розкрийте дужки, поставивши дієслово у відповідній формі

Future Perfect; утворіть загальні питання та заперечні речення:

1. She (to translate) the article by the end of the week. 2. Phone him at 7, he

(to come) home by then. 3. 4. Before you open your umbrell the rain (to

stop). 5. Come at 7 o'clock. I (to print) your photographs by that time.

IV. Доконані тривалі часи (Perfect Progressive/Continuous Tenses)

1. Present Perfect Progressive

Вживання:

Present Perfect Progressive вживається для вираження дії, що

почалася в минулому, продовжувалась до моменту мовлення і

триває або закінчується в цей момент. При вживанні цього

дієслівного часу, як правило, зазначається період часу, протягом

якого відбувалася дія: for an hour, for a month, lately, since

yesterday, since five o'clock, for twenty years тощо, а також у

запитаннях, що починаються словами How long? Since when?

Perfect Progressive перекладається на українську мову дієсловом у

теперішньому часі, часто з прислівником вже:

They have been building this atomic power station for two years.

Вони будуємо цю атомну станцію протягом двох років.

Утворення:

Present Perfect дієслова to be (have been, has been) + Participle I

(working) смислового дієслова

to work

+ I have been working at the factory for ten years.

He has been working for an hour.

? How long have you been working at the factory?

Since when has he been working?

- I haven t been working at the factory for twenty years.

He hasn't been working for an hour.

143

Past Perfect Progressive

Вживання:

Past Perfect Progressive вживається для вираження дії, що

почалася до певного моменту в минулому і ще тривала у той

момент або закінчилась безпосередньо перед ним:

We had been conducting this experiment for two hours before you came.

До того як ви прийшли, ми проводили цей експеримент вже протягом

двох годин.

Past Perfect Progressive вживається з такими обставинами: for two

hours, for three months, for a long time тощо.

Past Perfect Progressive перекладається на українську мову

дієсловом в минулому часі, часто з прислівником вже.

Утворення:

Past Perfect дієслова to be (had been) + Participle I смислового

дієслова

to wait

+ I had been waiting for my brother for two hours before he came.

They had been waiting for their friend for a long time before they

called them.

? How long had you been waiting for your brother before he came?

Had they been waiting for their friend for a long time before they

called them?

- I hadn't been waiting for my brother for two hours before he came.

They hadn't been waiting for their friend for a long time before they

called them.

2. Future Perfect Progressive

Вживання:

Future Perfect Progressive вживається для вираження дії, яка

почнеться до певного моменту в майбутньому і триватиме у той

момент або закінчиться безпосередньо перед ним.

Час тривалості дії або її початок позначається обставинами часу

або іншим дієсловом:

He will have been learning English for half a year by June.

До червня він вивчатиме англійську мову вже півроку.

З дієсловами, що не мають форми Continuous вживається Future

Perfect:

I shall not have seen the earth before we land.

Я не бачитиму землю, аж поки ми не приземлимося.

144

У розмовній мові форми Future Perfect Progressive вживаються

дуже рідко.

Утворення:

Future Perfect дієслова to be (will/shall have been) + Participle I

смислового дієслова to read

+ I will (shall) not have been reading the book for two hours before my

friend comes.

You will have been reading till two o'clock.

? How long will you have been reading the book before your friend

comes?

- I will (shall) not have been reading the book for two hours before

my friend comes.

Запам'ятайте:

В англійській мові у формах минулого, теперішнього і

майбутнього часів групи Perfect Progressive вживається дієслово

to be в різних часах групи Perfect (have / has been, had been, will /

shall have been) + Participle І смислового дієслова.

У питальних реченнях дієслово to be ставиться перед підметом, в

заперечному реченні після will (shall) ставиться not.

Часові форми групи Perfect Progressive

Present Perfect

Progressive

передає дію, що

почалася в

минулому,

продовжувалась

до моменту

мовлення і

триває в цей

момент.

І have been

writing the

composition for

two hours.

She has" been

writing the

composition for

an hour.

How long have

you been writing

the composition?

Who has been

writing the

composition for

an hour?

І haven't been

writing the

composition for

two hours.

She hasn't been

writing the

composition for

an hour.

Past Perfect

Progressive передає дію, що

почалася до

іншої дії

(моменту) в

минулому і

тривала у той

момент.

I had been writing

the letter for two

hours.

They had been

writing the letter

for a long time.

Why had you

been writing the

letter for two

hours?

Had they been

writing the letter

for a long time?

I hadn't been

writing the letter

for two-hours.

They hadn't been

writing the letter

for a long time.

145

Future Perfect

Progressive передає

дію, що почнеться до

іншої дії (моменту) в

майбутньому і ще

триватиме у той

момент.

I will (shall) have been

writing the letter for two

hours. She will have

been writing the letter

for a long time.

У розмовній мові ці

форми вживаються

дуже рідко.

Тренувальні вправи

1.Перекладіть ці речення українською мовою, поясніть вживання

Present Perfect Continuous:

1. He has been working at this plant since 1987.

2. She’s been writing the composition all evening.

3. They have been cleaning up their flat and are very tired.

5. The student has been keeping the book for a month.

6. How long has she been studying French?

7. We haven’t been smoking; we’ve been burning old papers.

2. Розкрийте дужки, поставивши дієслово у відповідній формі

Present Perfect Continuous; утворіть загальні питання та заперечні

речення:

1. We are tired because we (to run). 2. She (to translate) the article for two

hours. 3. He (to ride) the bicycle since 8 o’clock. 4. I (to work) in the

garden all day. Let me have a rest. 5. The children (to play) with their toys

since the morning.

3. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Present Simple, Present

Continuous, Present Perfect або Present Perfect Continuous:

1. Mary (to learn) French at the University. She (to learn) French since last

autumn. 2. I (to try) to open this door for the last twenty minutes but in

vain. 3. They are busy now. They (to discuss) an important question. They

(to discuss) it since 3 o’clock. 4. It’s the best book I ever (to read). 5. I (to

sit) here in the park for an hour, and I (to meet) three friends of mine. 6.

The school (to be closed) for two months. 7. I not (to see) this film yet, but

I (to hear) a lot about it.

4. Перекладіть ці речення українською мовою, поясніть вживання

Past Perfect Continuous:

1. They had been writing to each other for a year when they met at last.

2. He realised that somebody had been sitting in his armchair.

3. I had been reading this book for three hours when he came.

146

4. His hands were dirty because he had been polishing my shoes.

5. It had already been raining for several hours when I went out.

6. We had been sitting in the airport for two hours when they announced

our flight.

5. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Past Simple, Past

Continuous, Past Perfect або Past Perfect Continuous:

1. By the time I met him, he (to live) in town for five years. 2. He (to play)

football when the ball (to hit) his head. 3. The telegram (to arrive) five

minutes after you (to leave) the house. 4. He (to teach) for 25 years before

he retired. 5. He (to drive) to work for half an hour when suddenly his car

(to break) down. 6. We (to walk) for about two hours when at last we (to

see) the lake. 7. Jane’s clothes were wet. She (to wash) her dog. 8. He (to

work) in a bank for 10 years. Then he gave it up.

6. Розкрийте дужки, поставивши дієслово у відповідній формі

Future Perfect Continuous; утворіть загальні питання та

заперечні речення:

1. By the end of the month I (to work) here for ten years. 2. It (to snow) for

a week by tomorrow. 3. He (to learn) German for three years when he

enters the University. 4. My friends (to listen) to this music for two hours

by midnight. 5. He (to work) for the company for 10 years by the time he

retires. 6. We (to write) the test for half an hour before we give it to the

teacher. 7. They (to do) the experiment for a month by the time the director

arrives. 8. He (to live) in this town for 20 years by the end of this year.

Зведена таблиця англійських часів в активному стані

Tense Present Past Future

1 2 3 4

SIMPLE

І work –

Я працюю

Не writes - Він пише

І worked –

Я працював

Не wrote -Він писав

І shall work – Я працюватиму

Не will write - Він

напише, буде писати

CONTINUOUS

І am working –

Я працюю (зараз)

He is writing – Він пише

I was working – Я працював

We were writing -

Ми писали

І shall be working

–

Я буду працювати

He will be writing - Він писатиме

PERFECT

I have worked - Я

відпрацював He

has written -Він

написав

I had worked –

Я відпрацював

He had written -

Він написав

I shall have

worked Я

відпрацюю

He will have

written -Він

147

напише

PERFECT

CONTINUOU

S

I have been

working –

Я працюю

He has been

writing-Він пише

I had been working -Я працював

He had been

writing- Він писав

I shall have been

working- Я працюватиму

He will have been

writing- Він буде

писати/писатиме

Modal Verbs Модальні дієслова

До групи модальних дієслів відносяться: can (could), may (might),

must, ought (to), shall, will, should, would, need. Самостійно (без

інфінітива іншого дієслова) ці дієслова не вживаються, оскільки вони

не виражають дії або стану, а лише вказують на можливість,

необхідність, бажаність, вірогідність, дозвіл, заборону та здатність

виконання дії, вираженої інфінітивом.

Разом з інфінітивом вони утворюють складну форму присудка.

They can do it. Вони можуть це зробити.

Kate must go there. Кейт мусить туди йти.

You may take my book. Ти можеш взяти мою книжку.

Особливості модальних дієслів:

1. Дієслова can і may мають форми теперішнього та минулого часу

(could, might), тоді як дієслова must, ought, need мають тільки одну

форму теперішнього часу.

2. Не мають закінчення –s в третій особі однини теперішнього часу:

She can speak English. She may take my copy-book. She must do it.

Need she do it? She ought to help them.

3. Не мають неособових форм: інфінітива, герундія, дієприкметників.

Інфінітив після модальних дієслів вживається без частки to, окрім

дієслова ought: You may take it. You needn’t do it.

Але: You ought to read it. Вам слід це прочитати

4. Питальну та заперечну форми утворюють самостійно, без

допоміжного дієслова to do: Can I help you? May I come in? Must he

go there? Ought he to read it? Need they do it?

She cannot help you. You may not take it. He must not go there.

He ought not to read it. They need not do it.

Повні та короткі заперечні форми:

Can – cannot – can’t

Could – could not – couldn’t

May – may not – mayn’t

Might – might not – mightn’t

Must – must not – mustn’t

148

Shall – shall not – shan’t

Should – should not – shouldn’t

Will – will not – won’t

Would – would not – wouldn’t

Ought – ought not – oughtn’t

Need – need not – needn’t

Для вираження дії модальних дієслів в минулому чи майбутньому часі

вживаються їх еквіваленти (замінники):

Модальні

дієслова та їх

еквіваленти

Present Past Future

can

(могти, вміти) can could -

to be able (to)

(бути

спроможним)

am

is able (to)

are

was

were able (to)

will be

able (to)

may

(могти) may might -

to be allowed (to)

(дозволяти)

am

is allowed (to)

are

was

were allowed (to)

will be

allowed

(to)

must

(повинен, треба)

must

- -

to have (to) has

have (to) had (to)

will have

(to)

to be (to)

am

is (to)

are

was

were able (to)

-

should should - -

ought to ought to - -

Need …?/needn’t Need …?/needn’t - -

Can (Could)

Дієслово can у сполученні з інфінітивом вживається для вираження

фізичної, розумової здатності, уміння або можливості виконати дію,

перекладається українською мовою могти, уміти, бути спроможним.

Can може стосуватися теперішнього та майбутнього часу: She can

speak English. – Вона уміє (може) розмовляти англійською мовою. I

can do this work tomorrow. – Я зможу виконати цю роботу завтра.

Could вживається для минулого часу: Ann could sing very well when

she was a child. - Аня вміла (могла) дуже гарно співати в дитинстві.

149

To be able (to) “бути спроможним” щось зробити – еквівалент

дієслова can – може вживатися замість can і could (I am able, I was

able), а також у майбутньому часі та в інших часових формах: I shall

be able, I have been able, та ін.: I hope I’ll be able to do it next week. -

Сподіваюсь, що я зможу це зробити наступного тижня.

Запам’ятайте: з такими дієсловами як: see, hear, feel, smell, taste,

understand, remember, guess, etc. вживається could, а не was/were able:

She spoke in a low voice but I could understand what she was saying. -

Вона говорила тихо, але я розумів, що вона казала.

May (might)

Дієслово may (в теперішньому часі) та його форма минулого часу

– might вживаються:

1. Для вираження дозволу

(з Indefinite Infinitive) –

тільки дієслово may.

You may use my

pen.

Ви можете взяти

мою ручку.

2. Для вираження

припущення:

а) в теперішньому або

майбутньому часі

(з Indefinite Infinitive)

б) в минулому часі

(з Perfect Infinitive)

He may go to

Italy.

It may be true.

It might be true.

He may have felt

tired.

Він, можливо, поїде

в Італію.

Можливо, це

правда.

Можливо, це і

правда (хоча навряд

чи).

Він, мабуть,

почував себе

стомленим.

3. В підрядних реченнях

мети

(may з Indefinite Infinitive)

I shall give her

my article so she

may use it in her

report.

Я дам їй свою

статтю, щоб вона

могла використати

її в своїй доповіді.

4. В головній частині

умовних речень:

а) в умовних реченнях ІІ

типу (might з Indefinite

Infinitive)

б) в умовних реченнях ІІІ

типу (might з Perfect

Infinitive)

If she called at his

office at five

o’clock, she

might find him

there.

If you had tried,

you might have

got the book.

Як би вона зайшла

до нього в установу

о п’ятій, вона могла

б застати його там.

Як би ви

постарались, ви б

могли отримати цю

книжку.

5. Might вживається

(замість may) в непрямій

мові, коли дієслово

He said that she

might know their

address.

Він сказав, що вона,

можливо, знає їх

адресу.

150

головного речення стоїть в

минулому часі (згідно з

правилами узгодження

часових форм).

He said that they

might use his

dictionary.

Він сказав, що вони

можуть взяти його

словник.

Примітка: 1. Можу,(можеш, може і т.д.) з інфінітивом

перекладається на англійську:

а) за допомогою сan з Indefinite Infinitive, коли сan вживається в

значенні здатний, спроможний, вмію:

He can do this work tomorrow. Він може зробити цю роботу

завтра.

б) за допомогою may з Indefinite Infinitive, коли may вживається як

дозвіл та в значенні можливо, мабуть:

He may go out. Він може вийти.

Дієслово must

Дієслово must має лише одну форму теперішнього часу та два

еквіваленти - модальні дієслова to have та to be, що вживаються в усіх

інших часових формах.

Дієслово must вживається:

1. Для вираження

необхідності дії за певних

умов, обов’язку, в

стверджувальних та

питальних реченнях (з

Indefinite Infinitive).

Замість must може

вживатися to have (to),

особливо стосовно минулого

та майбутнього часу.

They must go to

University now.

Must you work

tomorrow?

Did he have to go

to University

yesterday?

Вони повинні (їм

треба) зараз піти

в університет.

Ви повинні

завтра

працювати?

Він повинен був

піти вчора в

університет?

2. Для вираження наказу та

поради в стверджувальних

та заперечних реченнях (з

Indefinite Infinitive). Дієслово

to have (to) в цьому значенні

не вживається.

You must post the

letter at once.

You must consult

the doctor.

Ви повинні

відправити листа

негайно.

Вам треба (ви

повинні)

порадитися з

лікарем.

3. Для вираження

припущення в

стверджувальних реченнях:

а) в теперішньому часі

She must know this

material.

She must have

caught cold.

Вона, напевно,

знає (повинна

знати) цей

матеріал.

151

(з Indefinite Infinitive)

б) в минулому часі

(з Perfect Infinitive)

Вона, напевно,

застудилася.

Примітка: 1. Дієслово must не вживається для вираження припущення

стосовно майбутнього часу. Воно висловлюється за допомогою слів

evidently, probably to be sure та виразів to be likely, to be unlikely та ін.:

The lecture will probably be interesting. Лекція повинна бути

цікавою.

2. Дієслово must, що виражає припущення, не вживається в

заперечних формах:

He probably doesn’t know about it. Він, напевно, не знає про це.

3. В заперечній відповіді на питання з дієсловом must вживається

needn’t:

Must I go there? – No? You needn’t. Я повинен туди йти? – Ні, не

треба.

4. І навпаки, в стверджувальній відповіді на питання з дієсловом need

вживається must:

Need I go there? – Yes, you must. Мені треба туди йти? – Так,

треба.

5. Заперечні форми mustn’t та don’t have to різняться за значенням:

mustn’t виражає категоричну заборону, тоді як don’t have to вказує на

відсутність необхідності виконання дії:

You mustn’t talk in the library. They don’t have to/needn’t

call us (You aren’t allowed…) tonight. (It isn’t necessary.)

6. У розмовній мові вираз to have got також вживається в модальному

значенні і виражає необхідність чи обов’язок, зумовлені обставинами:

I’ve got to get up early. Мені треба встати рано.

Питальна й заперечна форми утворюються, як відповідні форми

Present Perfect:

Have you got to get up early?

I haven’t got to get up early.

Вираз to have got у модальному значенні вживається лише в

теперішньому часі.

Модальне дієслово to be

1. Модальне дієслово to be, еквівалент дієслова must, виражає

обов’язок, що випливає з попередньої домовленості, плану, розкладу,

графіка і т.п.

They were to meet at the cinema. Вони повинні були

зустрітися в кінотеатрі.

152

2. Модальне дієслово to be вживається для вираження наказу або

інструкції:

You are not to come here any more. Не приходьте сюди більше.

3. Модальне дієслово to be, вжите з інфінітивом у пасивному

стані, виражає можливість:

They were to be found. Їх можна було знайти.

Модальне дієслово to be вживається лише в двох часових формах:

Present Indefinite і Past Indefinite.

4. З модальним дієсловом to be в Present Indefinite вживається лише

неозначений інфінітив (Indefinite Infinitive):

She is to come at 9 o’clock. Вона повинна туди прийти о 9.00.

5. Після to be в Past Indefinite вживається також перфектний

інфінітив, який вказує на те, що виражена ним дія не відбулася:

She was to have come at 9 o’clock. Вона повинна була туди

прийти о 9.00 (але не прийшла).

Дієслово need

1. Дієслово need вживається як модальне і як смислове. Як

модальне, дієслово need у сполученні з неозначеним інфінітивом

виражає необхідність виконання дії стосовно теперішнього або

майбутнього часу і вживається лише в питальних і заперечних

реченнях:

Need I go there? – No, you needn’t.

В заперечній формі має теж саме значення, що й don’t have (to).

2. У значенні модального дієслово need має лише форму

теперішнього часу.

Питальна й заперечна форми утворюються без допоміжного

дієслова to do і вживаються з інфінітивом основного дієслова без

частки to.

3. Perfect Infinitive, вжитий з дієсловом need, означає, що дія, в

якій не було необхідності, відбулася:

You needn’t have done this work. Не треба було виконувати

цю роботу (не було необхідності).

4. Дієслово need як смислове означає мати потребу в чомусь. У

цьому значенні воно відмінюється за загальними правилами і

вживається в теперішньому, минулому і майбутньому часі.

Інфінітив після нього вживається з часткою to, питальна й

заперечна форми в Present Indefinite і Past Indefinite утворюються з

допомогою дієслова to do.

153

Тренувальні вправи

Вправа 1. Перекладіть наступні речення українською та поясніть

вживання must, to be (to), to have (to,) to have got (to):

1. All applicants must take an entrance exam.

2. I'm looking for Sue. I have to talk to her about our lunch date tomorrow.

I can't meet her for lunch because I have to go to a business meeting at

1:00.

3. Where's Sue? I must talk to her right away. I have an urgent message for

her.

4. I have got to go now. I have a class in ten minutes.

5. The game is to begin at 10:00.

6. The committee is to meet tomorrow.

7. I must be at the meeting. The meeting can't occur without me because

I'm the only one who has certain information.

8. I am to be at the meeting. My boss ordered me to be there. He will

accept no excuses.

9. The teacher gave the students a writing assignment. They are to write a

composition. They are to write it about a person they admire.

10. He must have been at the airport to meet his sister's plane.

Вправа 2. Поставте замість пропусків must not або do not have to

та перекладіть наступні речення українською:

1. I've already finished all my work, so I _________study tonight. I think

I'l1 read for a while.

2. You ____________ introduce me to Dr Gray. We've already met.

3. A person ____________ become rich and famous in order to live

a successful life.

4. In order to be a good salesclerk, you ____________ be rude to a

customer.

5. I _____________ go to the doctor. I'm feeling much better

6. Johnny, You ____________ play with sharp knives!

7. We ____________ go to the concert if you don't want to, but it might be

good.

Вправа 3. Вставте модальні дієслова should, must або had to.

Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи потрібну форму інфінітиву.

1. You … always lock the front door when you go out.

2. I don’t think people … keep pets if they don’t have time to care for

them properly.

3. You … be thirsty after carrying those heavy boxes. Shall I make some

tea?

154

4. If you want to take photos while we’re going round the museum, you …

ask permission. We don’t want to get into trouble

5. He ... (to attend) the lesson: the material which the teacher explained

was very difficult, and now it will be impossible for him to write the

test-paper well.

6. People really shouldn’t smoke when there are children around. It’s such

a bad example to them.

7. Last night Ann suddenly became ill. Her parents … call the doctor.

Вправа 4. Вставте відповідні модальні дієслова (must, may, can,

could, need, to have to, to be able to): 1. He … roller-skate when he was young.

2. You ... not come to help them tomorrow: the work is done.

3. ... you help me now? - I am afraid not: I am in a great hurry. I shall be

free in the evening. Come to my place at about eight, and I ... help you.

4. Dad’s car broke down yesterday. - … he … repair it? – No, he took it to

the garage.

5. Those men look alike. They … be brothers.

6. It is already six o'clock. We ... hurry if we don't want to be late.

7. Shall I do Grandma’s shopping for her? – No, you … . She wants to do

it herself.

8. … you help me with these letters? - … we do them now? Can’t they

wait until the morning? – No, I … have posted them this morning,

really. Oh, all right then.

Дієслова should і ought (to)

Дієслова should і ought майже не різняться за значенням. Кожне з них

має лише одну форму. Should вживається з інфінітивом без частки to.

Після ought інфінітив вживається з часткою to.

Дієслова should і ought виражають моральний обов’язок (з точки

зору того, хто говорить), пораду, рекомендацію. У цих значеннях

should і ought вживаються з різними формами інфінітива.

Сполучення should і ought з

Indefinite Infinitive виражають

дію відносно теперішнього або

майбутнього часу:

You should

(ought to) listen

the teacher more

carefully.

Вам слід (ви

повинні)

слухати

викладача

більш уважно.

Continuous Infinitive з

should/ought виражає дію

відносно теперішнього часу,

іноді відносно моменту

He thinks you

ought to be

starting this

experiment.

Він думає, що

вам треба

розпочати цей

експеримент.

155

мовлення.

Сполучення Perfect Infinitive з

дієсловами should і ought у

стверджувальній формі означає,

що дія, бажана на думку того,

хто говорить, не відбулася.

Заперечна форма should і ought

у сполученні з Perfect Infinitive

виражає дію, що відбулася як

небажана з точки зору того, хто

говорить.

You should have

shortened your

article.

You shouldn’t

have finished this

experiment.

Вам варто було

б скоротити

свою статтю.

Не треба було

закінчувати цей

експеримент.

Дієслова should і ought іноді

вживаються для вираження

припущення з відтінком

упевненості. Проте в цьому

значенні частіше вживається

дієслово must.

She’s been

studying very

hard, so she

should pass her

examination

successfully.

Вона багато

працює, тому

вона,

певно, складе

іспит успішно.

Дієслово should вживається в

риторичних питаннях з

питальним словом why для

вираження подиву, сильного

здивування, обурення.

Why should I feel

guilty about it?

Чому я маю

почувати себе

винним у

цьому?

Тренувальні вправи

Вправа 1. Перекладіть наступні речення українською:

1. I should go to the meeting. I can get some information if I go. Going to

the meeting is a good idea.

2. You should study harder. You ought to study harder.

3. Drivers should (ought to) obey the speed limit.

4. You shouldn't leave your keys in the car.

5. Kay has been studying hard. She should do/ought to do well on the test

tomorrow.

Вправа 2. Дайте пораду, використовуючи модальне дієслово

should і слова, наведені в дужках.

E.g. These children are very tired. (to go to bed early).

Young children should (ought to) go to bed early.

1. He’s been coughing a lot recently. (not to smoke so much) 2. I am

afraid they will miss the train. (to take a taxi) 3. He’s lost his check book

and credit cards. (to phone the police and tell the bank) 4. She has just been

offered a job. (to accept the job) 5. This child has a bad toothache. (to go to

156

the dentist) 6. The students are unable to follow what the professor is

saying. (not to speak so fast) 7. She is going to visit France. (to learn a few

words of French) 8. The speed limit is 60 km an hour but Tom is driving at

90. (not to drive so fast)

Вправа 3. Перефразуйте речення, використовуючи модальні

дієслова:

E.g. 1. Let’s leave the party now.

shall Shall we leave the party now?

2. I advise you to look for another job.

ought You ought to look for another job.

3. I’m bored. Let’s watch TV.

shall I’m bored. _____________TV?

4. I advise you to stop eating fatty foods.

ought You _________________ fatty foods.

5. Would you like me to carry the shopping?

shall _____ I _________ for you?

6. I advise you not to spend so much money on clothes.

should You _____________ so much money on clothes.

7. I advise you to leave early.

ought You ______________ early.

Вправа 4. Вставте модальні дієслова should, need або must:

1. We … spend a lot of time at the museum if it is not interesting.

2. You ... have studied the material thoroughly. Then you would not

have made so many mistakes.

3. I’m going to be in trouble. I … have posted these letters yesterday

afternoon and I completely forgot.

4. She ... have followed the doctor's advice. She looks very fine.

5. You ... have ignored the instructions of your sports coach. That's

why you lost the game.

6. You ... wear a helmet when you ride a motorbike.

7. As my sister offered me a lift, I …call a taxi.

8. You … clean the office because we haven’t been using it today, but

could you tidy the shelves in the storeroom, please?

9. I ... have looked carefully at the number of the bus. Now I must

change buses, and I am afraid I shall be late.

10. She … have set the alarm clock because she woke up early

anyway.

157

Sequence of Tenses Узгодження часів

Узгодження часів (заміна часових форм) застосовується в

підрядних реченнях, якщо дієслово у головному реченні стоїть в

одному з минулих часів.

Якщо дієслово-присудок у головному реченні стоїть у

теперішньому або майбутньому часі, то у підрядних реченнях час

вживається за змістом речення.

Основні правила узгодження часів

Часова форма присудка у

підрядному реченні, необхідна за

змістом:

Часова форма присудка у

підрядному реченні, на яку

замінюється:

Present Simple

I know (that) he lives in Paris.

(Я знаю, шо він живе в Парижі.)

Present Continuous

I think (that) she is waiting for me

in the reading-room.

(Я думаю, що вона чекає на мене

у читальній залі)

Present Perfect Continuous

I know (that) he has been living in

Paris since 1995.

(Я знаю, що він живе в Парижі з

1995 р.)

Past Simple

I knew (that) he lived in Paris.

(Я знав, шо він живе в Парижі.)

Past Continuous

I thought (that) she was waiting for

me in the reading-room.

(Я думав, що вона чекає на мене у

читальній залі)

Past Perfect Continuous

I knew (that) he had been living in

Paris since 1995.

(Я знав, що він живе в Парижі з

1995 р.)

Past Simple

She says, “He left Kyiv three days

ago.”

(Вона каже:”Він виїхав з Києва

три дні тому.”)

Present Perfect

I think she has already written the

article.

(Я думаю, що вона вже написала

статтю.)

Past Perfect1

He says, “I had worked by 8

o’clock.”

Past Perfect

Sha said (that) he had left Kyiv

three days before.

(Вона сказала, що він виїхав з

Києва три дні тому.)

Past Perfect

I thought she had already written the

article.

(Я думав, що вона вже написала

статтю.)

Past Perfect1

He said (that) he had worked by 8

o’clock.”

Future Tenses:

Future Simple

She said, “I will write a letter to my

Future-in-the-Past:

Future Simple-in-the-Past

She said (that) she would write a

158

brother.”

Future Continuous

He said, “I will be writing the

composition the whole evening.”

Future Perfect

He said, “I will have done it by 6

o’clock.”

Future Perfect Continuous

He said, “I’ll have been translating

the text for an hour when she

comes.”

(Він сказав: “Я перекладатиму

текст вже годину, коли вона

прийде.”)

letter to my brother.”

Future Continuous-in-the-Past

He said (that) he would be writing

the composition the whole evening.

Future Perfect-in-the-Past

He said (that) he would have done

it by 6 o’clock.”

Future Perfect Continuous-in-the-

Past

He said (that) he would have been

translating the text for an hour

when she came2.

(Він сказав, що він перекладатиме

текст вже годину, коли вона

прийде.”)

Примітка: 1. Past Perfect та Past Perfect Continuous залишаються без змін. 2. В підрядних реченнях часу та умови в англійській мові вживається

минулий час (замість теперішнього)б в українській – майбутній.

1. She said, “By 1995 I had been

working at school for 20 years.”

She said (that) by 1995 she had been

working at school for 20 years.”

2. He said, “I’ll go to the cinema

after I have finished my work.”

He said that he would go to the

cinema after he had finished his work.

Випадки, коли правила узгодження часів не застосовуються:

1. Якщо в підрядному реченні мова йде про вічні істини або

загальновідомі факти – переважно вживається Present Simple:

The teacher told the childen that water boils at 100 degrees

centigrade.

2. Якщо в реченні точно зазначено час виконання дії (обставиною часу

чи підрядним реченням часу), то ця дія виражається за допомогою

Past Simple та Past Continuous:

He said that his parents graduated from the University in 1988.

I thought that you were working in the library at five o’clock

yesterday.

She said that she was working when I rang her up.

3. Дієслово-присудок в підрядних реченнях причини, а також в

означальних та порівняльних підрядних реченнях може вживатися в

Present і Future:

He told me about the book which you are reading.

159

He refused to go to the theatre as he will have an examination in

History in a few days.

He was once stronger than he is now.

4. Дієслова must, should та ought вживаються в підрядному реченні без

змін незалежно від часової форми дієслова-присудка говного речення:

She tells (told) him that he should consult a doctor.

He says (said) that I ought to visit my grand-parents.

The teacher tells (told) the children that they mustn’t cross the road

against the red light.

Непряма мова

(Indirect Speech)

При перетворенні прямої мови на непряму утворюється

складнопідрядне речення з підрядним додатковим реченням із

сполучником that або без нього:

He says,”I have read this book” He says (that) he has read that book.

Якщо вказано особу, до якої звернено пряму мову і вживається to say з

прийменником to, то перед непрямою мовою to say to замінюється на

дієслово to tell:

She says to me,”I saw him

yesterday”

She tells me (that) she saw him the

day before.

При перетворенні прямої мови на непряму вказівні займенники, деякі

обставини місця і часу змінюються на наступні:

this that

these those

now then

here there

today that day

yesterday the day before

the day before yesterday two days before

tomorrow the next day

the day after tomorrow two days later

ago before

next the next

last (year) the previous (year)

Непрямі запитання (Indirect Questions) мають структуру

розповідного речення: з прямим порядком слів.

Загальні запитання замінюються підрядними реченнями із

сполучниками if або whether:

We asked him,”Do you know this

girl?”

We asked him if/(whether) he knew

that girl.

160

При відтворенні непрямою мовою спеціальних запитань – питальні

слова стають сполучними словами:

He asked me,”Where do you live?” He asked me where I lived.

I asked him,”Why have you come

so late?”

I asked him why he had come so

late.

Наказовий спосіб дієслова при перетворенні в непряму мову

наказових речень замінюється інфінітивом. Дієслово to say

замінюється на to tell, to order, а при проханні – на to ask:

She said to him,”Come at five

o’clock.”

She told him to come at five

o’clock.

He said to me,”Don’t go there.” He told me not to go there.

I said to her, “Please give me a glass

of water.”

I asked her to give me a glass of

water.

Тренувальні вправи

Вправа 1. Перекладіть наступні речення українською, визначте

час присудків та поясніть вживання часів:

1. I didn’t expect that you would come two days later. 2. The mother was

angry with the children because they had been making a terrible noise since

early morning. 3. He said that he was there in 1945. 4. They knocked

because they didn’t know that the children were sleeping then. 5. When she

woke up in the morning she saw that it had already stopped raining. 6. I

learnt from this book that elephants never forget.

Вправа 2. Поставте присудок головного речення в Past Simple,

зробивши всі необхідні зміни в реченні:

1. I can’t understand why you are doing this. 2. He doesn’t like the shoes

he bought last year. 3. I am surprised that you finished the work yesterday.

4. They look at the picture she has drawn today. 5. She can’t tell the time

because her watch has stopped. 6. He knows that you have received a letter

from Helen. 7. I know you are a person I can trust completely.

Вправа 3. Розкрийте дужки, поставивши дієслово у відповідному

часі та стані:

1. He posted the letter he (to write) two days before. 2. He said he (to

leave) tomorrow morning. 3. I knew they (to wait) for me at the metro

station and I decided to hurry. 4. He says that he (to know) the laws of the

country. 5. He thought that all his dreams (to come) true very soon, when

he finished school. 6. He understood why she (not to come) the previous

evening. 7. She promised that she (to answer) all the questions at the

conference.

161

Вправа 4. Замініть пряму мову на непряму:

1. “I’m waiting for my parents,” Nick said. 2. Mary said, “I didn’t

recognize him.” 3. “I was here with my friends,” said Jane. 4. “Do you

have a photograph of your son with you?” Helen asked. 5. “You should be

careful,” my friend said to me. 6. “The Sun isn’t a planet, it is a big star,”

the teacher explained. 7. “Don’t make so much noise, will you?” the

neighbour said to Pete. 8. “I promise I’ll write to you as soon as I arrive,

Jane,” said Nick. 9. She asked, “Are there skyscrapers in London?” 10.

“Why didn’t you say that to me?” she asked her boyfriend.

Пасивний стан дієслова (Passive Voice)

В англійській мові дієслово має дві форми стану: активний (Active

Voice) – коли підмет (особа чи предмет) в реченні виконує дію та

пасивний (Passive Voice) – коли підмет (особа, предмет) підлягає дії з

боку іншої особи чи предмета, тобто є не суб’єктом, а об’єктом дії.

Порівняйте:

Captain Cook discovered Australia. Australia was discovered by Captain

Cook.

У пасивному стані суб’єкт дії здебільшого не вказується, оскільки в

центрі уваги знаходиться особа чи предмет, на які спрямована дія:

They will not deliver the new sofa on Monday.

The new sofa will not be delivered on Monday.

Особливо це стосується випадків, коли підмет виражений одним із

наступних слів: people, one, someone/somebody, they, he, etc.

Зазначення виконувача дії або діючої сили дається у формі

прийменникового звороту з прийменником by:

This experiment was conducted by our research workers.

The rate of chemical reaction is influenced by many factors.

Cлід пам’ятати про дієслова, що вживаються з прийменником by:

To judge by – судити по кому, судити з чого, міркувати; to mean by –

мати на увазі; to take by – взяти (тримати, схопити) за, та ін.

Для позначення предмета, за допомогою якого виконується дія –

вживається прийменник with:

The paper was cut with a knife.

The letter was written with a ball-pen.

В українській мові тільки перехідні дієслова вживаються в пасивному

стані; і підметом речення пасивного стану може бути тільки прямий

додаток з відповідного речення активного стану:

Студент написав тест. Тест був написаний студентом.

162

В англійській мові з дієсловами, наприклад, такими як to ask, to bring,

to tell, to send, to show, to teach, to promise, to offer, to give, to pay, to

lend, що приймають два додатки, можна утворювати пасивний стан

двома шляхами:

Active: Someone sent me flowers.

Passive: a) I was sent some flowers.

b) Some flowers were sent for me.

В англійській мові навіть неперехідні дієслова, що потребують

прийменникового додатка, можуть вживатися в пасивному стані,

причому прийменник зберігає своє місце після дієссова:

They laughed at him. He was laughed at.

Вони сміялися з нього. З нього сміялися.

They can depend on Bill. Bill can be depended on.

Вони можуть покластися на Білла. На Білла можна покластися.

Утворення пасивного стану дієслова

Часові форми пасивного стану утворюються за допомогою дієслова

to be у відповідному часі, особі, числі та дієприкметника минулого

часу (the past participle) смислового дієслова:

to be + past participle (pp)

Tense

Form Indefinite Continuous

Present

I am

He is

We are } asked

I am

He is

We are } being asked

Past

I

He

We were } was } asked

I was

He was

We

were

} being asked

Future

I shall (will)

He

We }

be

asked

Future

in the

Past

I

He

We }

would

be

asked

Tense

Form Perfect Perfect Continuous

Present

I have

He has

We have }

been

asked

Замість відсутніх форм

Perfect Continuous

вживаються форми

163

Past

I

He

We } had been asked

Perfect

Future

I

He

We }

will have been

asked

Future

in the

Past

I

He

We }

would have

been asked

Часові форми пасивного стану вживаються за тими самими

правилами, що й відповідні часи активного стану.

SIMPLE (INDEFINITE) PASSIVE TENSES

Tense Affirmative Interrogative Negative

Present Simple The office is

cleaned twice a

week.

Is the office

cleaned twice a

week?

The office is not

cleaned twice a

week.

Past Simple The office was

cleaned

yesterday.

Was the office

cleaned

yesterday?

The office was

not cleaned

yesterday.

Future Simple The office will

be cleaned next

day.

Will the office be

cleaned next day.

The office will

not be cleaned

next day.

1. Часи групи Simple пасивного стану виражають одноразову,

повторювану або постійну дію в теперішньому, минулому або

майбутньому часі:

а) TV is watched all over the world.

б) Jim’s car was stolen last night.

в) His portrait will be painted by a famous artist.

2. Present Simple вживається для вираження майбутньої дії в

підрядних реченнях часу та умови:

а) I shall be very glad if my article is published in the newspaper.

Я буду дуже радий, якщо моя стаття буде опублікована в

газеті.

б) The director will sign the documents when they are checked.

Директор підпише документи, коли вони будуть перевірені.

3. Як і в активному стані, вживання часів в підрядному реченні, що

залежить від головного з дієсловом-присудком в минулому часі,

підпорядковується правилам послідовності часів:

а) I knew that very interesting articles were published in the

magazine.

164

Я знав, що в цьому журналі друкуються дуже цікаві статті.

б) He said that the bridge would be built next year.

Він сказав, що міст побудують в наступному році.

в) Mary said that she would show us the article when it was typed.

Мері сказала, що покаже нам статтю, коли вона буде

опублікована.

4. Присудку в активному стані, що виражений словосполученням

одного з модальних дієслів must, can (could), may (might), should,

ought, to have, to be з інфінітивом активного стану, відповідає в

пасивному звороті словосполучення цього ж модального дієслова з

інфінітивом пасивного стану:

a) You ought to translate this article at once.

Вам слід перекласти цю статтю відразу.

The article ought to be translated at once.

Цю статтю слід перекласти відразу.

б) They must finish their work as soon as possible.

Вони повинні закінчити свою роботу якомога швидше.

Their work must be finished as soon as possible.

Їх робота повинна бути закінчена якомога швидше.

5. Пасивні звороти з формальним підметом it.

Звороти, що складаються із займенника it і дієслова в пасивному стані

– it is said, it was said, it is reported, it was reported та ін.,

відповідають в українській мові дієсловам в 3-ій особі множини з

неозначено-особовим значенням: кажуть, казали, повідомляють,

повідомляли та ін. в таких зворотах it є формальним підметом і немає

самостійного значення:

а) It is reported that the delegation has arrived in Kyiv.

Повідомляють, що делегація прибула в Київ.

б) It was expected that he would return soon.

Сподівалися, що він скоро повернеться.

У таких зворотах часто зустрічається сполучення модального дієслова

з інфінітивом пасивного стану: it can be said можна сказати, it

should be mentioned слід нагадати, it was be expected треба було

очікувати та ін.

Тренувальні вправи

Вправа 1. Перекладіть українською мовою речення з дієсловами в

пасивному стані, при потребі починайте переклад з

прийменників:

1. This engineer’s design was much spoken of at the conference.

165

2. This research was given particular attention because of its prime

importance for the development of this branch of physics.

3. This book is written mainly for researchers.

4. New electronic devices are dealt with in this article.

5. New methods will be developed as a result of this experimental work.

6. The First Congress of Biochemistry was held in Cambridge in 1949.

7. The opening plenary session was followed by a concert.

Вправа 2. Поставте запитання до поданих речень:

1.The Houses of Parliament were built in the nineteenth century.

2. Twenty people were hurt in the train crash.

3. Three teenagers were given an award for bravery yesterday.

4. The telephone was invented by Bell in 1876.

5. 20,000 cars will be produced next year.

6. Ten pictures have been stolen from the National Gallery.

7. During the centuries the famous Tower of London was used as a fortress,

a royal residence and a prison.

Вправа 3. Заповніть пропуски необхідною формою дієслова:

1. These pictures are beautiful. They … (paint) by my father while he was

on holiday last summer.

2. Volkswagen cars … (make) in Germany.

3. The Pyramids … (build) by the Ancient Egyptians.

4. Those flowers are great. They … (send) to her yesterday by one of her

funs.

5. Who does the washing-up in your house? The dishes … (wash) by my

brother and then … (dry) by my sister.

6. Who looks after your baby when you’re at work? Well, he … (look

after) by my mother.

7. When will I have my car? It … (deliver) to your house the day after

tomorrow.

Вправа 4. Перетворіть подані речення з активного стану на

пасивний:

1. They use a computer to do that job nowadays.

2. Where will your company send you next year?

3. The pop star sang the song.

4. They won’t take him home after the party.

5. Tom didn’t break the window.

6. Mary sent Peter a birthday card.

7. His mother cooked this delicious turkey.

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8. An international company publishes these books.

Вправа 5. Перетворіть подані речення з активного стану на

пасивний, звертаючи увагу на модальні дієслова з інфінітивом

пасивного стану:

1. You must take the dog for a walk.

2. We should eat this cake immediately.

3. You ought to put these clothes away.

4. I have to finish my homework tonight.

5. You must tidy your bedroom.

6. They should inform the citizens as soon as possible.

7. You can use this saucepan for cooking spaghetti.

8. He must finish the project by Friday afternoon.

9. You must post these letters today.

10. Employers must pay all travel expenses for this training course.

СONTINUOUS (PROGRESSIVE) PASSIVE TENSES

Часи групи Continuous (or Progressive) пасивного стану, як і активного,

виражають тривалу дію, що відбувається в якийсь момент або період

часу в теперішньому чи минулому часі. Майбутній час – Future

Continuous – в пасивному стані не вживається.

Present Continuous Passive: A very interesting film is being shown on

TV.

Past Continuous Passive: An ice hockey game was being shown on TV

when he returned home.

Present (Past) Continuous Passive утворюються за допомогою

допоміжного дієслова to be в Present (Past) Continuous Active Voice та

дієприкметника минулого часу основного дієслова.

Tense Affirmative Interrogative Negative

Present

Continuous

The office is

being cleaned

now.

Is the office

being cleaned

now?

The office is

not being

cleaned now.

Past

Continuous

The office was

being cleaned

when the boss

arrived.

Was the office

being cleaned

when the boss

arrived?

The office was

not being

cleaned when

the boss

arrived.

Future

Continuous

- - -

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Як і в активному стані, дієслова, що не виражають дію як процес, як

правило, не вживаються в формі Continuous. До них відносяться

дієслова, що виражають відчуття: to see, to smell, to hear, to seem, to

taste;

волевиявлення: to refuse, to prefer, to object, to agree, to disagree, to

deny, to impress, to promise; бажання: to wish, to want, to desire;

почуття: to like, to hate, to love; розумову діяльність: to know, to

understand, to believe, to doubt, to see (=’’understand’’), to imagine, to

realise, to suppose, to remember, to think (=’’have an opinion’’), to forget,

to recognise; дієслова, що виражають відношення між предметами: to

be, to belong, to concern, to involve, to consist, to contain, to depend, to

lack, to need, to include, to owe, to possess, to weigh (=’’have weight’’), та

ін.

Тренувальні вправи

Вправа 1. Прочитайте та перекладіть речення. Зверніть увагу на

форми часу дієслів в пасивному стані:

1. Excuse the mess, the house is being painted. 2. I felt as if I was being

watched.

3. The roof is being repaired by a friend of ours. 4. A multistoried house is

being built near our school. 5. The children are being taught by Mr. Rice at

the moment. 6. I think the film is being shown on TV now. 7. The factory

was still being built when we came to that place.

Вправа 2. Підкресліть присудки в реченнях. Перетворіть речення

у Passive Voice, звертаючи увагу на часову форму дієслів:

1. Some people are considering a new plan.

A new plan ____is being considered_____.

2. The grandparents are watching the children.

The children _______________________ by their grandparents.

3. The author is writing a new book.

A new book _______________________ by the author.

4. They are planting the trees in the garden.

The trees ________________________ in the garden.

5. According to one scientific estimate, we are losing 20,000 species of

plants and animals each year due to the destruction of rain forests.

According to one scientific estimate, 20,000 species of plants and

animals ______________________ each year due to the destruction

of rain forests.

Вправа 3. Утворіть питальну та заперечну форми речень:

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1. The sick man is being operated on. 2. The network of transmitting

stations is being built in this region now. 3. The children are making a

birthday cake in the kitchen. 4. The road is being repaired by our workers.

5. The film was being shown from 7 till 9. 6. The orchestra was being

conducted by our music teacher. 7. Water-power stations are being built on

the Mountain Rivers. 8. Students from about 30 countries are being trained

at Kyiv University.

Вправа 4. Замініть наступні речення на Passive Voice:

1. Someone is organizing a student trip to the art museum.

A student trip to the art museum ________ .

2. We couldn’t use our classroom yesterday because someone was painting

it.

We couldn’t use our classroom yesterday because ___________ .

3. Someone is considering Jack for the job.

Jack __________for the job.

4. The police are questioning two boys in connection with the accident.

Two boys ____________ by the police in connection with the accident.

5. Look! Someone is feeding the seals.

The seals _____________.

PERFECT PASSIVE

1. Часи групи Perfect пасивного стану, як і активного, виражають

дію, що передує іншій дії або якомусь моменту в теперішньому,

минулому або майбутньому часі. Крім цього, перфектні часи,

особливо Present Perfect Passive, вживаються для підкреслення

результату дії, що відбулася.

The windows have still not been repaired. – Вікна ще не

відремонтовані.

I was thinking of all that had been said. – Я думав про все, що було

сказано.

The goods have just been examined by the customs officers. –

Товари щойно оглянуті (були оглянуті) митниками.

2. Present (Past, Future) Perfect Passive утворюються за допомогою

допоміжного дієслова to be в Present (Past, Future) Perfect та

дієприкметника минулого часу основного дієслова.

Tense Affirmative Interrogative Negative

Present

Perfect

The office has

been cleaned

today.

Has the office

been cleaned

today?

The office has

not been

cleaned today.

Past Perfect The office had Had the office The office had

169

been cleaned by

two o’clock.

been cleaned by

two o’clock?

not been

cleaned by two

o’clock.

Future Perfect

The office will

have been

cleaned by the

time we come.

Will the office

have been

cleaned by the

time we come?

The office

won’t have

been cleaned by

the time we

come.

Future Perfect-in-the-Past Passive утворюється так само, як і Future

Perfect Passive, але замість допоміжних дієслів shall/will вживаються

відповідно should/would.

Future Perfect-in-the-Past Passive: I (we) should have been invited.

He (she, you, they) would have been invited.

3. Замість Present Perfect Continuous та Past Perfect Continuous, які

не мають форм пасивного стану, відповідно вживаються Present

Perfect і Past Perfect Passive.

The dissertation has been discussed for two hours.

Дисертація обговорюється уже дві години.

The dissertation had been discussed for two hours when he came.

Дисертація вже обговорювалась дві години, коли він прийшов.

4. Як і в активному стані, в підрядних обставинних реченнях часу

та умови для вираження майбутньої дії замість форми Future Perfect

Passive вживається форма Present Perfect Passive:

After the goods have been examined we shall take them to the ware-

house.

Після того як товари будуть оглянуті, ми відвеземо їх на склад.

5. Узгодження, як і в активному стані, вживання часів в

підрядному реченні з дієсловом-присудком в минулому часі, з

правилами послідовності часів.

I knew that the plant had been Я знав, що завод будується вже

built for two years. два роки.

She showed me the article which Вона показала мені статтю, яка

had been translated by her brother. була перекладена її братом.

He said that the house would Він сказав, що будинок (вже) буде

have been built by January. побудований (побудують) до січня.

She said that you would have Вона сказала, що вам покажуть

been shown a new film before he left. новий фільм, до того як він піде.

6. Perfect Infinitive Passive та модальні дієслова.

Perfect Infinitive Passive вживається:

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- після модальних дієслів must і may для вираження припущення, що

дія вже здійснилася:

The letter may have been sent to the wrong address.

Лист, мабуть, був відісланий за неправильною адресою.

- після дієслів can, cannot для вираження здивування, сумніву з

приводу того, що дія могла здійснитися:

Can this work have been done in Невже ця робота була зроблена за

such a short time? такий короткий строк?

- після дієслів should, would, could, might, ought та was (were) для

вираження дії, яка повинна була б чи могла б здійснитися, але не

здійснилася:

The goods were to have been Товари повинні були бути

delivered at the beginning of May. доставлені на початок травня (але

не були доставлені).

The windows should have been Вікна слід було (потрібно було)

cleaned yesterday. вимити вчора.

Тренувальні вправи

Вправа 1. Прочитайте речення та перекладіть їх. Зверніть увагу

на Passive Voice:

1. Jim didn’t know about the change of plans. He hadn’t been told.

2. During the last decades a great number of researchers have been

involved in the study of cancer problems.

3. Various ideas have been proposed to explain the origin of the moon.

4. An advertisement have not been placed in the newspaper yet.

5. I’m not going to the party. I haven’t been invited.

6. In recent years much of our interest has been centred round the problem

of the evolution of comets.

7. The letters have already been posted by the time the boss came in.

8. He said that he would show us the letter when it was typed.

9. This room looks different. Has it been painted since I was last here?

10. A tree was lying across the road. It had been blown down in the storm.

Вправа 2. Підкресліть перфектну форму дієслова. Закінчіть

речення відповідною часовою формою дієслова у пасивному стані:

1. They have changed the date of the meeting.

The date of the meeting ____has been changed_____.

2. The chef hasn’t made dinner.

The dinner______________________.

3. Brian told me that somebody had attacked and robbed him in the street.

Brian told me that he _______________________.

171

4. The doctor had already told him to go on a diet.

He ________________________.

5. They have built excellent shelters for tourists in these mountains.

Excellent shelters for tourists __________________.

6. Richard has offered Helen a watch.

Helen _________________________.

Вправа 3. Утворіть питальну та заперечну форми речень:

1. The light has not yet been turned off.

2. He has been told everything, so he knows what to do now.

3. The door has been left open.

4. The article will have been published by the time you arrive.

5. This crop had been sown by the end of the month.

Неособові форми дієслова

(Non-Finite Forms of the Verb)

Неособові форми дієслова (non-finite forms of the verb) – інфінітив (the

Infinitive), герундій (the Gerund), дієприкметник (the Participle) – не

мають граматичних ознак особи, числа і способу, не виражають часу

дії, тому не можуть бути присудком речення, а можуть тільки входити

до його складу. Вони вказують лише на співвіднесеність у часі дії, що

вони виражають, до дії присудка: одночасна вона чи передує їй.

The Infinitive

(Інфінітив)

Інфінітив − це неособова форма дієслова, яка тільки називає дію

і відповідає на запитання що робити?, що зробити? ─ to read читати;

to understand розуміти.

В англійській мові інфінітив має одну просту і п’ять складних

форм. Інфінітив перехідних дієслів має форми часу й стану, а

неперехідних – тільки часу.

Форми

інфінітиву Active Passive

Indefinite to write

to come to be written

Continuous to be writing

to be coming -

Perfect to have written

to have come to have been written

Perfect Continuous to have been writing

to have been coming -

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Якщо дієслово не вживається в пасивному стані або в формі

Continuous, то кількість форм інфінітива відповідно менша.

Ознакою інфінітива в англійській мові є частка to. Частка not

перед інфінітивом вказує на заперечну форму.

Але слід пам’ятати, що в деяких випадках інфінітив вживається без

частки to:

1) після модальних дієслів (окрім дієслова ought);

2) в об’єктному інфінітивному звороті після дієслів: to see, to hear, to

feel, to watch, to observe, to notice; to let, to make;

3) після виразів would rather, would sooner, had better… .

Значення і вживання форм інфінітиву

I. Інфінітив у формі Indefinite вживається:

1. Якщо дія, яку він виражає, одночасна з дією, вираженою

дієсловом-присудком речення:

I am sorry to hear it. Мені прикро чути це.

He was glad to see them. Він був радий бачити їх.

It will be very interesting Буде дуже цікаво прочитати

to read these books. ці книжки.

2. З дієсловами, що вказують намір, надію тa ін. Indefinite Infinitive

означає дію, майбутню щодо відношення до дії, вираженої

дієловом-присудком:

I hope to see you on Monday.

Я сподіваюсь побачитися з вами в понеділок.

I want to make a report.

Я хочу зробити доповідь.

3. З модальними дієсловами Indefinite Infinitive часто виражає

майбутню дію:

They may come tomorrow.

Може, вони приїдуть завтра.

II. Continuous Infinitive виражає тривалу дію, що відбувається

одночасно з дією, вираженою дієсловом-присудком:

It was pleasant to be driving a car again.

Приємно було знову вести автомобіль.

III. Perfect Infinitive виражає дію, що передує дії, вираженій

дієсловом-присудком:

I was pleased to have done something.

Я була задоволена, що я дещо зробила.

173

З модальними дієсловами should, ought, could, might у

стверджувальній формі, а також після was/were в модальному

значенні Perfect Infinitive показує, що дія не відбулася:

He should have stayed at home.

Йому слід було залишитися вдома (але він не залишився).

He was to have done it.

Він мав зробити це (але не зробив).

Таке саме значення має Perfect Infinitive після минулого часу дієслів to

expect сподіватися, чекати; to hope надіятися; to intend мати намір та

ін.:

I hoped to have found him at home.

Я сподівався застати його вдома (але не застав).

IV. Perfect Continuous Infinitive виражає тривалу дію, що відбувалася

протягом певного часу перед дією, вираженою дієсловом-присудком:

I am happy to have been living in Kyiv for 25 years.

Я щасливий, що 25 років живу в Києві.

V. Інфінітив вживається в активному стані, якщо іменник або

займенник, до якого він відноситься, означає суб’єкт дії, вираженої

інфінітивом:

But they don’t want to play with me.

Але вони не хочуть гратися зі мною.

Інфінітив вживається в пасивному стані, якщо іменник або займенник,

до якого він відноситься, означає об’єкт дії, вираженої інфінітивом:

She didn’t want to be found.

Вона не хотіла, щоб її знашли.

VI. Інфінітив також вживається:

1. Після таких дієслів, як: advise, afford, agree, appear, attempt,

decide, dare, forget, fail, expect, hope, manage, offer, plan,

pretend, promise, refuse, seem, tend, threaten, want, etc.

e.g. He refused to answer my questions.

I hope to see you again soon.

He promised not to be late.

Інфінітивні конструкції

Складний підмет (Суб’єктний інфінітивний комплекс)

Інфінітив вживається в суб’єктному інфінітивному звороті –

Complex Subject - (“складний підмет”), де іменник чи займенник

стоїть в загальному відмінку:

а) після таких дієслів в пасивному стані, як: say, report, think, believe,

expect, consider, suppose, see, hear, feel, notice, observe, watch, order,

allow, permit, etc.

174

e. g. Mark was seen to cross the street. Бачили, як Марк переходив

вулицю.

He was made to do it. Його примусили це зробити.

The Moon is known to be the Earth's Відомо, що Місяць -

satellite. супутник Землі.

He is known to be a good poet. Кажуть, що він хороший

поет.

б) після наступних дієслів в активному стані: seem, appear

(здаватися), happen, chance (трапитися), turn out, prove (виявлятися):

e.g. They seemed not to listen to their teacher.

Здавалося, що вони не слухали свого вчителя.

He appears to be a good psychologist.

Здається, він хороший психолог.

в) після словосполучень to be sure, to be certain, to be likely, to be

unlikely:

e. g. They are likely to meet often.

Вони, мабуть, часто зустрічатимуться.

He is unlikely to change his mind.

Несхоже, щоб він передумав.

They are sure to win the match.

Вони обов'язково виграють цей матч.

Складний додаток (Об’єктний інфінітивний комплекс)

Інфінітив вживається в конструкції: Verb + Pro(noun) + Infinitive

– в об’єктному інфінітивному звороті (Complex Object), де додатком

(object) є іменник у загальному відмінку або особовий займенник в

об’єктному відмінку, після якого вживається інфінітив, що виражає

дію, яку виконує або якої зазнає особа чи предмет, позначений цим

іменником або займенником.

Цей об’єктний інфінітивний зворот (Complex Object) вживається:

1) після дієслів: consider, believe, think, find, know, expect, suppose,

want, wish, desire, like, would like, dislike, hate, intend, request, ask

(просити), allow, permit, recommend, cause, force, make

(примушувати), let (веліти, дозволяти):

e. g. Mr. Lee expected them to be here at ten o’clock.

The police ordered the driver (him) to stop.

2) після дієслів to make, to let, to see, to hear, to feel, to watch, to observe,

to notice – частка to перед інфінітивом не вживається:

e. g. I saw Mark cross the street. Я бачив, як він переходив вулицю.

They made him do it. Його примусили це зробити.

175

Об'єктний інфінітивний зворот перекладається на українську мову

здебільшого підрядним додатковим реченням, де іменник чи

займенник відповідає підмету, а інфінітив – присудку цього

підрядного речення.

For+ Інфінітив

Інфінітив вживається також в прийменниковому інфінітивному

комплексі – в конструкції “for + noun/pronoun + infinitive” (де

займенник вживається в об’єктному відмінку):

e. g. They asked for the data (them) to be published.

Вони просили, щоб ці данні були опубліковані.

For this work to be done successfully conditions must be favourable.

Для того щоб ця робота була виконана успішно, необхідні

сприятливі умови.

Цей інфінітивний зворот може знаходитися в будь-якій частині

речення. На українську мову частіше за все перекладається підрядним

реченням з сполучником "щоб/для того щоб".

Функції інфінітива в реченні

1. Інфінітив може вживатися в реченні в ролі підмета:

e. g. To apply fertilizers is very important for growing crops in this

region.

Вносити добрива (внесення добрив) – дуже важливо для

вирощування врожаїв в цьому регіоні.

2. Інфінітив може вживатися в ролі предикатива (іменної частини

складного присудка):

e. g. The point is to achieve the aim. Головне – досягти мети.

3. Інфінітив може вживатися в ролі частини дієслівного складного

присудка:

а) з модальними дієсловами:

e. g. They must do it at once.

б) з дієсловами, що вживаються з інфінітивом іншого дієслова (to

want, to wish, to try, to intend, to expect, to hope та ін.):

e. g. He wants to read a newspaper.

в) з дієсловами, що означають початок або продовження дії (to begin,

to start, to continue та ін.):

e. g. She began to look through the journals on her speciality.

4. Інфінітив може вживатися в ролі додатка до дієслів та

прикметників:

e. g. She asked me to speak loudly.

I’ll be happy to accept your invitation.

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5. Інфінітив може вживатися як обставина мети:

e.g. We often use heating (in order) to increase the reaction rate.

Ми часто використовуємо нагрівання для того, щоб підвищити

швидкість реакції.

6. Інфінітив також вживається як означення:

e.g. He described some phenomena to be observed there only in winter.

Він описав деякі явища, які можна спостерігати тільки взимку.

Тренувальні вправи

1. Перекладіть українською, звертаючи увагу на форму інфінітиву:

1. She wants to be invited to the party. 2. They must be working in

the garden. 3. We expect them to have returned. 4. She is said to have been

working at school for many years.

2. Поставте дієслова у відповідній формі інфінітиву. Перекладіть

речення українською:

1. This film turned out (show) … in our club last month.

2. He is expected (take part) … in the conference next week.

3. Pluto is known (discover) … in 1930.

4. We expect them (return) … in 2 days.

5. This question is likely (discuss) … tomorrow.

6. We know this phenomenon (explain) … by astronomers in the distant

past.

3. Поставте частку to перед інфінітивом там, де це необхідно:

1. I think you ought ... apologize. 2. Make him ... speak louder. 3.

Help me ... carry this bag. 4. My son asked me ... let him … go to the

theatre. 5. I must ... go to the country. 6. He said that she might ... come in

the evening. 7. She was made ... repeat the song.

4. Прочитайте та перекладіть наступні речення з об’єктним

інфінітивним комплексом. Зверніть увагу на вживання або

відсутність частки to перед інфінітивом:

1. We expected her to return.

2. He allowed me to use his car.

3. I expect you to be on time.

4. The doctor told me to take these pills.

5. I want you to be happy.

6. I saw my friend run down the street.

7. I heard the rain fall on the roof.

8. I heard a famous opera star sing at the concert last night.

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9. She watched the children play in the yard.

10. His parents intended him to go with them to the farm.

5. Доповніть речення, поставивши, де необхідно, частку to перед

інфінітивом та займенники в об’єктному відмінку:

1. The teacher made … (he/ to learn) the poem by heart.

2. I wanted … (they/ to work) here.

3. They expect … (we/ to answer) the letter at once.

4. You noticed … (she/ to approach) the river.

5. I heard … (he/ to read) it aloud.

6. His parents want … (he/ to become) an agronomist.

7. We watched … (they/ to play) in the yard.

8. You forced … (he/ to do) the exercise again.

9. I let … (she/ to leave) the room.

10. The rain … (we/ to go) home.

6. Перефразуйте наступні складнопідрядні речення в прості,

вживаючи Complex Subject (суб'єктний інфінітивний зворот).

Зверніть увагу на форму інфінітиву: e.g. It is reported that the delegation arrived in Paris on the 10th of

September. – The delegation is reported to have arrived on the 10th of

September.

1. It is known that he works hard.

2. It is said that she has been teaching chemistry at our University for

thirty years.

3. It seems that our students are working in the field.

4. It is believed that this house was built in the 19th century.

5. It is supposed that his article will be published next week.

6. It turned out that the translation was very difficult.

7. It was supposed that the weather would be fine in May.

The Participle

(Складні форми дієприкметника)

Перфектний дієприкметник

(Perfect Participle)

Perfect Participle має дві форми — активного та пасивного стану.

Форма активного стану утворюється за допомогою Present Participle

допоміжного дієслова to have і Past Participle основного дієслова:

having asked.

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Форма пасивного стану Perfect Participle утворюється за допомогою

having been і Past Participle основного дієслова: having been asked.

Неперехідні дієслова не мають форми пасивного стану (напр. to go):

Форми Active Passive

Perfect having asked

having gone

having been asked

Значення та вживання

Perfect Participle виражає дію, яка передує дії, вираженій дієсловом-

присудком. Perfect Participle відповідає українському прислівнику

доконаного виду:

Having learned about it, they stopped speaking. Дізнавшись про це,

вони припинили розмову.

Perfect Participle Active вживається тоді, коли іменник чи займенник,

до якого він відноситься, означає суб'єкт вираженої ним дії:

Having taking the book, he left the library. Взявши книгу, він вийшов з

бібліотеки.

Пасивна форма дієприкметника.

(Present Participle Passive та Perfect Participle Passive)

Пасивна форма дієприкметника вживається тоді, коли іменник чи

займенник, до якого він відноситься, означає об'єкт вираженої ним дії.

Present Participle Passive вживається для вираження дії, що

відбувається на теперішній момент чи теперішній період часу, на

відміну від Past Participle, який виражає дію, що відбувається

звичайно, взагалі.

The question now being discussed Питання, що обговорюється зараз

at the meeting is very important. На зборах, - дуже важливе.

The large house being built in our Велика будівля, що будується на

street is a new building of the нашій вулиці, новий корпус

University. університету.

Perfect Participle Passive вживається в функції обставини причини і

часу та вказує на дію, що відбулася до дії присудка:

Having been invited to а party, she could not stay at home.

Оскільки її запросили на вечірку, вона не змогла залишитися вдома.

Дієприкметникові конструкції

Складний додаток

Складний додаток з дієприкметником вживається після дієслів see,

hear, fell, want, like, find, catch, leave, keep, have, get, etc., і має таку

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ж структуру, що й складний додаток з інфінітивом. Але заміть

інфінітива вживається дієприкметник:

I saw him running. = Я бачив, як він біг.

I saw him run.

I heard her shouting.= Я чув, як вона кричала.

I heard her shout.

Present Participle вживається замість інфінітива, якщо дію не

завершено:

I saw him driving off. Я бачив, як він від'їжджає.

I saw him drive off. Я бачив, як він від'їхав.

Past Participle вживається замість пасивного інфінітива:

He had his hair cut. Йому підстригли волосся.

The Absolute Participle Complex

(Незалежний дієприкметниковий зворот)

Незалежний дієприкметниковий зворот (НДЗ) складається з

дієприкметника, перед яким стоїть іменник у загальному відмінку або

займенник у називному відмінку. НДЗ завжди відокремлюються від

головного речення комою.

Коли НДЗ стоїть на початку речення, він перекладається

підрядним реченням обставини за допомогою сполучників “коли”;

“після того, як”; “тому що”; “через те, що”; “оскільки”; “якщо”:

The rain having stopped, we went out. Коли (після того, як) дощ

ущух, ми вийшли з дому.

Weather permitting, we’ll go for a walk. Якщо погода дозволить, ми

підемо на прогулянку.

The professor being ill, the lecture was Оскільки професор був

put off. хворим, лекцію відстрочили.

Коли НДЗ стоїть після головного речення, він перекладається

сурядним реченням за допомогою сполучників “і”; “а”; “при цьому”;

“до того ж” або без сполучника:

Farmers grow a lot of grain crops in our Фермери вирощують багато,

country, wheat being the most important. зернових, при чому пшениця

є найважливішою.

They went quickly out of the house, he Вони швидко вийшли з дому,

accompanying her to the station. і він провів її до вокзалу.

Тренувальні вправи

1. В якому з речень вжито Perfect Participle?

1. While reading an interesting English story she used a dictionary.

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2. Entering the room we found nobody there. 3. He looked through the

newspaper received this morning. 4. Having cleaned the room they went

shopping. 5. The contract signed last year is useful for both sides.

2. Прочитайте та перекладіть українською:

1. Having finished the experiment, he described its results in his article.

2. Having solved many scientific and technical problems, our scientists

could launch the first spaceship in outer space.

3. Having travelled about the country nearly two months, he returned to

the capital.

4. The questions now being discussed at the meeting are very important.

5. Having collected all the material, she was able to write her report to the

conference.

6. Having been sent to the wrong address, the letter didn’t reach them.

7. Yesterday the professor told us about the experiments now being carried

on in his laboratory.

3. Прочитайте та перекладіть українською речення з незалежним

дієприкметниковим зворотом:

1. Many agricultural processes having been mechanized, the work of the

farmers became much easier.

2. The amount of fresh water being small, we must use fresh water

efficiently.

3. Rain falling to the land, soil erodes.

4. There are several combine-harvesters on this farm, five of them are new.

5. The gas being compressed, the number of molecules in each cubic centi-

meter is increased.

6. The sun having risen, they continued their work.

7. It being Sunday, the post-office was closed.

4. В якому реченні незалежний дієприкметниковий зворот слід

перекласти підрядним реченням з сполучником «після того як»?

1. This crop being used for different purposes, man cultivates it all

over the world. 2. Water covers nearly three fourths of the Earth, most

being sea water. 3. The distribution of water on our planet varying greatly,

some places get too much water or too little. 4. The experiments having

been carried out, they started new investigations. 5. The bridge being

destroyed, we couldn’t cross the river.

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The Gerund

(Герундій)

Герундій - це неособова форма дієслова, що має властивості дієслова

та іменника. Як і інфінітив, герундій називає дію: reading — читання,

seeing — бачення.

В українській мові немає форми, яка відповідала б герундію. Слова

читання, бачення - іменники, що утворились від дієслів, але вони не

мають граматичних ознак дієслова. Герундій перекладається

іменником, інфінітивом, дієприкметником, дієсловом, підрядним

реченням.

Дієслівні властивості

Герундій має такі дієслівні властивості:

1) герундій перехідних дієслів вживається з прямим додатком:

І like reading books. Я люблю читати книжки.

She began preparing food. Вона почала готувати їжу.

2) герундій може мати означення, виражене прислівником:

They continued listening attentively. Вони продовжували уважно

слухати.

3) герундій має неозначену й перфектну форми, вживається в

активному і пасивному стані. Форми герундія співпадають з

формами дієприкметника.

Форми Active Passive

Indefinite writing being written

Perfect having written having been written

Неозначена форма герундія (Indefinite Gerund) вживається:

а) для вираження дії, одночасної з дією, вираженою дієсловом-

присудком речення:

Не sat without turning his head. Він сидів, не обертаючись,

б) для вираження дії безвідносно до якогось певного часу:

Seeing is believing. Бачити — значить вірити.

в) після дієслів to intend, to suggest, to insist та деяких інших Indefinite

Gerund виражає майбутню дію по відношенню до дії, вираженої

дієсловом-присудком:

Не insisted on telling her about it. Він наполягав на тому, щоб

розказати їй про це.

г) для вираження дії, що передує дії, вираженій дієсловом-присудком,

зокрема після дієслів to thank, to forget, to remember, to excuse, to

apologize, а також після прийменників on і after:

I don't remember seeing her. Я не пам'ятаю, щоб я бачив її.

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Перфектна форма герундія (Perfect Gerund) виражає дію, що передує

дії, вираженій дієсловом-присудком речення:

Thank you for having helped me. Спасибі, що допомогли мені.

Герундій вживається в пасивному стані, якщо іменник чи займенник,

до якого він відноситься, позначає об'єкт вираженої ним дії:

He does not come without being invited.

Він не приходить, якщо його не запрошують.

She remembers having been showing this article.

Вона пам’ятає, що їй показували цю статтю.

Функції герундія в реченні.

Герундій у реченні може виконувати такі властиві іменнику

синтаксичні функції:

1) підмета:

Smoking is harmful. Палити - шкідливо.

2) предикатива:

His hobby is collecting stamps. Його улюблене заняття -

колекціонувати поштові

марки.

3) додатка (прямого і прийменникового):

Forgive my saying it. Пробач мені те, що я сказав.

She is fond of painting. Вона полюбляє малювати.

4) обставини (мети, причини, умови, часу, способу дії):

She improved the text by changing a few sentences.

Вона покращила текст, замінивши декілька речень.

They never obtain high yields without applying fertilizers.

Вони ніколи не отримають високих врожаїв, не застосовуючи добрив.

Вживання

1) Після дієслів: to avoid, to finish, to suggest, cannot help, to enjoy, to

excuse, to forgive, to postpone, to delay, to mind, та ін. - вживається

тільки герундій (з усіх неособових форм дієслова):

We finished dressing. Ми закінчили одягатися.

2) Після дієслів та дієслівних словосполучень з прийменниками: to

leave off, to give up, to go on, to keep on, to put off, to insist on, to agree

to, to prevent from, to thank for, to be busy in, to be capable of, to be fond

of, to be proud of, to be surprised at, та ін.:

Mary left off ironing. Мері перестала прасувати.

Fancy going for a walk in such weather. Уявіть собі прогулянку в таку

погоду.

3) Після прикметників worth та busy (з дієсловом to be):

These fertilizers are worth buying. Ці добрива варто купити.

Yesterday he was busy working Вчора він був зайнятий

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in the garden. роботою в саду.

4) Герундій або інфінітив вживається після таких дієслів, як: to begin,

to start, to continue, to propose, to like, to try, to refuse, to intend, to forget,

to remember, to prefer:

The children began playing. = The children began to play.

Порівняйте:

(1) stop + gerund: When the professor entered the room, the students

stopped talking. (The room became quiet.)

(2) stop + infinitive of purpose: While I was walking down the street, I ran

into an old friend. I stopped to talk to him. (I stopped walking in order to

talk to him.)

Комплекс з герундієм

Перша частина герундіального комплексу — іменник у присвійному

чи загальному відмінку або присвійний займенник. Друга частина —

герундій, що виражає дію, яку виконує чи зазнає особа або предмет,

позначений першою частиною комплексу. Такий зворот часто

перекладається підрядним реченням, де займенник чи іменник є

підметом, а герундій - присудком:

I don’t like him going here. Мені не подобається, що він іде

туди.

I remember his friend taking part Я пам’ятаю, що його

in the conference. друг брав участь у конференції.

They told us about his coming here. Вони сказали нам про те, що він

приходив сюди.

Тренувальні вправи

1. Перекладіть на українську мову, звертаючи увагу на функцію

герундія в реченні та його форму: 1. He likes translating scientific articles from English into Ukrainian.

2. After having changed the temperature twice he decided to change

conditions of the experiment.

3. The manager has finished dictating a text to her secretary.

4. Having been read and corrected by the secretary, the text contained no

mistakes.

5. On carrying out his experiments, he could make a lot of calculations.

6. Instead of translating the article himself, he asked his friend to do it.

2. Доповніть речення, вживаючи форму герундія наступних дієслів: to watch, to go, to stay, to write, to talk, to forget, to clean

1. I think people should stop … television so much.

2. He has finished … the flat.

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3. Nobody thought of … to bed.

4. Don't fear my … her.

5. І insist on my sister's … at home.

6. I don’t enjoy … letters.

7. He likes … to me.

3. Складіть речення, користуючись таблицею:

1. Thank you for seeing my parents next week.

2. I’m thinking of disturbing you.

3. How about dancing and singing.

4. I apologise for telling me the truth.

5. I’m tired of understanding this.

6. She’s very good at going to the cinema tonight?

7. He’s not capable of answering that child’s questions.

4. З наведеного переліку дієслів, виберіть ті, після яких вживається

герундій:

Agree, avoid, can’t help, decide, expect, fancy, finish, give up, happen,

hope, mind, manage, prepare, postpone, promise, put off, refuse, seem,

suggest, wish.

5. Виберіть правильну форму дієслова (інфінітив чи герундій):

1. Do you remember (meet) her last year?

2. I regret (not visit) her when she was ill.

3. Do you want to go on (learn) English?

4. He doesn’t allow us (make) personal phone calls.

5. He’s stopped (smoke).

6. He stopped for a few minutes (rest).

7. I like (watch) TV in the evenings.

8. Do you think this book is worth (read)?

9. I can’t help (worry) about it.

10. I managed (find) a taxi.

11. She suggested (go) to a movie.

12. They can’t afford (buy) this car.

6. Перефразуйте за зразком складнопідрядні речення, вживаючи

герундій:

After he graduated from our University, he worked on a farm. — After

graduating from our University he worked on a farm.

1. After they passed their exams, they went to the Crimea. 2. Before we

moved to this town we lived in Kyiv. 3. After she wrote the letter, she went

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to the post-office. 4. Before we changed conditions of the experiment, we

had checked the temperature. 5. We met him after we walked about two

miles.

Умовний спосіб (The Subjunctive Mood)

Умовний спосіб виражає дію не як реальну, а як таку, що могла б

відбутися за певних умов, а також необхідну, бажану або нереальну,

нездійсненну.

В англійській мові вживаються чотири форми умовного

способу: the Conditional Mood, the Suppositional Mood, Subjunctive I,

Subjunctive II.

The Conditional Mood.

3 types of Conditional Sentences (3 типи умовних речень).

Conditional Mood утворюється з допоміжних дієслів should або would,

у другій і третій особах – would. За формою Conditional Mood

збігається з Future-in-the-Past дійсного способу, але відрізняється від

нього за значенням.

Conditional Mood вживається для вираження дії, яка відбулася б

за певних умов у теперішньому, минулому або майбутньому часі, але

не відбудеться з якихось причин:

If she knew his addree (now), she

would write to him.

Якби вона знала його адресу, вона

б написала йому.

Conditional Mood має дві часові форми: present і past.

Present Conditional утворюється з допоміжних дієслів should і

would та інфінітива основного дієслова без частки to (збігається з

Future Simple-in-the-Past):

I (we) should/would work

He (she, it, you, they) would work

Present Conditional виражає дію, що за певних умов могла б відбутися

в теперішньому або майбутньому часі.

Past Conditional утворюється з допоміжних дієслів should і would

та перфектної форми інфінітива основного дієслова без частки to

(збігається з Future Perfect-in-the-Past):

I (we) should/would have worked

He (she, it, you, they) would have worked

Past Conditional виражає дію, що за певних умов могла б

відбутися в минулому, але через відсутність цих умов не відбулася.

186

3 типи умовних речень

І

тип

Реальна умова,

що відноситься до

теперішнього або

майбутнього часу

1) If Present

Simple; Present

Simple.

2) If Present

Simple; Future

Simple.

If I have enough time, I

visit granny every week.

If the weather is fine

tomorrow, we’ll go to

the country.

ІІ

тип

Малоймовірна

умова, що

відноситься до

теперішнього або

майбутнього часу

If Past Simple;

Future-in-the-Past2

If he were1 here, he

would help us.

If I saw my friend

tomorrow, I should ask

him about it.

ІІІ

тип

Нереальна умова,

що відносяться до

минулого часу

If Past Perfect;

would + Perfect

Infinitive

If I had seen him

yesterday, I should have

asked him about it.

Примітка: 1Дієслово to be має форму were в 1-ій та 3-ій ос. однини, оскільки вживається у

формі Past Subjunctive. 2В умовних реченнях ІІ типу в головному реченні може вживатися сполучення

could або might з Indefinite Infinitive. перекладіна перекладіна

Аналогічно, в умовних реченнях ІІІ типу в головному реченні може

вживатися сполучення could або might з Perfect Infinitive. На

українську перекладається – міг би, могли б з інфінітивом:

He could do in if he tried. Він міг би це зробитиб якби

постарався. He could have done it if he had tried.

Умовні речення з дієсловом WISH

Має

відношення до

майбутньго

часу

I wish you would read

more in future.

I wish we would (could)

meet next summer.

Як би мені хотілося, щоб

ви читали більше в

майбутньому.

Як би мені хотілося, щоб

ми зустрілися (змогли

зустрітися) наступного

літа.

Має

відношення до

теперішнього

часу

I wish I had time.

I wish I could speak

German.

Шкода, що в мене немає

часу.

Мені б хотілося

розмовляти німецькою.

187

Має

відношення до

минулого часу

I wish I had had more time

yesterday.

I wish you hadn’t done this.

I wish he had been here

then

Шкода, що вчора я мав

мало часу.

Шкода, що ти це зробив.

Шкода, що його тоді тут

не було.

Тренувальні вправи

Вправа 1. Розкрийте дужки, поставте дієслово у відповідному

часі:

1. She (to buy) the dress tomorrow but the shop will be closed.

2. She (to buy) the dress but the shop was closed.

3. The teacher was absent today, so class was canceled. If she (be)

absent if again tomorrow, class (cancel) tomorrow, too.

4. If she (to learn) English, I (to buy) her this book.

5. If my brother (to have) time now, he (to help) us.

6. I am not an astronaut. If I (to be) an astronaut, I (to take) my camera

with me on the rocket ship next month.

7. I (to do) the same if I (to be) in your shoes.

8. It is expensive to call across the ocean. However, if transoceanic

telephone calls (be) cheap, I (call) my family every day and (talk) for

hours.

Вправа 2. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи потрібну форму умовного

речення після wish. Перекладіть українською:

1. I wish you (to come) with us.

2. I wish you (to be) with us yesterday.

3. I wish we (to meet) again next summer.

4. I wish I (to be) at yesterday’s party: it must have been very merry.

5. If only she (to tell) me the truth then.

6. I wish you (not to be) so impatient. It wasn’t wise of you.

7. They wished they (not to see) this horrible scene again.

8. I wish you (to phone) me last Sunday.

9. I wish I (to have) a season ticket to the Philharmonic next winter.

10. I wish you (not to speak) on the telephone so much.

11. I wish you (to send) word as soon as you arrive

12. They wish they (not to quarrel) with their neighbours a year ago.

Вправа 3. Виберіть правильну форму з двох запропонованих: 1. She wishes she bought/had bought those gloves. They were

beautiful.

188

2. I’m going to France in summer. I wish I spoke /had spoken French.

3. It’s always difficult to get there by bus, I wish I have/had a car.

4. I wish you weren’t/hadn’t been so sad now.

5. We had a wonderful holiday in France. I wish we will go/went there

again next summer.

6. We wish you hadn’t failed/didn’t fail your examination last summer.

7. Peter had a terrible headache yesterday. He wishes he drank/had

drunk less at the party.

8. I wish they didn’t make/hadn’t/made so much noise.It made me so

tired.

9. Will your sister come to the party? I wish she meets/would meet

some of my friends.

10. I wish I hadn’t spent/ didn’t spend so much money. Now I have to

borrow some from my parents.

Вправа 4. Перефразуйте речення за зразком, використовуючи

відповідні часові форми умовного способу:

Model: If my brother has time, he will help them.

If my brother had time, he would help them.

1. If there is much snow in January, they will go skiing every day.

2. If you’ve spoken the truth, you won’t have anything to complain about.

3. If the rain stops, the children will go for a walk.

4. If I send the money at once, my dog will be returned alive and well.

5. If the water is warm, we shall have a picnic.

Вправа 5. Перефразуйте речення за зразком, використовуючи

відповідні часові форми умовного способу відносно минулого часу:

Model: If he saw his friend, he would ask him about it

If he had seen his friend (yesterday), he would have asked him about it.

1. If she were attentive, she wouldn’t make so many mistakes.

2. If he were here, he would help us.

3. If he knew the number of her telephone, he would ring her up.

4. She would buy that book,if she had money with her.

5. If Nick worked hard, he would pass his examination.

6. If we had time, we would play chess.

7. If she came in time, she would join us.

189

Names of Trees

Broad-leaved/deciduous/angiosperm/hardwood trees:

oak дуб

beech бук

birch береза

alder вільха

aspen осика

ash ясен

maple клен

hornbeam граб

elm в’яз

linden липа

locust акація

poplar тополя

willow верба

chestnut каштан

walnut грецький горіх

hickory гікорі

hazel ліщина

Coniferous/needle-leaf/gymnosperm/softwood trees:

pine сосна

spruce ялина

fir ялиця

larch модрина

juniper ялівець

yew тис

cedar кедр

cypress кипарис

bald cypress кипарис болотний, таксодій

hemlock тсуга канадська

thuja (thuya)/arborvitae туя

190

LIST OF SET EXPRESSIONS

according to – згідно з

account for - пояснювати

a good deal of - багато

a number of - декілька, ряд

etc (et cetera –Lat.) – і так далі

and so on - і так далі

(and) the like - і тому подібне

apart from - крім того

aside from – крім, за винятком

as - оскільки, як, так, коли, тому що, мов

as a matter of fact - по суті, само собою зрозуміло

as a whole - в цілому

as far as possible - наскільки це можливо

as high as - до

as is the case –як це буває

as the case may be – в залежності від ситуації може бути

as long as - поки

as much as - стільки, скільки, наскільки

as near ... as possible - по можливості ближче

as needed - як вимагається, при необхідності

as though - неначе

as time went on – з плином часу

as to - відносноно, що стосується

as well - також

as well as – а також, так само, як

at best - в кращому випадку

at least – принаймні, щонайменше

be called upon - призначатися

because of - із-за, внаслідок

be referred to as – називатися, бути віднесеним до

be responsible for – відповідати за, являтися причиною

bring into use - використовувати

by means of – шляхом, за допомогою

by no means - ні в якому разі, ніскільки

by reference to – з посиланням на

call for - вимагати

close to - близько до

depending on – залежно від

due to - завдяки, із-за

191

for - оскільки, для, тому що, бо

for example = e.g. (exempli gratia - Lat.) - наприклад

in addition to - на додаток до, окрім

in case of – у разі, у випадку

in conjunction with – разом з, в поєднанні з

in fact - фактично, насправді, насправді

in most cases - в більшості випадків

in no case – ні в якому разі

in part - частково

in regard to / in relation to – щодо, відносно

(in) so far as - оскільки

in some cases - в деяких випадках

in some instances - в деяких випадках

in some way – в деякому роді

in spite of - незважаючи на, всупереч

instead of - замість

in this case - в цьому випадку

in this way - таким чином

in turn - в свою чергу, по черзі

much in contrast to – на відміну від

namely - а саме

on a wide scale - в широкому масштабі

on the contrary - навпаки

on the other hand – з іншого боку

owing to - завдяки

prevent from - предотвращать, мешать

rather than - а не, не стільки, скільки

result from – в результаті // result in - призводити до

set aside - відкласти

since - зд. Оскільки // so as to - так, щоб

take into account – брати/приймати до уваги

that is=i.e. (id est - Lat.) - тобто

the former // the latter – перший // останній (з двох згадуваних)

the only - єдиний

the point in question – розглядуване питання

to a great // (some) extent - в значній // (деякій) мірі

twice as much... as – вдвоє більший за

up to - аж до, по

vary from - коливатися від ... до // vary in - відрізнятися по/в

vary with - змінюватися залежно від

whatever-+-імен. - незалежно від // whenever - всякий раз коли

192

whichever method - який би метод не ...

ABBREVIATIONS

A.D. - Anno Domini (Lat.) нашої ери

B.C. - Before Christ (Lat.) до нашої ери

bf - board foot досковий фут

bhp - brake horse power – гальмівна (корисна) потужність в кінських

силах

CI - compression ignition - займання від стиснення

cunit - cubic unit - куб. одиниця

cu. ft. - cubic foot - куб. фут

d.b.h. - diameter breast high - діаметр на висоті грудей

EEC - East European Countries

e.g. - exempli gratia (Lat.) наприклад

etc. - et cetera (Lat.) - і так далі, і т. д.

FAO - Food and Agricultural Organization - продовольча і

с/господарська організація при ООН

f.o.b. - free on board - фоб, франко борт судна

fpm - feet per minute - футів на хвилину

ft - foot or feet - фут або фути

ft-lb - foot-pound - фут-фунт

FWD - four wheel drive - конструкція с 4-ма ведучими колесами

Gal - gallon - галон

gph - gallon per hour - галон на годину

hp - horse power - кінська сила

in - inch - дюйм

i.e. - id est (Lat.) - тобто

Lat. - Latin - Латинь

lb. - pound - фунт

lb-ft - pound-foot - (див. вище)

mph - mile per hour - миль на годину

psi - pounds per square inch - фунтів на кв. дюйм

pto - power take off - відбір потужності

rpm - revolutions per minute - обертів на хвилину

SI - spark ignition – іскрове запалювання

$ - долар

£ - фунт

' - foot - фут

" - inch - дюйм

60°С - sixty degrees Centigrade 60° - по Цельсію

50°F - fifty degrees Fahrenheit 50° - по Фаренгейту

193

КОЕФІЦІЄНТИ ПЕРЕКЛАДУ АНГЛО-АМЕРИКАНСЬКИХ МІР

У МЕТРИЧНІ

Англійська назва Українська назва Метричні міри

I. Measures of length - Міри довжини

1 mile 1 миля 1609 метрів

1 rod 1 род близько 5 метрів

1 yard 1 ярд 0,9144 м

1 foot 1 фут 0,3048 м

1 inch 1 дюйм 2,540 см

II. Square measures - Міри площ

1 square mile 1 квадр. миля 2590 кв. метрів

258,989 гектара

1 acre 1 акр 4047 кв. метрів

1 square yard 1 кв. ярд 0,836 кв. метрів

1 square foot 1 кв. фут 0,0929 кв. метрів

1 square inch 1 кв. дюйм 6,4516 кв. см

III. Measures of capacity - Міри об’ему

1 cub. yard 1 куб. ярд 0,764 куб. м

1 cub. foot 1 куб. фут 0,0283 куб. м

1 cub. inch 1 куб. дюйм 16,387 куб. см

1000 board feet 1000 доскових футів 2,359 куб. м

1 cord 1 корд 3,63 куб. м

1 load 1 лоад 1,416 куб. м пилен, і

тесан, лесу / 1,133 куб. м круглого лесу

IV. Weights - Міри ваги

1 long ton 1 «довга» тонна 1016 кг

1 short ton 1 «коротка» тонна 907,2 кг

1 hundredweight 1 центнер 50,8 кг

1 pound 1 фунт 453,6 г

1 ounce 1 унция 31,106 г

Temperature - Температура

Fahrenheit Фаренгейт F

Centigrade Цельсій С

Reaumur Реомюр R

Для перерахування градусів однієї шкали в градуси іншої

користуються наступнимими формулами:

194

Таблиця основних нестандартних (неправильних) дієслів

Infinitive Past Indefinite Past Participle Translation

to arise arose arisen Виникати

to be was, were been бути

to bear bore born носити,

виношувати

to become became become ставати

to begin began begun починати (ся)

to break broke broken ламати, розбивати

to bring brought brought приносити

to build built built будувати

to choose chose chosen вибирати

to come came come приходити

to cost cost cost коштувати

to cut cut cut різати, рубати

to deal dealt dealt мати справу

to do did done робити

to draw drew drawn малювати; тягти

to drive drove driven везти; керувати

to eat ate еaten їсти

to fall fell fallen падати

to feed fed fed годувати

to feel felt felt відчувати

to fight fought fought битися; боротися

to find found found знаходити

to freeze froze frozen замерзати

to get got got діставати (ся)

to give gave given давати

to go went gone іти

to grow grew grown рости; вирощувати

to have had had мати

to hear heard heard чути

to hold held held тримати

to keep kept kept зберігати; тримати

to know knew known знати

to lay laid laid класти

to lead led led вести; очолювати

to learn learnt (learned) learnt (learned) вивчати

to leave left left залишати

195

to let let let дозволяти

to lie lay lain лежати

to lose lost lost втрачати; програ-

вати

to make made made робити

to mean meant meant означати

to pay paid paid платити

to put put put класти; ставити

to read read read читати

to ring rang rung дзвонити

to rise rose risen підійматися

to run ran run бігти

to saw sawed sawn пиляти

to say said said казати

to see saw seen бачити

to send sent sent надсилати

to set set set встановлювати

to show showed shown показувати

to sink sank sunk тонути

to sit sat sat сидіти

to sow sowed sown сіяти

to speak spoke spoken говорити

to split split split розщеплювати

to spread spread spread поширювати

to stand stood stood стояти

to take took taken брати

to teach taught taught вчити

to tell told told розповідати

to think thought thought думати

to understand understood understood розуміти

to wear wore worn носити (одяг)

to withstand withstood withstood протистояти

to write wrote written писати

196

СПИСОК ВИКОРИСТАНОЇ ЛІТЕРАТУРИ

1. Верба Г.В., Верба Л.Г. Довідник з граматики англійської мови. –

К.: Вища шк., 1994. – 184 с.

2. Качалова К.Н., Израилевич Е.Е. Практическая грамматика

английского языка. – К.: Методика, 1997. – 367 с.

3. Murphy Raymond. English Grammar in Use. – Cambridge University

Press, 2002. – 350 p.

4. Бех П.О. Англійська мова. – Л.: Либідь, 1996. – 266 с.

5. Пазюк Л.К. Граматика англійської мови. – К.: Кобза, 2004. – 415

с.

6. Романова Л.И. Английская лексика в тестах. – М.: Айрис, 2004. –

326 с.

7. Николенко Т.Г. Тесты по грамматике английского языка. - М.:

Айрис, 2004. – 156 с.

8. Кошманова И.И. Тесты по английскому языку. - М.: Айрис, 2004.

– 255с.

9. M. Foley, D. Hall, Advanced Learners' Grammar. – Longman, 2006. –

384 p.

10. G. Yule. Oxford Practice Grammar. – Oxford University Press, 2006.

– 280 p.

11. Britannica. Encyclopedia, 2000.

12. Textbook of Dendrology. Covering the important forest trees of the

United States and Canada. William M. Harlow, Ph.D., Ellwood S.

Harrar, Ph.D, Sc.D., James W. Hardin, Ph.D., Fred M. White, 1991.

13. Англо-русский лесотехнический словарь. М.: 1982.

14. Английский язык для вузов лесотехнического профиля.

З.П. Комолова, В.А. Хабарова, Л.: 1988.

197

ЗМІСТ

UNIT 1 HIGHER EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND THE USA _________________________ 3

UNIT 2 NEW AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGIES ______________________________________ 11

UNIT 3 FORESTS AND FORESTRY IN UKRAINE _____________________________________ 20

FORESTS AND FORESTRY IN UKRAINE ____________________________________________ 23

Модульно-контрольний тест №1 ____________________________________________________ 38

UNIT 5 NATURE OF WOOD ____________________________________________________ 44

UNIT 6 WOODWORKING ______________________________________________________ 59

UNIT 7 WOOD PRODUCTS. ____________________________________________________ 68

Модульно-контрольний тест №2 ____________________________________________________ 83

SUPPLEMENTARY READING ___________________________________________________ 89

GRAMMAR MATERIAL ________________________________________________________ 98 The Article Артикль _______________________________________________________________________ 98 The Noun Іменник ______________________________________________________________________ 103 The Pronoun Займенник _________________________________________________________________ 109 The Adjective Прикметник ________________________________________________________________ 117 The Adverb Прислівник __________________________________________________________________ 119 The Verb Дієслово ______________________________________________________________________ 121

І. Прості часи (Simple Tenses)_______________________________________________________ 122

II. Тривалі часи (Progressive/Continuous Tenses) ______________________________________ 133

III. Перфектні часи (Perfect Tenses)__________________________________________________ 138

IV. Доконані тривалі часи (Perfect Progressive/Continuous Tenses) _______________________ 142

Модальні дієслова _________________________________________________________ 147

Узгодження часів __________________________________________________________ 157

Непряма мова (Indirect Speech) ______________________________________________ 159

Пасивний стан дієслова (Passive Voice) _______________________________________ 161

Неособові форми дієслова (Non-Finite Forms of the Verb) _________________________ 171 The Infinitive (Інфінітив) _________________________________________________________________ 171 The Participle (Складні форми дієприкметника) _____________________________________________ 177 Дієприкметникові конструкції ____________________________________________________________ 178 The Absolute Participle Complex ___________________________________________________________ 179 The Gerund (Герундій) __________________________________________________________________ 181

Умовний спосіб (The Subjunctive Mood) ________________________________________ 185

Names of Trees ____________________________________________________________ 189

LIST OF SET EXPRESSIONS ____________________________________________________ 190

КОЕФІЦІЄНТИ ПЕРЕКЛАДУ АНГЛО-АМЕРИКАНСЬКИХ МІР У МЕТРИЧНІ _____________ 193

Таблиця основних нестандартних (неправильних) дієслів ______________________ 194

СПИСОК ВИКОРИСТАНОЇ ЛІТЕРАТУРИ _________________________________________ 196